Spot A Hellbender

Many people would not want to spot a Hellbender. With its very large size and its ugly and intimidating appearance, the Hellbender is a salamander that most people don't wish to meet. However, if you want to spot or identify this amazing creature in the wild, follow these steps.

Instructions

1. Find Hellbenders in the Appalachian Mountain region in the eastern United States. Hellbenders live near the Susquehanna River in New York, southward to the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland. They also live southwestward from the east coast over toward southern Illinois and extreme northeastern Mississippi. Also, find the Hellbender in parts of Kansas, Missouri, Georgia and Alabama.

2. Look for the Hellbender in its preferred habitat. Hellbenders are aquatic creatures that spend all of their time in the water. They like to live in fast flowing rivers and larger streams. They also like to live near large rocks that they use for shelter. Because of poor stream quality in their range, you can most easily find Hellbenders in mountain streams and rivers.

3. Marvel at the size of this very large salamander. The Hellbender measures between 12 and 29 inches in length making it the largest salamander in the Americas. Males and females are similar in size.

4. Observe the Hellbender's appearance. Hellbenders usually have dull gray upper parts, but the upper parts may also have a blackish, brownish or yellowish color. Their underparts are often a pale gray. Hellbenders may also have some irregular spots on their bodies. They have flattened heads and short legs, and they are very slimy to the touch. Adult Hellbenders have no external gills.

Tags: also have, like live, live near, They also, upper parts, very large, want spot

Explain Water Well Design

The majority of a well's design is underground.

Water wells are commonly dug in areas where a home's main source of water comes from the groundwater supply and not city plumbing. Most people associate wells with a column rising above the ground and a long hole. In reality, wells are designed to capture the flow of groundwater. Does this Spark an idea?

Geology

Geology greatly influences the design of a well. According to the Institute of Geologists of Ireland website, groundwater flows downhill with the aid of gravity. Wells must be positioned to properly capture the water without causing it to simply flow around the well.

Pump Equipment

Wells must be wide enough to include pumping equipment that brings the water to the surface of the well. According to the American Ground Water Trust website, common house wells use pumping equipment about 4 inches in diameter.

Depth

The depth of a well is commonly determined on site during the drilling process. Rocks and groundwater flow influence how deep the well is dug. Most wells are lined with steel or plastic casings. The type of casing may be influenced by government regulations.

Well Screens

Screens are used to maximize the flow of water into a well and to keep rocks and debris out of the well. Screens are commonly made from plastic or stainless steel. They are machine-cut with the directions of the cuts being ideal for the way water flows on site.

Well Cap

Well caps fit over the top of well. The caps prevent insects and other things from contaminating well water. Well caps should contain air vents that allow falling water levels to be replaced with air.

Tags: pumping equipment, well According, Wells must

The Salary Of Exploration Geologists

A geologist studies the land to determine harvest natural resources while preserving the environment.

There is more to a geologist's work than giving science lectures about gemstones. Exploration geologists have the important tasks of determining dig sites for new sources of energy and finding the best ways to preserve the environment while excavating. With a double-digit growth rate, the employment outlook for a geologist is better than most professions.

Average Salary

The average salary for a geologist is $94,085, according to the U.S. Burea of Labor Statistics' March 2009 report. Salary.com places the average salary at $99,974. However, CareerBuilder.com places the average wage slightly lower, claiming the average to be $80,181 per year.

Duties

An exploration geologist studies the composition of the Earth. Rock and mineral formations are studied to determine what has happened to them since their creation. To complete assignments, the exploration geologist spends the better part of the working day in remote locations, often in harsh conditions. Travel by helicopter, ATV or by foot to hard-to-reach areas is common.

Education Requirements

A bachelor of science degree is the starting point for entry into the field of geology. However, according to the U.S. Bereau of Labor Statistics, employers prefer to hire exploration geologists who have advanced degrees, either master's degrees or Ph.Ds.

Job Outlook

Exploration geologists are expected to be in high demand, says the BLS. The field is expected to grow by 18 percent through 2018, higher than the average for all occupations. The BLS says this growth is because of the demand for responsible land and water management as well as the the need for environmental protection and exploration of energy sources.

Tags: average salary, exploration geologist, geologist studies, geologists have, Labor Statistics, places average

Visit Oregon Hot Springs

Oregon has been blessed with a unique geological feature: the hot spring. These naturally occurring waterways have been harnessed for visitors to enjoy. For years people have praised not only the hot water’s stress-relieving qualities but also the natural mineral’s ability to help skin. Hot Springs is a terrific vacation spot to visit for the nature and history lover.

Instructions

1. Hike into Bagby Hot Springs for a little over a mile after you have driven through the winding Cascade trees of Bull of the Woods forest. This spring is open year round, providing individual and group soaking tubs. Summer is a busy season, while the winter snow keeps crowds away and provides a unique soaking experience.

2. Find the Belknap Hot Springs for a little less rustic experience than Bagby. This resort has been offering visitors to the McKenzie River area the hottest and most relaxing soaking experience for more than 125 years.

3. Step into a little beauty and history before you step into the hot springs at Hot Lake Hotel and Sanitarium. This formerly closed hotel on the banks of Hot Lake has been recently reopened to the public, providing a full spa weekend capped off by a dip in the hearty mineral spring water.

4. Visit the Bigelow Hot Spring in order to feel like you have stepped into another world. Known as the “Blue Hole” by many visitors, this fern-lined outdoor spring has been encouraging hikers to take a break and rejuvenate through the healing powers of spring water for as long as people have lived in Oregon.

5. Bring a group of coworkers to the Breitenbush Hot Springs. This spring offers group retreats and meeting places in addition to the soaking pools, so you can have a truly unique getaway from the office.

Tags: people have, soaking experience, spring water, Springs little, This spring

Learn Topographical Maps

Topographical maps hold volumes of information if you know read them. The maps tell more than simple north, south, east and west. Topographical maps use striation lines to illustrate elevation and have complicated legends for various man-made and natural phenomena. There are many resources in most communities designed to teach you the nuances of orienteering and reading topographical maps. This skill is a crucial backcountry function for any would-be adventurers.

Instructions

1. Contact your local chapter of the Orienteering USA club. Orienteering is a sport that combines speed hiking with topographical navigation. Many clubs offer basic orienteering clinics and activities designed to teach newbies the topographical world. Benefits include meeting new people with like interests. Bring the suggested U.S. Geological Survey topographical map, a compass and any other materials requested for the clinics and seminars.

2. Check the curriculum at local community colleges or adult learning annexes for orienteering and navigation courses. Many colleges offer elective classes through the outdoor education department for topographical navigation.

3. Collect and read books on topographical maps and use them with compasses. Many good books on the subject are available at outdoor gear stores, large book retailers and at most state and national park headquarters. Get a good compass to use with the book and a copy of your local region's USGS topographical map to make the process fun and familiar.

4. Go on a guided day hike with a guide service. If you have upcoming vacations planned for national parks or wilderness areas, find a hiking company and hire on to the hike. Ask the guide to take the time to explain the basics of topographical navigation. If the trip is not geared in this way, ask about hiring a private guide for the day with the main focus being topographical navigation.

Tags: topographical navigation, designed teach, topographical maps, your local

Science Fair Ideas Earth Science

Earth science fair projects may focus on any natural process on the planet earth.

