School Project On Seashells

A hermit crab lives in other mollusks' cast-off shells - and this one seems to be thinking of a new home.

Seashells are fascinating to kids and are a very flexible prop for teaching them about a plethora of subjects, including geology, biology, history, oceanography and ecology. This flexibility allows a teacher to assign a single project for the whole class, several projects for teams, or a multifaceted project over a period of time.

Oceanography

Teach kids about the environments of different types of mollusks and have them find examples of seashells found in deep and shallow water, on reefs, clustered near the shore, and inland in tidal pools. Have them find samples of shells and mount them on posterboard to illustrate the various environments and why the mollusks live where they do. Have them research the scientific names of all the examples.

Fossils

Some of the earliest fossils ever found are seashells turned to stone. Have the class research early fossilized seashells, how long ago they died, and what the earth was like at that time. In particular, have them report on the climate of their state or region those many millions of years ago. Have them report how fossils are formed and why the earliest fossils are mainly plants and small shellfish, then have them compare the fossils to their modern descendents.

Chemistry

Have the class research what seashells are made of, how they form, and what purposes they serve. Ask them what other natural objects are made of the same substances, and what happens to old seashells as they break down in nature. Another approach would be to investigate what uses are made of seashells in industry and other human endeavors.

Biology

Have kids report on shellfish as living animals. Investigate what they eat, how they move around in their environment, how they reproduce, and how their populations are holding up worldwide. Ask what their major predators are and what defenses shellfish have developed to protect themselves. Examine how long several varieties live and how that compares to shellfish in general. Ask what traits are shared by such dissimilar animals as the octupus and the oyster. Trace the development of one animal through its history.

Tags: Have them, have them, class research, earliest fossils, Have class, Have class research, them find

Study Guide For Third Grade Geology

A third grade geology study guide will focus on outer space and the atmosphere.

Once children enter the third grade, their geology and earth science studies begin to focus on space, the atmosphere and conservation of the planet. If you would like to construct a study guide for a third grade geology student, it should consist of identification, and the opportunity to display an understanding of various processes.

The Solar System

One component of a third grade geology study guide is a section on the solar system. Students should be able to identify each of the planets within the solar system. They should also be able to explain their order and placement with regards to the sun. One way to help students remember this order is with the acronym "My Very Excellent Mother Just Sent Us Pizza."

The Planets

In addition to knowing the order of the planets in the solar system, students need to have a general knowledge of the planets themselves. While some information will be too advanced for a third grader, students should be able to remember common facts about the planets. For instance, Saturn has rings, Mars is red and sandy, and Neptune is very cold because it is so far from the sun.

Recycling and Conservation

Recycling is another aspect of geology that can be included in a third grader's study guide. Students will be able to identify materials that are recyclable, as well as describe what is done with these example materials. Additionally, students should be able to describe other ways conservation of the planet can occur, such as reducing ozone pollution and water waste.

Weather

Students should be able to describe various aspects of weather and the Earth's atmosphere. Identifying the various types of clouds is one component that can be included in this portion of the study guide. Another important aspect of weather is the water cycle. To incorporate conservation into this portion, students can explain how pollution affects the water cycle.

Rocks and Minerals

When creating a third grade geology study guide, a section on rocks and minerals is recommended. Students will be able to identify the various kinds of rocks and minerals based on their physical characteristics. Furthermore, students can describe the various roles certain rocks have on Earth. One example would be the affect sedimentary rocks have in a river.

Tags: study guide, third grade, should able, third grade geology, able identify, geology study, geology study guide

Advice On Using Onyx Stone Tiles

Onyx jewelry dates back to the Greek and Roman empires.

The Utah Geological Survey defines onyx as "parallel-banded chalcedony, and a cryptocrystalline variety of quartz." The term cryptocrystalline refers to onyx's microscopic quartz crystal makeup. Geology.com notes that onyx is a translucent form of calcite mineral. Onyx stone tiles are a beautiful building material but not recommended for heavy-use kitchen countertops or flooring. Instead it is a choice material for decorative backsplashes, inlay patterns and infrequently-used countertops. Does this Spark an idea?

Surface Care

Onyx is very soft and scratches easily. Do not brush or scrape onyx tile surfaces with metal objects such as notched trowels, margin trowels or any metal-based tool. Apply sanded grout with extra caution as the grout's grit may scratch onyx. Consider using a less abrasive non-sanded grout as an alternative. Use a rubber grout float. Keep onyx tile surfaces dust, dirt and sediment-free during installation or cover unfinished areas with paper. Place onyx tiles face-up while cutting. Protect onyx tile during the remainder of the construction project by affixing blue tape to the tile's surface.

Bonding Agents

Use a latex-modified thin-set mortar or epoxy mortar mix for onyx tile installation. Do not use non-latex-modified thin-set mortar. Non-modified mortars do not bond well to onyx. Use a white mortar, not gray or any other color as they will darken and discolor the onyx. Remember that non-translucent setting materials negate onyx tile's translucent, transparent qualities.