Earth science, also known as geoscience, is the study of the planet earth. Because of a unique combination of temperature and available resources, geoscience has become an interesting case of planetary study, given the fact that earth is the only known planet to support life. The interactions between living ecosystems and the raw materials of rock, water and sun energy are encountered repeatedly throughout the study of geoscience. There are many options for science fair topics to explore within the earth sciences. From the early, molten stages of rock all the way to the self-replicating patterns of living things, earth science fair projects are a fun way to study the forces that shaped our modern world.

Volcano/Birth of the Earth

A volcano is the end result of a long struggle between surface rock and the underground pressures of molten rock. The explosive quality of volcanic eruptions is related to the tremendous increases in pressure underground, related to movement of the earth's tectonic plates. A great experiment to simulate this phenomenon is to mix vinegar with baking soda and dish soap inside of a closed bottle. The acid-based reaction between the vinegar and baking soda create a rapid rise in pressure within the closed space of the bottle that holds the solution. When the pressure is released through a crack in the cap, the fluid will escape the container in a fantastic, bubbly explosion. Add orange food coloring to create a lava-like effect.

Erosion/Remodeling

To understand the force that created the Grand Canyon, you need only look at the movement of a steady stream of water over millions of years. An important physical process that contributes to the molding of the earth's surface is erosion, which is caused by the steady movement of water over a surface and the changes in rock morphology that result. The world is shaped by the flow of water. To demonstrate this phenomenon at a science fair, pour water over a mound of dirt or sand and observe changes in the structure of the mound. Explain that erosion is a constantly active process, occurring over thousands of years, that is capable of reshaping the earth according to the patterns of the water flow.

The Biosphere/Life

Earth scientists may specialize in the study of all life forms on the planet. Ranging from single-celled organisms to complex cultural interactions of humans and the earth, geoscience fair projects could focus on any effect living things have on the planet. The earth's atmospheric and chemical properties lead to the genesis of life; however, ultimately, life feeds back and exhibits countless interactions with the earth. A great science project on this topic could focus on the food chain in a local forest or body of water. Start at the bottom of the chain with the organisms that carry out photosynthesis, such as plants and algae, and ultimately end with the top predator, such as an eagle or large fish. The demonstration should focus on how energy, which originates from the sun, is passed through all organisms in the food chain. This project could be taken a step further by demonstrating how even the top predator ultimately dies, degrades and returns to the soil over time.

Fossils/The Study of Your Past

Scientists use fossils to study prehistoric life forms. A fossil is not the original organism, but rather an impression of the organism's remains. On a geological time scale, the organs and tissues of living things rapidly break down; fossils are actually just an impression of the original organism. This phenomenon can be simulated at a science fair using plaster of Paris on various biological samples, such as seashells. Plaster of Paris is an inexpensive powder which, when mixed with water, will undergo a chemical reaction and harden into a solid form. This mixture can be applied to the biological samples when soft, then allowed to harden so as to take a fossil-like impression of the sample. It may be helpful to apply a layer of petroleum jelly to the sample before coating it in the plaster of Paris; this will make it easier to remove the sample once the plaster has hardened.

Tags: science fair, fair projects, living things, planet earth, water over

About Careers In Environmental Science

Not everyone is clear on what environmental science is, but there are many careers in that field that are very rewarding. These include jobs in ecology, sustainability, green living, atmospheric studies, environmental chemistry, geology and similar work. As many countries move toward cleaner energy choices, environmental science is a career field that is poised to grow larger and stronger with each passing year.

Significance

With increased focus on the debate on climate change, environmental science jobs are in high demand. The people who have jobs in this field are studying the planet, atmosphere and ecosystems to determine changes. Careers in environmental science can help determine what kinds of effects are really being seen, where environmental impacts are coming from and what can be done to solve various environmental problems. Their jobs are not about placing blame; their jobs are about determining solutions that will address the problems the planet may be facing.

Types

There are many different types of careers in the field of environmental science, but they are all focused on one thing: studying the planet and human impact upon it. Atmospheric scientists study issues like greenhouse gasses. They even study noise and light pollution as well as fluxes in specific gases, like carbon dioxide. Ecologists look at population issues of all types of species and geoscientists look at soil, hydrology and oceanographic issues.

Misconceptions

Environmental science careers face many misconceptions. One misconception is that that people who work in this field spend all their time studying small and insignificant things, such as the mating patterns of beetles in a small faraway country. This stereotype of what environmental scientists do is far from the truth. It ranks high up the scale with the other common misconception, which is that environmental scientists are just alarmists that are scaring everyone about global warming.

Benefits

There are many benefits to having a career in environmental science. Because it is a rather broad category, there are many different jobs within it. If you don't like working with animals, you can do atmospheric or geological studies. If you find rocks and minerals to be boring, study populations of various species of animals or plants. There is always something new and different taking place and since the field also uses a lot of computer models, there is room within the field for technological gurus, as well.

Considerations

Several considerations are important when moving into this career field. These include which area of interest you want to move into, the level of dedication you have to complete schooling for an environmental science career and whether you are willing to relocate. Some careers in that field have need of people in far-away places, while some need people in large, urban population centers. Knowing what you are willing to do for a job and understanding what a chosen career might entail is vital before moving forward with a career choice in environmental science.

Tags: environmental science, environmental science, career field, careers that, careers that field, environmental science career

Landforms Near Chicago

Hanigng out on an old glacier bed - Chicago

The landforms around Chicago were formed by ice. Between 25,000 years ago and 14,000 years ago, what is now the Chicago area was covered in glaciers. Between 14,000 years ago and 10,000 years ago, those glaciers made a slow retreat to the North. The shape of the land today near the southernmost end of Lake Michigan -- where Chicago was eventually established and built -- is largely a result of that glacial retreat.

Plains and Moraines

Chicago and its surrounding area include Cook, Dupage and Will counties in Illinois. These are political boundaries, however; arbitrary divisions that are superimposed on the landforms -- or topography -- that predate them. Those landforms include Lake Michigan, the Chicago Plain, the Valparaiso Moraine and the Desplaines Valley. High bedrock under the retreating glaciers left the most prominent feature in the area, the Blue Island Ridge in South Chicago, a 6-mile-by-1-mile table of land that sits 25 to 50 feet above the adjacent flatland.

Chicago Plain

Chicago is built atop the Chicago Plain, a flat crescent at the southern head of Lake Michigan averaging 60 feet above the surface level of the lake. The Chicago Plain bevels down into Lake Michigan along the western and southern edge of the lake's head. At the northern end of the Chicago Plain is the city of Winnetka, 8 miles out of Chicago. Most of the rest of the crescent is now occupied by the city of Chicago itself.

Valparaiso Moraine

A moraine is a region of glacial rubble, or glacial "till." Now covered in layers of accumulated topsoil, the Valparaiso Moraine is actually a field of great stones left behind by the glacial retreat, creating a gently undulating topography which envelops the Chicago Plain and presses the plain against the shores of Lake Michigan. The Valparaiso Moraine is a belt approximately 15 miles wide and stretches from western Cook County all the way to Valparaiso, Indiana.

Desplaines Valley

Cutting through the center of the morainal belt from southwest to northeast is the Desplaines River and the Despalines River Valley. From 1/2 to 1 1/4 miles wide, the Desplaines Valley has steep sides and a flat base, with sides that range from 30 to 150 feet high along the varying elevations of the surrounding moraine. The Desplaines Valley averages around 15 feet above the level of Lake Michigan, with a drop so shallow that one section is referred to as the "12-mile level," an area stretching between the towns of Summit and Lemont. Tributaries from the valley are created by draws in the moraine, which have created numerous marshes along the length of the valley.