Large Component Onyx Tile

Use an epoxy bonding mortar to pre-cover and strengthen large onyx tiles. Apply epoxy mortar to the back of large component onyx tile. Smear a 1/8- to 1/4-inch thick layer of epoxy setting mortar to the backs of pieces. Allow it to dry and strengthen the tile. Large component onyx tiles -- such as 18-by-18 tiles -- are brittle and prone to breaking or cracking; epoxy reduces the possibility of this problem. Disregard this step of your onyx tiles have fiberglass mesh and epoxy backing.

Maintenance

Seal onyx tiles -- initially and periodically -- with a high quality penetrating tile and stone sealer. Consider using a more expensive fluorocarbon aliphatic resin sealer. Fluorocarbon aliphatic resin sealer is special-order but doesn't lose sealant efficacy over time as traditional sealers do. Use a non-acidic pH-neutral dish soap or tile cleaner. Acidic cleaners stain or etch onyx tile.

Tags: onyx tile, onyx tiles, aliphatic resin, aliphatic resin sealer, component onyx

Jurassic Period School Projects

The Jurassic Period was a time when dinosaurs roamed the Earth.

The Jurassic Period of history, part of the Mesozoic Era, was a time when dinosaurs roamed the Earth. The University of California Museum of Paleontology suggests that the Jurassic Period started around 210 million years ago and ended after a period of 70 million years. Fossil Facts and Finds points out that it ended due to a "minor mass extinction." When studying the Jurassic Period, school projects are part of learning about the subject.

Dinosaur Diorama

A diorama is a type of artistic project students can use to illustrate the Jurassic period. Students can make one using a shoe box or similar box filled with items to represent the period of study. For a Jurassic project, the diorama should have dinosaurs common to the Jurassic Period and plants in the background. Students can use paper in various colors to represent the plants and dinosaurs.

Dinosaur Cell Study

The bones of dinosaurs contain cells that students can study under a microscope. Beyond simply looking at the slides, students might compare the cells of two or more dinosaurs from the Jurassic Period and write about any differences observed about the cells. They can then form hypotheses and theories about the dinosaurs the cells came from.

Research Paper

The Jurassic Period has a wealth of research options available for students and teachers to take advantage of. Teachers can give students an assignment on a research paper about the Jurassic Period. Students might write about the differences between the early, middle and late parts of the Jurassic Period, mammals that lived during the time period, and dinosaurs or plant life of the Jurassic period.

Comparing Hollywood to History

Hollywood has movies about dinosaurs that range from children's movies like "The Land Before Time" movie series to adult movies like "Jurassic Park." The film industry has also made TV shows like the series "Dinosaurs." Students can work on comparison projects between the fantasy of Hollywood shows and movies to the reality of history. Projects might include research and presentations, written papers or comparison posters and art projects.

Tags: Jurassic Period, Jurassic Period, about differences, about dinosaurs, dinosaurs roamed, dinosaurs roamed Earth

Make A Concept Map With Rocks & Fossils

Use a concept map to show what you know about rocks.

Concept maps help you to see how objects are connected and reveal hierarchies of information. They can be particularly useful if you would like to organize information for others to understand quickly. If you're studying rocks and fossils --- for either educational or landscaping purposes --- you can create a concept map to organize and display your knowledge. Does this Spark an idea?

Instructions

1. Write down everything you know about rocks and fossils; this stage is called brainstorming. Use ideas from your memory instead of doing actual research at this point, the University of Delaware Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry says. Keep your phrases short, one word if possible. The school's Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry suggests writing each piece of information on an adhesive note, using as many as you need.

2. Group your adhesive notes appropriately. Because you're talking about rocks and fossils, you'll have two separate main areas, but within those areas, divide your thoughts into subcategories where possible. In the rock stage, you might group your notes by basic rock type: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. While rocks are classified in other ways, too, you can start with these basic categories. If you can, group them in hierarchies. For instance, if phrases in one group affect the outcome of another grouping of information, then place the group that affects on top of the group it affects.

3. Lay out your concepts in logical order. At the top of your page, draw boxes on the right and left, one for rocks and one for fossils. Then write the information from your notes in small boxes on your paper. For instance, under rocks, draw three boxes and write a type of rock in each: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Under each of these you can write boxes for attributes of these types of rocks and also their subcategories. Do the same thing on the fossils side.

4. Make connections in your concept map where possible. Concept maps show hierarchies of information, but they also show that items are connected to each other. For instance, you could draw a line connecting all three rock types and write "particle size" in the box connected to that line, as rocks are further classified by particle size.

5. Identify your connections. On each line that you draw to connect concepts, write how the two are related. For instance, in your particle size box, you would write "further classified by" on the line that connects it to the three basic types of rocks.

Tags: about rocks, particle size, rocks fossils, about rocks fossils, Chemistry Biochemistry, Concept maps, Department Chemistry

Disprove Evolution Using Science

Isn't it scientifically proven?

Evolution vs. creationism is a popular debate nowadays. The purpose of this article is to point out the fallacies in the theory of evolution using the principles that are meant to support it. I will not use scripture to disprove evolution because it is inviting to attacks from atheists and scientists. Instead I will use the scientific method to point out that believing in evolution is more akin to faith than fact.

Instructions

1. Use the scientific method. A key part of the scientific method is the finding of evidence that is observable and supports a hypothesis resulting in a theory's development. Here a problem arises in the theory of evolution. Natural selection and genetic variance are commonly used as the observable evidence of evolution. However, this body of evidence only proves that variance exists within a species. From here evolutionists take a major leap of faith to presume that over time a species will change into a different species due to environmental conditions that favor a certain trait or traits than others. No species has ever been observed changing into another one. Indeed environmental conditions may favor specific traits within in a species and a characteristic like color or size may well become dominant over time, but this in no way suggests that it will eventually transform into a separate species. It merely proves that different characteristics should exist within populations that are removed from other populations. Two members of different populations would still be perfectly capable of reproducing with one another no matter how long they have been separated. In fact, natural selection could be used to explain why genetic variance exists within populations that share dominant characteristics but in no way can it be supposed that it results in species transformation. Just look at the diversity within the human race. Small, tall, white, black, 1200cc brain capacity, 1400cc brain capacity- all perfectly able to reproduce with one another and all the same species. The oldest human populations on Earth are scientifically accepted as West African groups. These groups have dominant traits that all members share and are biologically similar in appearance and physical makeup yet among themselves the highest degree of genetic variance in the human race is found. They are not changing into a different species. They carry a genetic code that proves species evolution does not occur.

2. Use examples that are used to prove evolution to challenge it. A popular example evolutionists point to as evidence of for the theory is moths that changed color in England during the Industrial Revolution. The environmental condition of pollution enabled darker moths to become more dominant than lighter moths, as they attained an advantage over predators by becoming harder to see in the polluted environment. Well, what does that prove? Only that the majority of moths in the area were darker than they were before. They would still be able to reproduce with the lighter moths if the opportunity arose. Evolutionists in fact have very little observances to base their theory on, and this example is still one of the most commonly used-despite the theory itself growing far more complex than such a simple observation as this. With the introduction of genetics into the theory of evolution, they should realize that varying characteristics do not mandate species evolution. Instead, genetics offer evidence for species flowing back and forth between varying traits that are at times more well-suited than others. A trait that has lost its favorability will, through reproduction within a species, once again become dominant if environmental conditions cooperate. This is why a high degree of genetic variability will exist in older and more isolated populations of species. Not because they evolved new characteristics but because they have been around for such a long period of time that they are merely using a trait that was already part of its genetic code. The older population would still be able to reproduce with all members of a species no matter how much time or distinctiveness of environments separates it from the other populations.

3. Use more recent examples. Another favorite piece of evidence used to prove evolution is mutation, which is, in most cases, contrary to the principles of evolution, as their effects are overwhelmingly detrimental to an organism. Commonly the AIDS virus is shown to support this basis in their thinking. People infected with the virus and treated with the anti-viral medications used to combat the infection have seen the disease become resistant to their treatments. This is due to the virus mutating-but it does not change into a new virus altogether. In fact, when a person has developed drug resistant AIDS, the most effective method is to stop taking medication, allowing the virus to change back into its original form because it has been shown that the original strain will gradually replace the mutated strain. Once it reverts back to its original state, the anti-viral drugs will be effective once again. This shows that the variance brought on by the mutation is the only factor contributing to its change, and that given the right environmental conditions, it will once again assume its original dominant characteristics, but will not change into a new virus completely. Bacterial diseases that are antibiotic-resistant work in a similar way. Their resistance derives from a variance that allows a bacterial population to be missing the ribosome an antibiotic attaches to. If the bacteria with the missing ribosome is introduced to a population of bacteria with the ribosome, very quickly will the ribosome-less bacteria be overrun and replaced by the normal bacteria. Their own evidence of mutation sometimes being beneficial is always applied to viruses and bacteria but they fail to recognize that these changes are only temporary variance within a isolated populations that will not result in complete biological change.

4. Use the fossil evidence. There are many factors within the fossil record that are highly suspect when it comes to using it as an example for evolution. Many of the explanations are purely hypothetical and at times contradictory. The problems with dating fossils has recently become so evident that old methods such as carbon dating are not heavily relied upon by anthropologists and paleontologists anymore. They themselves only feel sure about dates if a fossil is found in layers of certain geological tufts. This results in dating based on theories unrelated to evolution and opens itself to criticism. The best way to highlight the tremendous amount of faith evolutionists put into their ideas is relating the anthropological explanation for the fossil record of New World monkeys. They surmise that the only reason monkeys exist on the South American continent is that they are a result of a small population of Old World monkeys in Africa that sailed across the Atlantic ocean on a breakaway piece of land. They subsequently evolved into all the moneys in South America today. What? Evolutionists have to come up with a hypothesis like this because the dates that they ascribe to various fossils force them to. They assume dates are accurate enough to make further conclusions about a fossil. Here they make a huge scientific mistake. The environmental conditions that allow a bone to fossilize require extremely rare circumstances that allow preservation. The process of the fossilization results in total change from organic matter to inorganic matter that has been so chemically transformed that extracting an accurate date is impossible.