Tags: Chicago Plain, Lake Michigan, Desplaines Valley, Valparaiso Moraine, feet above, Between years

Groundwater Remediation Jobs

Technicians analyze groundwater samples in a laboratory to identify contaminants.

Groundwater remediation jobs require specialized education, licensing or training. A degree in geosciences or hydrogeology; certification from state agencies in which you want to operate; and/or health and safety training, are general requirements for jobs involving the investigation of groundwater contamination. Goundwater remediation projects include remedial alternative designs and evaluations at management levels and construction of groundwater remediation systems at mid-management levels.

Entry level jobs are available working in the field, sampling groundwater to obtain site information or actually installing pump and treat systems. Certification on health and safety protocols for field work is helpful to obtain entry level jobs.

Hydrogeology Jobs

A career path in groundwater remediation begins with a degree from an accredited university in the field of hydrology, geology or geosciences. Through any of these degrees, you learn about groundwater systems, field sampling techniques and relevant computer modeling. Course work generally provides information on groundwater contamination, such as those resulting from pesticide application.

Licenses and Certifications

Thirty-one states license geologists by evaluating work experience and tests. These registration laws make sure that basic geologic principles are used for construction, operation and maintenance of remediation projects. Any candidate must meet the state's regulatory requirements for professional geologist or professional hydrogeologist and then take a test administered by the National Association of State Boards of Geology to receive the appropriate certification.

OSHA Training

A career in groundwater remediation generally begins in the field, sampling groundwater and constructing remediation systems. For either, you need 40 hours of OSHA certification to ensure health and safety when handling potentially hazardous contaminants on the job. Hazardous waste operation and emergency response standards require training for personnel who work at potentially hazardous sites.

Tags: field sampling, groundwater remediation, health safety, field sampling groundwater, groundwater contamination, level jobs, potentially hazardous

What Does A Delta Mean

What Does a Delta Mean?

A delta is land that forms at the mouth of a river, where it empties into an ocean, sea, another river or a lake. The river deposits vast amounts of sediment into the other body of water, which gradually builds up into a land mass. The simplest way to explain how one forms is the amount of material that the river deposits is more than what the tides and waves can carry away. The largest delta in the world is the Ganges Delta on the Indian sub-continent, home to some of the most fertile land on Earth.

Time Frame

Most deltas are very young geological features, with some only a few hundreds years old. Older deltas will be built one on top of another, with the river forming new deltas once the old ones build up to the point that the river can no longer flow through them. A new channel will form and the river will begin to deposit material to form another delta. The Mississippi River's current delta, for example, is about 600 years old.

Types

There are different types of deltas, with the most common being the triangular-shaped delta that most major rivers form when they reach the ocean. The Nile River in Egypt is the most famous of this kind of delta. A Gilbert delta is one that can occur only in fresh water, where a mountain river, for instance, flows into a freshwater lake. Some rivers do not form deltas. They flow into what is called an estuary, where freshwater meets saltwater but no land forms. When a river delta occurs inside a valley the delta is called an inverted delta.

Size

The Ganges Delta in South Asia is in the Bay of Bengal and is formed by the Ganges River and its many tributaries. It is 220 miles across and the land is so fertile that it is called the "Green Delta." It is able to support a population of almost 140 million people, who depend on it for agricultural purposes to feed their families. The delta has many different ecosystems within its boundaries, from mangrove swamps to coastal marshes to farmable land.

Geography

Because of their proximity to the water and being only a few feet above sea level, deltas are vulnerable to storms, especially hurricanes and tropical cyclones. The Mississippi Delta region was blitzed by Hurricane Katrina in 2005, with the storm surge from the monster storm easily able to destroy coastal areas along the delta. The Ganges Delta is home to constant flooding during the rainy season, with massive loss of life being documented during direct hits by powerful cyclones.

Expert Insight

The actual term delta was first used to describe the sediment deposit at the mouths of rivers until around 450 B.C. A Greek historian, Herodotus, saw that the Nile where it dumped into the ocean, resembled the greek letter delta, a triangular shape and coined the term.

Tags: Ganges Delta, Delta Mean, delta that, Does Delta, Does Delta Mean, into ocean, river deposits

What Are The Jobs For Paleontologists

Paleontologists study past animal and plant life.

Paleontologists are geo-scientists who study fossils found in geological formations. Their work leads to better understanding of the evolution of animal and plant life and the geologic history of the planet. Paleontologists work in several museum fields as curators, collections managers, lab technicians and fossil preparators. They also work as college and university professors, for government agencies and for major oil and gas companies.

College and University Jobs

The majority of paleontologists are employed as college and university professors, according to the Paleontology Research Institution. Professors of paleontology may teach courses on historical geology, evolution, fossil records, and vertebrate and invertebrate paleontology. Some classes may require lab work. Paleontology professors may also do fieldwork and research in their area of expertise. A Ph.D. is usually required to teach at the college and university level. Colleges and universities that offer a paleontology degree and employment for paleontology professors include Northern Arizona University, Yale University, the University of Chicago, the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor and the University of Kansas.

Museum Work

Paleontologists can find work at museums that include the study of geo-sciences. You might find a job as a museum director, curator, educator, consultant or fossil preparator. A Ph.D. in paleontology is often required. Museums such as the Field Museum in Chicago and the Museum of Geology at the South Dakota School of Mines employ paleontologists. Some colleges and universities with paleontology degrees have on-site museums, such as the Mesalands Community College in New Mexico, the University of Utah and the South Dakota School of Mines.

Government Work

Paleontologists may find work with government agencies such as the U.S. Geological Survey. Government work may involve doing state or federal mapping and surveys. As geo-scientists, paleontology graduates may also work on governmental policies for energy resource expansion. Geo Corps America offers paid short-term positions to geo-scientists, including paleontologists. The program is sponsored by the Geological Society of America, which partners with the Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Forest Service and the National Park Service.

Oil and Gas Companies

A number of energy companies recruit geo-science majors. Some graduates work for gas and oil extraction companies, looking for new resources. Workers with this degree discover new resources by determining the earth's subsurface constraints. Employee team work may include creating geological models of the earth's subsurface, planning the trajectory and location of development wells and finding ways to access reserves, according to the Shell website. Teams may also create reservoir property definitions. In recent years, however, energy companies have employed fewer paleontologists.

Tags: college university, also work, animal plant, animal plant life, college university professors, Dakota School, Dakota School Mines

Determine Direction Of Creek Flow By Looking At Maps

Creeks and streams must always follow one simple rule: gravity makes water run downhill. Unless it ends up in a lake, the water in a small creek flows into a larger stream, and that stream flows into a river, and the river eventually finds its way to the ocean. There are clues on a map to tell you which way running water is flowing.

Instructions

1. Evaluate the type of map you have. Some types of maps make flow direction very easy to determine. It is easiest if you have a topographic map, with printed elevation contours--the water flows from higher elevation to lower. There are other methods for other types of maps.

2. Follow topographic contours that cross the stream. All contours that cross a stream valley bend uphill as they approach the stream. The result is a V shape that points upstream. The contour and the line of the stream make a sort of arrow that points opposite the direction of flow. If the map does not have contours, observe the pattern made by all the streams on the map.

3. Trace the pattern formed by the creek and all creeks that join it or that it joins. Most patterns look like a tree, with branches that form Y and V shapes where they join. The Y and V shapes point in the direction that the streams flow. If the streams don't form a tree shape, there are still other methods.