5. Use mathematics. The theory of evolution is driven by so many chance occurances that once they are totaled it becomes a mathematical impossibility. Think of it this way. Our universe was just formed by chance, on top of that chance luck stuck again with Earth's position from the sun, the luck kept rolling with the life spark of chemical reactions in the primordial ooze, luckier still is the chemical reaction never repeated itself so all living things have a common ancestor, and the best part of it all is that we are the supreme byproduct of these biological lotteries. Or maybe our faith should be placed in something greater than ourselves.

Tags: environmental conditions, theory evolution, able reproduce, able reproduce with, change into, genetic variance, once again

How Were The Sedona Red Rocks Formed

The Beginning

The Sedona area was at sea bottom 330 million years ago, and the shells of sea creatures formed a layer of limestone that underlies the area today, called the Redwall limestone because of its color, the result of iron oxide deposited in the rocks by water in later eras. The Supai Group of red sandstone, deposited when the area was a floodplain about 300 million years ago, sits atop the Redwall Formation, to a depth of about 600 feet. On top of that is a layer called the Hermit Formation, about 280 million years old, made of sandstone, mudstone and conglomerate.

The Middle Period

On top of the Hermit Formation is a layer that 270 million years ago was coastal sand dunes, and is now red sandstone up to 700 feet thick in places. Two more layers of sandstone were then capped by a layer of limestone laid down when the sea returned about 255 million years ago and is known as the Kaibab Formation.

The Final Phase

The so-called Laramide orogony--a round of mountain building that created the Rocky Mountains between 80 million and 35 million years ago--lifted the Sedona area and caused cracks that provided channels for water flowing from the new mountains. Water erosion widened the cracks into broad valleys, leaving only islands of the original layers above the Hermit Formation, in the form of the red buttes, spires and towers that now surround Sedona as silent sentinels from a remote past.

Tags: million years, about million, about million years, Hermit Formation, layer limestone, Sedona area

Things To See In Desert Hot Springs California

The little burrowing owl is a frequent sight in Desert Hot Springs, California.

Desert Hot Springs, California, is a small town in the foothills north of the more famous Palm Springs, California. It is located about 100 miles east of Los Angeles, overlooking the Coachella Valley. Desert Hot Springs is part of the Sonora desert which covers the southern parts of California and Arizona and the adjacent northern parts of Mexico.

Views

Desert Hot Springs is ideally located for spectacular views. It is about 1500 feet above sea-level Palm Springs and you can see the two tallest mountains in southern California: San Jacinto and San Gorgonio. Have lunch at the Mission Lakes Country Club at the top of Desert Hot Springs, where you can see the entire valley from Palm Springs to the Salton Sea.

Mission Lakes Country Club

8484 Clubhouse Blvd

Desert Hot Springs, CA 92240

760-329-6481

missionlakescountryclub.com

Bird Watching

The speedy roadrunner is a native of the area and can be seen anywhere in Desert Hot Springs.

The desert is home to many different birds. You can easily spot quail families walking through Desert Hot Springs neighborhoods searching for seeds and little bugs to eat. Roadrunners are a common sight and may come up close to you, as they are very curious birds. The charming little burrowing owl lives in rocky ledges around the town. The easiest place to see the burrowing owl is around the high school. They have built their homes in the rocky berms along the playing fields of the high school.

Cabot Museum

The Cabot Museum was the home of a member of a well-known family in Boston. He homesteaded the property in 1913 and lived there until his death in 1965. He was an artist, and the museum displays many of his paintings and drawings. Cabot built his home with reclaimed materials he scrounged from abandoned homes and mines in the desert. The Pueblo-style structure is four-stories, 5,000 square feet and includes 35 rooms, 150 windows and 65 doors. He used his finds very creatively and the building is an interesting demonstration of his artistic ability and free spirit.

Cabot's Pueblo Museum

67-616 E. Desert View Avenue

Desert Hot Springs, CA 92240

760-329-7610

cabotsmuseum.org

Hiking

Desert Hot Springs sits in a magnificent natural area with miles of hiking trails. From Desert Hot Springs you can hike into the Joshua Tree National Monument, starting at the trail head at the east end of Hacienda Boulevard. The Wildlands Conservancy has purchased land from Pioneertown hills to Whitewater and Mission Creek and there are many miles of hiking trails in those preserves. Go to the Coachella Valley Preserve to hike along natural mineral springs and native Washingtonia palms. At the Coachella Valley Preserve, you can walk right up to the San Andreas fault line.

Mission Creek Preserve

60550 Mission Creek Road

Desert Hot Springs, CA 92240

(760) 369-7105

wildlandsconservancy.org

Coachella Valley Preserve

29200 1000 Palms Canyon Rd

Thousand Palms, CA, 92276

Preserve Office 760-343-1234

coachellavalleypreserve.org

Mineral Springs

Visit Two Bunch Palms Resort to see the original mineral springs in Desert Hot Springs. Two Bunch Palms is said to have been originally built as a hide-out for the famous Prohibition criminal Dillinger, and you can see secret rooms and tunnels at the resort. The resort has also been used in several films, so you may recognize the famous mud pool and natural hot pools.

Two Bunch Palms Resort

67425 Two Bunch Palms Trail

Desert Hot Springs, CA, 92240

760-660-4185

twobunchpalms.rtrk.com

Tags: Desert Springs, Bunch Palms, Coachella Valley, Desert Springs 92240, Springs 92240, Springs California

Adult Vacation Activities In Columbus Ohio

Columbus offers a wealth of activities for adults.

Columbus, Ohio, is a thriving city that has been recognized as the "second-fastest growing major metropolitan area in the Midwest." Columbus is the capital and largest city in Ohio with over 700,000 residents. The city hosts a variety of activities to entertain visitors. If you are in the mood for adventure or leisure, a vacation in Columbus will be one worth remembering.

Columbus Museum of Art

The Columbus Museum of Art houses 10,500 works that span many cultures and historical periods. Contemporary art pieces that reflect current issues are also on exhibit. A self-guided tour is available by dialing a code on a cell phone to listen to descriptions of the pieces. The museum provides programs such as book talks, artist talks and lectures.

Columbus Museum of Art

480 East Broad St.

Columbus, OH 43215

614-221-6801

columbusmuseum.org

Olentangy Indian Caverns

The Olentangy Indian Caverns are a "natural wonder" of history and geology. The caverns were formed millions of years ago of limestone rock, creating underground rooms and passages. The Wyandotte tribe used passages for shelter against the elements and as protection from enemies. The temperature is 54 degrees year round. Visitors may take self-guided tours, climb walls and mine for gems. You may even be the lucky one to find the hidden gold bar valued at approximately $100.

Olentangy Indian Caverns

1179 Home Rd.

Delaware, OH 43015

740-548-7917

olentangyindiancaverns.com

Blue Jackets Hockey

If you are a sports enthusiast, you should stop by the Nationwide Arena for an exciting game of hockey. Columbus is home to the Blue Jackets hockey team, which was founded in 2000 and is in the Western Conference of the NHL. In 2009 the Blue Jackets qualified for the Stanley Cup Playoffs. The hockey season runs from October to April. Tickets are available online or by visiting the arena.

Nationwide Arena

200 W. Nationwide Blvd

Columbus, OH 43215

614-246-2000

columbusbluejackets.com

Columbus Symphony Orchestra

The Columbus Symphony was founded in 1951 and has a diverse repertoire. It is the only "full time professional symphony in central Ohio." The symphony can be enjoyed in concert or by radio broadcast. The 130 member chorus, conducted by Maestro Ronald Jenkins, often performs in concert with the symphony.

Columbus Symphony Orchestra

55 East State St.

Columbus, OH 43215

614-228-8600

columbussymphony.com

Tags: Blue Jackets, Columbus 43215, Columbus Museum, Columbus Symphony, Indian Caverns, Olentangy Indian, Olentangy Indian Caverns

Adaptations To Earthquakes

Such adaptations save many lives.

Implementing adaptations to earthquakes can help governments, business owners and individuals prevent loss of life and property damage in areas prone to such disasters. These adaptations range from efforts to secure small household items to the reinforcement of huge structures like bridges and office buildings. Large-scale measures often prove costly, but they have already yielded great benefits in places like Japan. Does this Spark an idea?

Buildings

When earthquakes occur, structural adaptations do much to prevent the damage or destruction of buildings. Encarta indicates that builders reinforce some structures against earthquakes with bracing. Relatively small buildings made of wood prove less susceptible than those constructed of rock-like materials such as concrete. It's possible to enact structural adaptations during construction or to reinforce old buildings. Some newer structures in California and Japan feature a flexible design which causes them to sway during earthquakes rather than collapse, according to Public Radio International.

Small Objects

Homeowners, apartment dwellers and office workers can adapt various indoor items to prevent them from falling long distances. It's possible to brace shelves so that they don't easily fall over in earthquakes, according to Encarta. The U.S. Geological Survey lists additional adaptations such as strapping water heaters to wall studs and putting latches on kitchen cabinets. It also recommends using straps and buckles to anchor electronics and small appliances to surfaces (such as desks and kitchen counters).

Transportation

Earthquakes sometimes threaten the safety of people in transit, with only airborne vehicles remaining completely safe. The San Francisco Chronicle reported that California's Bay Area established plans in 2008 for retrofitting the subway system to resist earthquakes. Adaptations included compressing the earth surrounding a tunnel and reinforcing some transit buildings and raised tracks. The Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District indicates that after an earthquake, authorities improved the Golden Gate Bridge by installing additional bracing, boosting the strength of bridge foundations and adding expansion joints, among other adaptations.