4. Look for other clues. Almost all streams become larger in the direction the water flows, so if the line marking a stream ends without joining another stream, it is most likely the upstream end of the creek. This is especially likely if the line ends at a spring or a small natural pond.

Tags: contours that, contours that cross, cross stream, flows into, other methods

Merit Badge Guide

Merit badges are an important component of Boy Scouting. Although the majority of Scout activities take place in group settings, merit badges are the responsibility of the individual Scout. Obtaining each badge requires that he set a goal and work diligently toward it. Each badge represents a personal achievement in completing the requirements and learning extensively about the particular merit badge's subject matter.

Understanding Merit Badges

Merit badges are used to encourage Boy Scouts to increase their knowledge of subjects they are interested in and branch out to explore new ones. Merit badges are available in the areas of business, sports, crafts, science, trades and future careers, with more than 100 badges covering a wide range of subjects. To advance to Eagle Scout, the highest rank in scouting, you must have 21 merit badges, 12 of which are specified. The other nine badges can be selected by the Scout.

To achieve Star rank, the Scout must have six merit badges, four of which have to come from the required list for the rank of Eagle Scout. For the Life rank, you need to earn five more badges, three of which must come from the Eagle Scout required badges list.

Acquiring Merit Badges

Boy Scouts can acquire merit badges at any time during their career as a Scout. After selecting a badge to work on, the Scout must talk to his Scoutmaster. The Scoutmaster will provide contact information for a counselor who specializes in that area. The Scout buddy system requires that Scouts take a friend, parent or relative along with them to meet their counselor. The merit badge counselor will provide guidance on the activities that must be performed to earn the merit badge.

Each badge has an accompanying pamphlet with detailed information on the badge and associated requirements. These pamphlets are often available through the troop or at a school or public library. A brief listing of requirements for each badge can also be found online. After completing the activities required for the merit badge, the Scout must meet with his counselor again to obtain a signed application. This is then turned in to the Scoutmaster, who will present the Scout with his merit badge.

Exploring Merit Badges

The 12 required badges for the rank of Eagle Scout are First Aid, Citizenship in the Community, Citizenship in the Nation, Citizenship in the World, Communications, Personal Fitness, Emergency Preparedness or Lifesaving, Environmental Science, Personal Management, Camping, Family Life, and either Swimming, Hiking or Cycling.

The many other Scout badges available are designed to assist them in exploring various hobbies and careers. Merit badges cover a wide range of hobbies, including stamp collecting, painting, reading and basketry. Career-related badges include aviation, American business, engineering, entrepreneurship and journalism. Badges for snow sports, water sports, cycling and climbing cover the myriad athletic interests that a Scout might have, and those more academically inclined can earn merit badges in chemistry, electricity, geology, mammal study and nuclear science.

Tags: Eagle Scout, merit badge, Merit badges, Scout must, badges available, come from

State Parks Near Fredericksburg Texas

According to Travel Tex and the City of Fredericksburg, Fredericksburg was settled in 1846 by immigrants from Germany that were sent to Texas by the Adelsverein. Located in the heart of Texas along the edge of the Hill Country, this small Texas town is surrounded by hills, prairies and several state parks. It is also home to the National Museum of the Pacific War.

Enchanted Rock State Natural Area

Located 16 miles north of Fredericksburg, Enchanted Rock State Natural Area covers 1,643.5 acres. The park is listed as a National Natural Landmark and is listed with the National Register of Historic Places. Although the park has only been open since 1984, humans have been visiting the area for more than 11,000 years. The rock is a huge pink granite dome that stands 435 feet above the ground and covers 640 acres. The Tonkawa Indians believed that ghost fires flickered at the top of the dome. The park offers primitive backpacking, camping, hiking, technical and rock climbing, picnicking, geological study, bird watching and star gazing. Camping areas are both primitive and walk-in and tent camping is the only type of camping allowed in the park, RVs are not allowed. The amenities that the park offers are restrooms with showers, picnic tables, fire rings, day use areas and a group pavilion. The park does have a tendency to fill quickly so it is best to call ahead.

Enchanted Rock State National Area

16710 Ranch Road 965

Fredericksburg, TX 78624

(830) 685-3636

tpwd.state.tx.us

Lyndon B. Johnson State Park and Historic Site

Located just over 17 miles east of Fredericksburg, Lyndon B. Johnson State Park and Historic Site was opened in 1970 covering 717 acres and directly across the Pedernales River from the LBJ Ranch. The park is a day use only facility and offers historical study, picnicking, nature study, fishing and swimming. The Sauer-Beckmann Farmstead calls the park home. It is a living history farm with volunteers working on the farm as they would have in 1918. The facilities of the park include restrooms, an auditorium, picnic areas, an amphitheater, a swimming pool, tennis courts and a baseball field.

Lyndon B. Johnson State Park and Historic Site

Hwy. 290 East at Park Road 52

Stonewall, TX 78671

(830) 644-2252

tpwd.state.tx.us

Pedernales Falls State Park

Located on 5,211 acres, Pedernales Falls State Park is 42 miles east of Fredericksburg. Opened in 1971, it sits along the banks of the Pedernales River. The Falls are what bring most visitors to the park and they can be viewed best from the north end of the park. Some of the activities that the park offers include camping, picnicking, hiking, tubing, fishing and bird watching. The facilities include campsites with water and electricity, primitive hike in campsites, restrooms with showers, hiking trails, biking trails and horse trails.

Pedernales Falls State Park

2585 Park Road 6026

Johnson City, TX 78636

(830) 868-7304

tpwd.state.tx.us

Tags: State Park, Enchanted Rock, Enchanted Rock State, Falls State, Falls State Park, Historic Site

Use Stones For Healing Shaman Stones

Moqui Marbles

There are many legends surrounding these strange stones;shamans use them to heal and communicate with other realms and Hopi Indians play marbles with their ancestors to gain knowledge.

Moqui Marbles or Mochi Stones are mysterious sandstone balls covered in hematite (iron ore) and were discovered in the Navajo Sandstone Formation in Utah.

These stones are found in pairs: one more rounded formation which is considered the female and has a - charge and the disk-like formation which has a + charge. They have an uncanny ability to realign the energy body and energy centers immediately, without a lot of mumbojumbo.

When we work with computers all day, or have night shifts or generally get into a negative spiral, our energy polarity (male/female or +/- charge) can get off balance. These stones reboot the +/- energy flow and stabilize the energy field.

Instructions

1. If you hold the Moqui Marbles in your hand and pull them apart slowly, you will sense a slight pull or push. Play with them until you can sense this a bit.

2. One way to align the energy body is to place the rounded stone in the left hand and the disk-like one in the right hand. Sit for a few minutes quietly and they will correct the energy flow. For some people this is reversed. You can tell if they are working when you feel slight pulsating warmth in one or both of your hands.

3. You can also lie down and place one above your head and the other at your feet. The Moqui that worked in your left hand should go above the head and the Moqui that was in the right hand under the feet.

4. You can also use them for relieving pain in the body. Just place them in the area where the pain is.

5. Generally, just holding them in your hands and letting the body align is enough. Once the energy is rebooted and restored, the physical body usually knows do the work of healing itself. So, don't make it too complicated. For most purposes the round one in the left hand and the disk-like in the right hand is more than enough to feel refreshed, centered and grounded.

Tags: left hand, Moqui Marbles, right hand, disk-like right, disk-like right hand, energy body

Find Gems & Minerals

Gem and mineral hunting is a popular hobby.