Hazardous Materials

In regions prone to earthquakes, it also is important to adaptations the storage and transport of toxic or highly flammable materials. Keeping hazardous substances close to the floor helps prevent their release during earthquakes, according to the U.S. Geological Survey. The less distance they have to fall, the less chance that the containers will break open. The USGS also recommends using flexible indoor natural gas lines rather than rigid pipes, which may break in earthquakes and start fires.

Tags: also recommends, also recommends using, during earthquakes, earthquakes according, Gate Bridge

How Do We Differentiate Between Correlation & Causation

You find a glass of lemonade on a picnic table and drink it. Two hours later, you're sick, with a fever and a headache. You then ask yourself if the glass of pink lemonade you drank was the cause of your sickness. Though you might not realize it, your question is an investigation into correlation and causation. Before you can continue this investigation, you must be able to distinguish between correlation and causation.

Instructions

1. Refer to a discussion of correlation and causation by Dr. L. Kip Wheeler of Carson-Newman College. Note that Dr. Wheeler defines causation as what happens when a specific event causes another specific event.

2. Read University of Northern Kentucky philosopher professor Rudy Garns' explanation of the difference between causal relationships and correlations and Garns' distinction that causal relationships are "lawlike." This means that if a given event causes another event, this event always causes that event. For example, every time you put your bare hand in the ocean, your hand gets wet. The relationship between putting your bare hand in the ocean and your hand getting wet is causal.

3. Study section seven of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry for British philosopher David Hume. Note especially that Hume saw cause as the strongest of the three connections the mind makes between ideas: "resemblance, contiguity, and cause and effect." Contiguity is a type of correlation. It means a closeness of association.

4. Read a discussion of correlation by Northern Virginia Community College psychology professor Dr. Elizabeth Lanthier. Read also an outline of the role of correlation in data analysis by University of Wisconsin professor of geology David L. Ozsvath. Consider that according to Dr. Lanthier, even though we know two variables are positively or negatively correlated, we cannot say the relationship they represent is causal. For example, the fact that all Martians speak English does not mean being a Martian causes a Martian to speak English. It may simply mean the only teacher on Mars is an English teacher.

5. Note further that correlation is not causation, but as Alexs Jakulin says, "It [Correlation] does waggle its eyebrows suggestively and gesture furtively while mouthing, 'Look over there.'" This means that correlation does not prove a casual relationship, but it can indicate one.

6. Write a sentence using the word "correlation." For example, you write, "I drink a Diet Coke every two hours. There is a correlation between time and my drinking a Diet Coke."

7. Write a sentence using the word "causation." For example, you write, "Thirst causes me to drink a Diet Coke every two hours. The relationship between my thirst and my drinking a Diet Coke is causative. It is an example of causation."

Tags: Diet Coke, correlation causation, bare hand, bare hand ocean, causal relationships, causes another

Activities Performed By A Geologist

Geologists study minerals and rock formations.

Geology is the study of planet Earth's history and how it may evolve in the future. Geologists work in many different environments, from labs to universities to excavation sites. They have different skills and are able to study water, rocks and other materials to determine both past and future events, and how these events affect plants, mammals, birds and sea life.

Study of Earth's Processes

Geologists study volcanic eruptions, landslides, earthquakes and floods to better understand how and why they occurred. Geologists work to create structures, maps and guides that may assist builders and developers find safe land to build housing communities. Insurance companies also work with geologists to determine areas where flood insurance, earthquake insurance and natural disaster insurance might be needed. Geologists often work with environmental scientists to determine how and why climate change is occurring.

Study of Earth's Materials

Geologists study rocks to determine the presence of minerals. This information may be used by mining companies to build mines to extract the minerals. Some geologists work in paleontology, which is the study of the remains of ancient animal and plant fossils in order to understand their behavior, environmental circumstance and evolutionary history. Geologists can also locate oil and natural gas reserves. This information is critical for oil and gas drilling operations.

Planetary Geology

Some geologists study rocks and materials from other planets besides Earth. These materials are usually brought back by unmanned and manned space exploration missions. The information helps the scientific community learn more about the universe and determine if there are life forms on other planets.

Where They Work

Geologists work for natural resource companies, governmental agencies and colleges and universities. Some work as environmental consultants. Geologists usually spend at least part of their time doing field research and laboratory analysis.

Education

Geologists usually have a bachelor's degree. A master's degree may lead to research work in the public or private sector. A doctorate is usually required to teach and conduct research at a college or university.

Tags: Geologists work, Geologists study, Geologists usually, other planets, Some geologists

Urban Colleges In Ohio

The Buckeye State is home to urban schools of higher education.

Ohio, nicknamed the Buckeye State, is home to urban areas such as Cleveland, Akron, Dayton and Cincinnati. Each of these areas has one or more schools of higher learning, including institutions such as the University of Dayton, the University of Cincinnati, the University of Akron, and Case Western Reserve University.

University of Cincinnati

Like its European sister city of Rome, Italy, Cincinnati sits atop seven separate hills, and the Clifton promontory is home to the University of Cincinnati. Founded in 1819, the university had an enrollment of more than 39,000 students as of 2010. According to its website, the university is the top employer in the Cincinnati metro area and annually contributes about $3 billion to the local economy. UC offers degree programs in such fields as chemical or mechanical engineering, the performing arts, chemistry and medicine.

University of Cincinnati

2600 Clifton Avenue

Cincinnati, Ohio 45221

513-556-6000

uc.edu

University of Akron

Founded in 1870 and originally named Buchtel College. the University of Akron has a culturally diverse student population of 28,000 that hails from 46 states and 80 foreign countries, according to its website. The university, which is on a 218-acre campus, was founded as a religious college but evolved into a nondenominational private institution. UA offers more than 200 undergraduate degree programs in such areas as art, biology, chemistry, economics, geology, history and physics.

The University of Akron

302 Buchtel Common

Akron, OH 44325

330-972-7111

uakron.edu

University of Dayton

The University of Dayton was founded in 1850 and was originally named St. Mary's School for Boys. The university assumed its current name in 1920. According to its website, the university is rated as one of the 10 best Catholic universities in the United States. It is also the largest private university in Ohio. The university offers degree programs in disciplines such as physics, biology, chemistry, geology, history and philosophy.

University of Dayton

300 College Park

Dayton, OH 45469

937-229-1000

udayton.edu

Case Western Reserve University

Founded in 1826 and originally named Western Reserve College, Case Western Reserve University was formed in 1967 through its federation with Case Institute of Technology. Its 155-acre campus is about five miles from the center of downtown Cleveland. The institution is known as a major research facility and since its inception has produced 15 Nobel Prize winners. The current student population totals roughly 10,000, and the university offers nearly 200 academic programs including law, the arts, engineering and medicine.

Case Western Reserve University

10900 Euclid Avenue

Cleveland, OH 44106

216-368-2000

case.edu

Tags: Western Reserve, Case Western, Case Western Reserve, Reserve University, University Akron, University Cincinnati

The Highest Paying Engineering Degrees

Aerospace is a high-paying engineering field.

Engineers solve practical technical problems through the use of scientific principles. They can design and test robotic components, create new aircraft or calculate stresses on a new steel bridge. Because the field affects nearly every industrial process, engineers specialize, and salaries differ by subject. As of May 2009, the Bureau of Labor Statistics reports, the highest-paying specialties are petroleum, computer hardware, nuclear and aerospace.

Petroleum

Graduates with petroleum engineering degrees create processes for removing oil and gas from beneath the earth. They typically work with geologists to understand how the earth forms such deposits, and then design equipment to achieve maximum flow at minimum cost. Even the best technology recovers only a portion of the oil and gas, thus guaranteeing jobs for these degree holders for a long time. Petroleum engineers make a mean $57.67 per hour or $119,960 per year. Their largest employer is oil and gas extractions, which pays a mean $60.62 per hour or $126,090 per year. The highest-paying jobs are with office administrative services, which provide management expertise for the petroleum industry. They offer a mean $70.41 per hour or $146,460 per year.

Computer Hardware

Computer hardware degrees grant the skills needed to design, develop, test and oversee installation of computer hardware such as systems, routers, printers, boards and chips. The education focuses on many of the same techniques and principles used by electronic engineers, but only as they relate to computers. Subjects covered also include basic software engineering, so graduates can best determine create machines that function efficiently for programming. Computer hardware engineers earn a mean $48.75 per hour or $101,410 per year, and work primarily for computer systems design services, where wages are a mean $48.30 per hour or $100,460 per year. These professionals make the most money working for lessors of non-tangible assets that do no include copyrighted work. Compensation here is at a mean $60.67 per hour or $126,200 per year.

Nuclear

Graduates of nuclear engineering create the processes, systems and equipment used to create nuclear energy. One of their chief areas of study is design, operate and monitor nuclear power plants. They may focus on produce, handle and dispose of nuclear fuel safely, or develop fusion energy. Some may also concentrate on using nuclear engineer to power vessels such as spacecraft or submarines. Others may be interested in using nuclear energy to treat medical conditions. Nuclear engineers receive a mean $48.25 per hour or $100,350 per year. They work primarily for architectural and engineering services, with means at $55.21 per hour or $114,840 per year, and for the federal government at a mean $45.55 per hour or $94,740 per year. However, their highest-paying employers are management, scientific and technical consulting services at a mean $56.09 per hour or $116,670 per year.

Aerospace

Aerospace engineering degree holders develop, test and manage the manufacture of aircraft, spacecraft and missiles. They may be called aeronautical engineers if they focus on aircraft, or astronautical engineers for space vehicles. They may also specialize in system such as navigation and control, or structural design, or specific products such as military fighter jets, commercial airliners or helicopters. They get a mean $46.29 per hour or $96,270 per year. Their biggest employers are aerospace product and parts manufacturers, with mean wages at $42.18 per hour or $87,730 per year. The highest paying are scientific and technical services other than marketing research, photography and translation. This pays a mean $56.24 per hour or $116,980 per year.