Gem and mineral hunting is a popular hobby across the country. Many rock and mineral clubs have field trips for people who enjoy finding new mineral samples for their collection. You can also hunt for gems and minerals on your own if you know a little about rocks types and the potential minerals in each. Researching popular gem and mineral hunting locations will prepare you for a successful and enjoyable day of collecting.

Instructions

1. Contact the state geological survey and local mineral clubs and request geologic maps of local outcrops, mines and river beds with public access. Evaluate the geologic maps to determine the types of rocks in the area and the potential minerals in the rocks.

2. Visit the outcrops, mines and river areas and examine the rocks at each location. Look for large grains and veins in the rock that may be indicative of gemstones and other mineral crystals. Use a compass and the maps to help navigate through the area.

3. Put on your safety glasses. Break a sample of the rock from exposed outcrops using a rock hammer. The mineral content of the rock is easier to see on the fresh side of the sample where weathering has not discolored the rock surface. Use a hand magnifier to see smaller grains.

4. Examine loose rocks and soil in each area because minerals can weather out of rocks and create nearby deposits. Mineral crystals may also be present in the shallow, calm water of a river or stream bed. Use a sieve to separate mineral crystals from surrounding soil and sediment.

5. Compare the mineral samples to the identification information in the reference book to identify your specimens.

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Types Of Glacial Lakes

Glacial Lake

Lakes are common in regions that experience glaciation. Repeated advance and retreat of a glacier scours the bedrock preparing the way for the formation of lakes. There are three types of glacial lakes resulting from alpine and continental glaciation. Alpine glacial lakes include paternoster lakes and tarns and are found in mountainous areas. Kettle lakes are the result of continental glaciation and are found in northern areas of North America and Europe.

Tarn Lakes

A tarn is a lake that forms in the depression of a cirque. They are sometimes referred to as cirque lakes. The most basic of all alpine glacial landforms is the bowl or amphitheater-shaped valley head called cirque. These bowls result from the scouring of the mountain by glaciers. The head and sidewalls of a cirque may be nearly vertical, while the floor is often carved into a shallow basin. When water seeps down into the basin along with additional snowmelt, a tarn lake develops. The word tarn comes from an Old Norse word meaning pond. Tarns lakes in North Cascades and Rocky Mountain National Parks provide excellent examples.

Paternoster Lakes

A chain of lakes may develop in a valley with glacial steps; often each step will have a lake. These chains of lakes are known as paternoster lakes, since they resemble the beads on a rosary. They are formed by the scouring of the glacier and are connected by a single stream system that was dammed by glacial debris. Examples of paternoster lakes occur in the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California and Glacier National Park in Montana.

Kettle Lakes

Among the most varied features left by glaciers are ice-contact deposits due to continental glaciation. These landforms develop along the margin or outwash of the glacier, leaving behind ice deposits. A kettle lake forms when a large piece of ice leaves a depression in the glacial drift; as the ice melts a kettle like hole is formed. The hole fills from river flow or from underground water sources. Most kettle lakes are found in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New York, Pennsylvania and New England. An example is Walden Pond in Massachusetts.

Natural Reservoirs

Glacial lakes can also result from buildup of glacial till or sediment. In alpine or mountain areas the advance and retreat of a glacier pushes sediments into river creating a dam. Ice can also build up blocking the flow of a river forming an ice-dammed lake.

Tags: continental glaciation, advance retreat, advance retreat glacier, glacial lakes, paternoster lakes, result from, retreat glacier

What Is Shelly Limestone

According to the S-Cool website, limestone is a hard, gray sedimentary rock. Shelly limestone is a carboniferous limestone formed from the fossils of sea animals and plants.

Fossils

University College London's geology department explains shelly limestone is made up of marine fossils such as coral, which are packed together in calcite cement to form a hard limestone rock. These fossils formed between 200 and 300 million years ago.

Uses

Shelly limestone is a tough, almost pure form of limestone, according to University College London. The rock is used in the construction industry, to create cement for road surfaces and as a source of calcium carbonate for the chemicals industry.

Landscape

Th S-Cool website explains that limestone, such as shelly limestone forms a distinctive landscape called karst. A large area of karst landscape is found in the United Kingdom, particularly in the Yorkshire Dales and Peak District regions.

Tags: College London, S-Cool website, University College, University College London

The Average Salary Of A Firstyear Geologist

Geology is an earth science discipline that has many different specialties, such as paleontology, meteorology, mineralogy and natural resource research. First-year geologist salaries are affected by academic degree, the specific geology industry and the world commodities market, if the geologist works in the oil and mining industry.

Educational Level

The salary of a first-year geologist is greatly affected by what his educational level is. Undergraduate geologists are limited mainly to technician work. Master's and Ph.D degree holders have more opportunities as a first-year geologist, as well as higher starting salaries.

Location

Location is very important when it comes to geology salaries. If you live in an area with plenty of mining and oil companies, geological sites and surveys or natural resources, the job market and salaries tend to be healthier. Limited opportunities exist for geologists who live outside these areas.

Salaries

Geologist salaries vary by their specializations as well as specific industry. Geology.com reports that starting geologists in the oil and mining industry earn an average of $83,000 a year with zero to two years' experience. Payscale reports an average between $44,000 and $62,000. The AAPG reports that petrologists have a low-end salary of $70,000 and a high end of $99,800. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that the median overall for geologists is $79,160 as of May 2008. It also reports that the average salary for technician related jobs, common for entry level geologists, have a median salary of $55,527.

Industries

The BLS reports a number of salary figures based on the industry that geologists are working in. Oil and gas extraction have the highest median income at $127,560. The next highest is in the federal market at $90,220, which covers geologists working in departments such as the United States Geologic Survey and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

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4th Grade Science Fair Project Ideas For Volcanoes

Volcanoes have a huge impact on the landscape of an area.

The awesome power of a volcanic eruption makes this phenomenon an ideal topic for a science fair project. A student can conduct a research project on the history of volcanic activity and the lessons learned or examine the composition of a volcano and present this information at the science fair. Replicating a volcanic eruption is another option; this can be messy but good fun.

Active Volcano

One of the most obvious volcano science project ideas for the fourth grade is constructing a working model of one. This project is divided into three sections: building the volcano model with a depression in the middle for the volcanic activity, conducting and presenting research for scientific credit and making the volcanic mixture. To build the model volcano, first construct a basic framework out of chicken wire in the shape of a volcanic cone then add layers of paper-mache over the top of the frame. To make the volcanic mixture, the student will need to put baking soda in the volcano's cone then add vinegar dyed red. The resulting reaction will recreate a volcanic eruption.

Cut-away Volcano

Volcanoes can be complex in structure so a three-dimensional diagram of a volcano makes an ideal science fair project. The student handling this project makes a model volcano out of paper-mâch or clay but, instead of completing the volcano model, the student leaves it as a cut-away on one side so that the innards can be seen. These inner-workings -- such as the sill, branch pipe, magma reservoir and conduit -- can then be presented by the student at the science fair.

Different Types of Cones

This is fundamentally a research project that requires the student to identify the several different types of cones produced by volcanic activity. These different cone types have a marked effect on the geography of a volcanic area. These types of cones include stratocones, where large, cylindrical cones are formed from eruption after eruption over an extended period of time. When these eruptions of lava cool they form layers or stratas. Splatter cones occur when lava is spewed high into the air and forms irregular shapes that meld together upon landing. Cinder cones are formed from shattered lumps of volcanic rock that cover the outside of the volcano following an eruption. The student can use clay and other modeling material to build models of different cones and present their differences at the science fair.

Protection Against Volcanic Eruption

For this project, the student will research the effects of previous volcanic eruptions on human life and property. The students will then examine what precautions were taken -- or could have been taken -- to protect people living in volcanic areas from the effects of eruption. This demonstrates that the student has an active scientific mind and is adept at problem identification and solving, as well as the application of theoretical science to human concerns.

Tags: science fair, project student, volcanic activity, volcanic eruption, cone then

How A Peridot Gem Is Formed

How a Peridot Gem Is Formed

What is a Peridot?

The peridot is a gemstone prized for its distinctive, dazzling yellow-green color. It's also the birthstone for August, thought to bring good luck and fortune to the wearer born during the month of its glittering reign. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, peridots have been worn in jewelry for thousands of years, and some even think that some of Cleopatra's many "emeralds" may actually have been peridots.

Peridots are usually only found in small amounts (stones that can be cut up to 1 to 3 carats), and have a long process of formation. The journey from drab minerals to shimmering jewelry involves a long geological process before the stone reaches the gem cutter's hands.

Olivine, Peridot's Mineral Source

According to the U.S. Geological Survey, the peridot is a form of olivine, a silicate mineral rich in magnesium and iron. It's primarily mined commercially in the United States in Arizona and New Mexico.

The University of California at Berkeley identifies olivine as being yellow to pale green or even black in color. Olivine is found in many different rocks such as basalt, volcanic rock and even the earth's mantle--which is made mostly of olivine.

From Olivine to Peridot

When olivine crystallizes, it turns into the gemstone form we know as the peridot. This process involves long periods of high temperature and pressure within the rocks in which the mineral is found, and occurs on geological time-scales--sometimes millions of years.

Olivine has a very high melting point, which explains why it's mainly found in places like volcanic rock and the mantle of the earth (where pressure and heat are abundant). In these deep, hot places, the gem we know as the peridot is slowly formed.

How the peridot gets its distinctive color depends on the composition of the olivine. Olivine with a high magnesium content produces a paler stone; iron-rich olivine crystallizes into a darker, richer peridot.

Once crystallized, the peridot waits only to be mined, cut and set into a piece of jewelry to be admired and prized as a birthstone--or a striking addition to a jewelry ensemble.

Tags: According Geological, According Geological Survey, Geological Survey, have been, involves long, know peridot, olivine crystallizes

Calculate Flood Recurrence Intervals

Flooding recurrence intervals reflect historical data.

Flood recurrence intervals reflect the amount of time on average an area will suffer a flood. For example, if a town has a flood recurrence interval of 100 years, the town on average will flood one time every 100 years. This is an average derived from past flood data. The federal government generally defines a flood as an inundation of 2 or more acres of normally dry land. There are two ways to calculate flood recurrence intervals, either with a magnitude level of the flood or without a flood magnitude.

Instructions

1. Divide the number of years on record (N) by the number of events (n), when there is no magnitude associated with the event. The years on record are the years of available data. For example, a city may have records only for the past 200 years. Public agencies such as the U.S. Geological Survey collect this information. The number of events is the number of floods during the time on record. Express the formula algebraically as N/n.

As an example, suppose that 200 years of data are available, and during that time there were only two floods. Divide 200 years by two floods to get a recurrence rate of 100 years per flood.

2. Add one and the number of years on record (n) when there is a magnitude associated with the event. Then divide by the magnitude (m). For a flood, the magnitude is equal to the size of the discharge of the flood. Express the formula algebraically as (n+1)/m. For example, suppose there are 200 years of data and in that time, flooding took place four times and two of the floods were considered major. The equation would be (200+1)/2= 100.5 years per major flood.

3. Divide one by the flood recurrence interval (T) to forecast the probability the event will happen in the future. Express the formula algebraically as 1/T.

In an area with a 100-year flood recurrence interval, the probability a flood could occur in any year equals 1/100, or 1 percent. Therefore, during any year in the area there is a 1 percent chance the area will flood.

Tags: Express formula, Express formula algebraically, flood recurrence interval, formula algebraically, recurrence interval

Mt Stromboli Volcano Information

Stromboli is an active volcano off the coast of Italy.

Stromboli is an active volcano that forms an island in the Tyrrhenian Sea, off the west coast of Italy. It is one of the Aeolian Islands. Its virtually continuous mild volcanic activity means that it has been referred to as the "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean" since Roman times. Its base begins more than 3,280 feet below the surface of the Tyrrhenian Sea and rises to 3,031 feet above sea level.

Origins

Stromboli is thought to have emerged from the sea around 100,000 years ago. Stromboli is known as stratovolcano as a result of its concave slopes. It is located above a subduction zone, where one of the large plates that make up the Earth's surface (in this case the African plate) is being forced under another plate (in this case the Eurasian). The African plate melts in the intense heat of the Earth's mantle and molten rock is forced upward, emerging from the volcano as lava. Over time, lava built up around the crater of Stromboli, bringing it above sea level to form the cone-shaped island.

Volcanic Activity

Stromboli has been continuously active for around 2,000 years. Lava erupts from the volcano's crater and flows down the slopes into the sea. Geologists believe that this suggests that the magma chamber within the volcano, in which molten rock is stored before emerging as magma, is constantly being re-filled from the earth's mantle. This type of activity has become known to geologists as "Strombolian" activity.

Exceptional Activity

Every so often, Stromboli surprises observers with a sudden burst of higher level activity. Historical records show that an explosion shattered windows in the island's villages in 1907, and in 1930 similar explosions were accompanied by a small earthquake and a tsunami.

Settlements

Several hundred people live on Stromboli in the villages of Stromboli and Ginostra. In the past, the inhabitants used the volcanic soil to grow figs and vines, but now most of their income is drawn from tourism.

Tourism

The relatively gentle nature of the volcanic activity at Stromboli means that it is usually safe to visit, making it an attractive and unusual tourist destination. Each year thousands of tourists trek up the slopes of the volcano to view the crater. The ascent takes about 3 hours. At the crater, visitors can watch as lava and other volcanic material erupts from the earth.

Tags: above level, active volcano, African plate, around years, coast Italy, erupts from, from earth

10 Warning Signs Of Foundation Problems In Texas

Cracks in concrete or brick are a sign that the home's foundation is compromised.

Foundation problems in Texas are a common occurrence. Much of the state's soil consists of expansive clay with high-swelling potential. When the clay absorbs water during a rainy season, the volume increases. According to Geology.com, expansions of 10 percent are enough to cause considerable damage. When the soil dries out and shrinks, the foundation loses support, causing stress on the structure. This repetitive movement is the cause for most foundation problems in Texas and must be monitored carefully. Does this Spark an idea?

1. Loud Popping Sounds

The most obvious sign that a house's foundation is shifting is the sound of loud pops, creaks or cracks. Most people hear the sounds at night when the house is silent. The house will groan or pop as its weight gradually shifts from one side to the other.

2. Trees Near the House

If you are building a home, it is a good idea to build your home at least 10 feet away from existing trees. Trees growing near the house may have roots that wind underneath the home and put pressure on the foundation.

3. Rain Gutter Runoff Collecting Near the House

Check to be sure that water running out of the gutters drains away from the house. A quick solution for this problem is to dig a runoff ditch that leads the water to a lower area away from the house.

4. Stagnant Water Puddles Around the Home

After a heavy rainfall, check for water puddles near the home that do not easily drain away. These puddles are a sign of improper drainage and could lead to future foundation problems.

5. Loose or Sticky Doors

The way a door fits its frame is an indication of foundational change. A door that was previously hard to close that now shuts easily (or vice versa) is a clue that the foundation has recently shifted.

6. Cracks in the Inside Walls

Cracks at the edges of window or door frames are a sign that the foundation is shifting. Keep close watch of these areas, since many of these cracks can appear overnight.

7. Cracks in the Bricks

Cracks seen running up brick columns or fireplaces are a sure sign that the foundation is compromised, as brick is much stronger than drywall. If the bricks around your house exhibit cracks or unevenness, you need to contact an expert immediately.

8. Diagonal Cracks Near Exterior Windows

These cracks can be a sign that the caulk joints are pulling apart, according to Safety First Home Inspections.

9. Leaky Roof

A leaky roof may be caused by an uneven foundation that allows rainwater to collect in one place. Check to be sure the roof is in good shape. If the problem is not with the roof, the foundation may be to blame.

10. Doors and Windows Crooked in Their Frames

Doors and windows that hang unevenly or that do not shut properly may be a sign that the foundation is becoming uneven.

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Properties Of Tiger Iron

Tiger iron is a unique gemstone characterized by distinctive bands of yellow, red and black. Composed of 2 billion-year-old sedimentary deposits, tiger iron contains rippled bands of tigereye, jasper and hematite. Although it is a combination of gemstones, tiger iron is considered a gemstone of its own and a member of the quartz family. Tiger iron has been unearthed in Australia, Brazil, England, Mexico and in the Lake Superior Region of the United States. In some regions tiger iron is known as mugglestone due to bands of color.

Geological Properties

The chemical composition of tiger iron is SiO2 silicon dioxide in combination with the gemstones jasper and hematite. As a member of the quartz family, tiger iron has a hardness of 7 out of 10 on the Mohs Hardness scale. The crystal formation system of tiger iron is trigonal, which is the only crystal system whose point groups have more than one lattice system.

Metaphysical Properties: Feng Shui

In Feng Shui, the ancient Chinese art of placement, it is believed that one can create harmony and balance through placement and colors. The colors found in tiger iron are a combination of black/dark brown (water colors) and yellow (earth colors). Since dark colors are associated with independence and strong self-discipline and yellow with clear communication, tiger iron is used to convey a strong message "You know who you are, you know where you're going."

Metaphysical Properties: Healing

Many consider tiger iron to be a beneficial healing gemstone because it combines the healing properties of tigereye, jasper and hematite stimulating the bodies production of energy. Unlike other gemstones used for healing, tiger iron is thought to be a stable healing stone that rarely needs spiritual cleansing.

Metaphysical Properties: Chakras

In Eastern cultures tiger iron is believed to help strengthen all the body's major energy centers known as chakras. Tiger iron is thought to support and balance the lower three chakras, helping one to better express creativity, passion and power. When combined with other gemstones, tiger iron is also said to stimulate kundalini energy to help spiritual development.

Metaphysical Properties: Other

Tiger iron is believed to have to many metaphysical properties such bringing creativity, strength, vitality, energy, clarity, confidence, protection, balance and willpower. It is also thought to encourage positive change by strengthen one's willpower to take necessary action.

Tags: tiger iron, tiger iron, jasper hematite, Metaphysical Properties, tiger iron

Soil Types Of The Hawaiian Islands

The Hawaiian Islands were formed by volcanoes.

Geologically, the top soil layers of the islands of Hawaii are young. Because it takes soil ages to become well developed, the islands have sparse amounts of the best soil types for growing. According to Encarta Encyclopedia, less than 10 percent of Hawaii's land area is covered by well-developed soils. Does this Spark an idea?

Developed Soils

Climate plays a significant role in the end product of soil development. Average annual temperature and rainfall vary widely on the Hawaiian Islands in direct relation to the altitude. Higher elevations experience cooler average temperatures and lesser amounts of annual precipitation. The best developed soils are on the lower lands of the islands of Hawaii, Kauai, Maui, and Oahu due to erosion and leaching of minerals to lower elevations. Farmers have used these more fertile areas to produce sugar cane and pineapple crops.

Volcanic Soils

Many of Hawaii's soil types develop in volcanic ash deposited over pahoehoe or aa lava. Pahoehoe is a smooth basaltic rock formed from free-flowing lava, as opposed to aa volcanic rock which has rougher surfaces and spiky features. A soil survey of the islands completed by the USDA shows that which type of lava rock underlies the surface soils determines to a great extent the prevalent soil types. Generally, soils formed over pahoehoe are more fertile.

Stony Soils

At Pulehu on the island of Maui, the USDA has recorded very stony clay loam. Stony silty clay is present at Hanalei, in Kaua'i County on the island of Kauai and at Waialua (North Shore) and Waikane on the island of Oahu.

Hilo Soils

According to the Soil Science Society of America, each state and territory of the United States has a representative soil, like a state tree or state bird. The United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service lists the hilo series as the official state soil of Hawaii. The USDA describes the hilo soil series as developing from multiple layers of volcanic ash intermixed with slight amounts of dust from central Asian deserts. In a sample hilo soil profile, the surface layer and subsoil layers consists of silty clay loam, with a color differentiation marking the layers. Hilo soils exist on the big island of Hawaii and the island of Maui.

Silty Clay and Silty Clay Loam

Silty clay and silty clay loam soil types are present on Oahu Island around Ewa, west of Honolulu; at Haleiwa on the North Shore; at Kaneohe in Honolulu County, on the southeastern coast of Oahu; at Paumalu, the original Hawaiian name for what is now known as Sunset Beach on the North Shore of Oahu Island; and at Wahiawa, in the valley between the two volcanic mountains of Oahu. Silty clay and silty clay loam soils also occur at Lahaina, on the west coast of the island of Maui; at Manana, an islet lying out from the eastern end of Oahu Island; and at Molokai, known as the Friendly Island, located between Oahu and Maui islands.

Tags: clay loam, Hawaiian Islands, island Maui, North Shore, Oahu Island, silty clay loam

Definition Of The Physical Features Of Landforms

Mountains are landforms that are physically characterized by their peaks.

There are eight major types of landforms, including valleys, mountains, glaciers, loess, plains, plateaus, deserts and hills, which shape the physical features of the world. Each can be described by its distinct features that distinguish that landform from the others. In mapping projects, each landform's physical characteristics are symbolically represented.

Valleys

A valley is described as a low, hollow surface that is surrounded by mountains or hills. These surrounding slopes may lead to a body of water such as a stream or lake located within the valley. It has been characterized as having fertile soil and those floors, or bottoms of valleys, surrounded by mountains are often narrow.

Plateaus

Plateaus are areas of high, flat land surrounded by steep slopes and are often among mountain ranges. The landform, depending on its height contains grass for animal grazing or soil suitable for farming although some of the world's highest plateaus are deserts.

Mountains

Mountains, formed by shifting plates under the Earth's surface, are peaks of what appears to be wrinkly rock. Some mountain ranges are higher than others, and those that reach high into the atmosphere may harbor snow on the peaks. Mountains have varying heights; Mount Everest in the Himalayas measures 29,035 feet high, while Mount Wycheproof in Australia is only 154 feet tall. Some experts believe that Mount Wycheproof should technically be a hill, but there are no height regulations that differentiate between the two landforms.

Plains

Plains are large flat lands that have no apparent changes in elevation and are often found near an ocean or inland. The foliage located on plains depends on the climate in the region and include forests and grasslands.

Hills

Slightly upward faults in the Earth's crust are what commonly form hills, which are raised elevations of land but are smaller than mountains. Hills have varying heights -- from those found in your own backyard to the great Black Hills. Although there are no height specifications separating a hill from a mountain, Paul Larson of the University of Utah says that varying vegetation distinguishes the two. The vegetation on the top of a hill is the same as it is on its slopes; the foliage on a mountain's peak differs from its slopes.

Loess

A deposit of sediment, silt and other geological material make up a loess. It may be brown or yellow in color due to the sediment, which may have been left by glacier activity or brought by wind. A loess appears as a long plateau but is more similar to the size of a hill. For example, China's Loess Plateau is a long highland approximately a mile high and covering more than 230,000 square miles.

Glaciers

Formed by packed ice and snow from layers of fallen icy precipitation in colder areas of the globe, glaciers may look like mountains but are made from ice, not earth and stone. Glaciers often appear to have peaks and crevices and are almost all white, with the exception of some peaks that have lost their snow. Many geologists say glaciers can be considered landforms because there is land underneath the compacted ice and snow; some geologists argue that glaciers shape landforms but aren't landforms themselves.

Deserts

Deserts have been recognized for their fine sand buildup and scarce vegetation and rainfall. Originally created by faulting, volcanism and erosion, deserts contain a hard surface of cobbles, pebbles and boulders to protect the fine sand from further erosion primarily due to wind. The Sahara is one example of a desert and is located in North Africa and covers approximately 3.3 million square miles.

Tags: fine sand, have been, have varying, have varying heights, hills which

Fly To Hawaii From The Uk

No nonstop flights are available between Hawaii and the United Kingdom.

No direct flights are available between the United Kingdom and Hawaii, so U.K. travelers wishing to explore the natural wonders, culture and beaches of Hawaii must travel through another country. Connecting flights between the United Kingdom and Hawaii are available from cities in North America and Asia.

Instructions

1. Fly from the United Kingdom to Hawaii via New York. A number of airlines fly between cities in the United Kingdom and airports in the New York City area, including Newark Liberty International Airport and John F. Kennedy International Airport. As of January 2011, the only direct flights between New York and Hawaii are operated by Continental Airlines from Newark International Airport. Virgin Atlantic, British Airways and Continental provide direct flights between Newark and London's Heathrow Airport, allowing for convenient connections without changing airports.

2. Fly to Hawaii via Vancouver, British Columbia. Air Canada and WestJet provide direct flights from the Canadian city of Vancouver to Hawaii. WestJet flies from Vancouver to airports in Honolulu, Kahului, Kona and Lihue. Travelers flying on Air Canada can fly from Heathrow Airport via Vancouver to Honolulu, Maui and Kona. British Airways and Thomas Cook Airlines also fly nonstop between London and Vancouver.

3. Fly from the United Kingdom via Los Angeles. A number of airlines fly to Hawaii from Los Angeles International Airport, including American Airlines, Hawaiian Airlines, Delta Airlines, United Airlines and Continental Airlines. Most airlines fly to Honolulu from Los Angeles, although flights are also available to smaller airports on the islands. With the exception of Hawaiian, these airlines also provide flights to the United Kingdom directly from Los Angeles or via another U.S. city. British Airways, Virgin Atlantic and Air New Zealand also offer nonstop flights from Los Angeles to London.

4. Fly to Hawaii from Tokyo. Travelers can fly to Honolulu from Tokyo's Narita or Haneda airports. Delta, Hawaiian, Japan Airlines, All Nippon Airways and United Airlines provide nonstop flights from Tokyo to Honolulu. A number of options are available to fly from London to Tokyo, including All Nippon Airways, Japan Airlines, Virgin Atlantic and British Airways.

Tags: United Kingdom, British Airways, direct flights, from Angeles, International Airport, flights between, flights from

Instructions For Building An Erupting Model Of Mt Vesuvius

Volcanoes are beautiful and majestic ground formations.

Making a model of Mount Vesuvius is a great way to get your students to become more engaged in your lesson plan -- especially if it erupts, as everybody loves an explosion. It is a simple project that can be completed even by first-graders, though some assistance may be necessary. All you need is some cardboard and paint for the model. The erupting part of the model is replicated with the classic vinegar and baking soda mixture.

Instructions

1. Place a cardboard tube 6 inches high in the middle of a cardboard panel that is a foot wide by a foot long. Glue the cardboard tube to the panel at the base of the tube. Place the plastic bag on the tube and push the bag down so that it forms an internal bladder.

2. Cut a long strip of cardboard 8 by 20 inches. This strip will form the walls of the volcano. Wrap the strip around the cardboard tube so that it slants at an angle from the top of the tube to the bottom cardboard square. It does not matter at what angle, it just has to look like the slope of a mountain. Ensure that the top of the plastic bag is under the cardboard strip. Glue the base of the cardboard strip, the top where it touches the cardboard tube and where the cardboard strip overlaps itself. Hold the strip steady for a minute to ensure that the glue bonds.

3. Paint the outside of the volcano in the image of Mount Vesuvius before the eruption. Use white paint on the top to replicate the snow line and muted grays and browns on the bottom. For added effect, put on model trees and Roman villas to really bring the observer into the display.

4. Pour 1 tsp. of baking soda into the bag inside the center of the volcano. Put several drops of red food coloring in the baking soda to get a red lava effect. Pour 1/2 tsp. of vinegar when you want to trigger the eruption. The plastic bag will allow you to reuse the model multiple times if you clear away the erupting foam promptly enough to ensure that the cardboard is not soaked with vinegar/baking soda solution.

Tags: baking soda, cardboard tube, cardboard strip, ensure that, Mount Vesuvius

Draw A Cross Section On A Topographic Map In Arcview

Topographic cross sections, or profile graphs, benefit anyone interested in elevation changes.

A topographic map depicts a portion of the landscape and is widely used to plan routes for transportation, pipelines, or simply hiking. Although a topographic map has many benefits, some users also need a profile of the topography in the form of a topographic cross section showing elevation changes from the map. ESRI's ArcMap 9.3 software creates a cross section, or profile graph, in ESRI's ArcView terminology, by using topographic data. (see References 1) The completed profile graph shows topography vertically along a horizontal line on the map.

Instructions

1. Open the ArcMap 9.3 program obtained at a license level for ArcView or above. On the "File" drop-down menu, select and open an existing project file that contains topographic data.

2. Create a triangulated irregular network (TIN) to use as a necessary three-dimensional data set from which to create a profile graph. With the project file open, select the "data layer" on the left that contains topographic data. Using the 3D Analyst toolbar, select "Create/modify TIN" and select "TIN from features" to open a dialogue box. On the left of the dialogue box, place a check next to the "data-layer name" used to create the TIN in this step. On the right of the dialogue box, use the "height-source" drop-down menu to select the name of the column that contains topographic data in the "attribute table" of the same "data layer." In the dialogue box, accept the default name and location of the new TIN data set. (see References 2)

3. The profile graph function displays elevation changes along a line.

Select the "interpolate-line" button on the 3D Analyst toolbar to create the line for the cross section on the map. Click at the beginning and double-click end of the desired profile line on the map display. A dotted box with handles encompasses the line, which shows that the line for the cross section is selected.

4. Click the "profile-graph" button on the 3D Analyst toolbar while the line is selected. The new profile graph opens as a separate window to show a wiggly line of the topographic cross section.

Tags: cross section, profile graph, topographic data, Analyst toolbar, contains topographic, contains topographic data, elevation changes