Tags: hour year, mean hour, mean hour year, computer hardware, create processes, degree holders

Science Experiments Using Different Types Of Soil To Grow Plants

Loam -- a type of topsoil prized for agriculture -- is composed of silt, sand and clay.

Soil, a mixture of decomposed organic matter and weathered rock, forms the foundation for terrestrial plant life. The chemical and physical structure of a specific sample of soil is determined by environmental factors such as temperature, weather and geology. Human activity also has an impact on the quality and composition of Earth's soil. In the classroom various types of soils can be blended to conduct a variety of experiments. The experiments listed below require only basic gardening supplies including pots, bean seeds and soil.

Grades K-3

Does the cost of gardening soil affect the size of the plant? This experiment will strengthen your students' understanding of the scientific method and their money skills. For the control, use free dirt that you find around your school or home. Buy two other types of soil of different prices. Plant a seed in each type of soil and measure the height each week. Make sure that each plant receives the same amount of sunlight and water. Compare the cost of the soil to the final growth of the plant.

Grades 4-6

Some plants grow in sandy soils where rainfall is quickly absorbed into the ground while other plants grow in dense soils that do not drain easily. Plant one seed in soil. Plant a second seed in three-fourths soil and one-fourth sand. (Perlite or vermiculite can be used instead of sand.) Plant a third seed in an even mixture of sand and soil. Plant a fourth seed in one-fourth soil and three-fourths sand. Bury the last seed in a pot full of sand. Determine the germination rate for each plant and continue to measure the growth rate for at least two weeks. Compare the growth rate of the seedlings to the amount of sand in the soil.

Middle School

Saltwater intrusion, which results from extracting too much water from underground reserves located near the sea, may have a negative effect on the growth of some plants. Create sea salt solutions at various densities and water the soil with the saltwater solution thoroughly before planting seeds. Continue to water the seedlings with the saltwater solution throughout the experiment. Compare the growth rate of the seedling to the concentration of salt. As an extension, match the salinity of the various seas around the world to determine which geographic areas may be affected the most.

High School

How does the concentration of nitrogen in the soil affect the seedling? Fertilizer strength is often given as three numbers that refer to the concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. A 100-pound bag of fertilizer advertised as 10-15-10 is composed of 10 pounds nitrate, 15 pounds phosphate and 10 pounds of potash, which contains potassium. Create your own fertilizers of various strengths to compare the effects of these elements on the plants' growth. Start with urea -- a fertilizer providing only nitrogen -- which measures 46-0-0. Add various concentrations of a urea solution to the soil before adding seeds to determine the effect of nitrogen on seedling growth rate.

Tags: growth rate, Compare growth, Compare growth rate, each plant, Plant seed

Entrylevel Technical Careers

Entry-level technical careers let you build a foundation in your chosen field.

Entry-level careers are generally jobs that can be done by college graduates who have the education but not the experience to perform advanced work in a particular field. These jobs give professionals a foundation in a particular industry and allow them to continue their education through on-the-job training. Technical jobs often require professionals to perform specific duties and have a basic understanding of science and technology.

Technical Writer

Technical writers are responsible for explaining technical ideas and scientific language that can be difficult for most people to understand. While some of this work may involve reporting on current events in science and technology, other opportunities are available creating instructions for programming televisions or installing a game console. While many technical writers choose to freelance, others can find entry-level work with publishing companies, advertising agencies, manufacturing firms and business corporations. Technical writers must have at least a bachelor's degree in a writing or science-related field. Graduates should have professional samples of work available to show potential employers. According to PayScale.com, in 2010, the median salary of technical writers with less than one year of experience is between $33,270 and $46,709 per year.

Computer Repair Technician

Computer repair technicians troubleshoot and solve problems with computers and software programs. Technicians must be able to plan, design and install computer networks and understand the various problems associated with programs. As computers and technology continue to advance, technicians need to constantly familiarize themselves with updated versions of software and operating systems. Computer repair technicians generally have either an associate's degree or a bachelor's degree in a computer-related field, such as computer science or computer engineering. In 2010, PayScale.com reports that the starting salary for computer repair technicians is between $20,758 and $38,978 per year.

Medical Laboratory Technician

Medical laboratory technicians perform medical tests that are designed to detect and diagnose various illnesses and ailments. Doctors and physicians use the results of these tests to determine the type and treatment of a disease. These technicians are also responsible for collecting samples, sterilizing instrument and keeping records. Prospective technicians need to enroll in a medical technology program at the associate's or bachelor's degree level. These programs combine classroom and laboratory work to prepare students for this entry-level career. Career opportunities are available in hospitals, research laboratories and medical clinics. PayScale.com shows that in 2010, medical laboratory technicians with less than a year of experience made between $27,250 and $42,500 per year.

Tags: bachelor degree, between year, repair technicians, Computer repair technicians, laboratory technicians

Carbon Dioxide Levels In The Jurassic Period

Dinosaurs lived in an era of high levels of carbon dioxide.

Scientists divide the earth's history into periods of time based upon climate, dominance of certain plants and animals, and other factors of geology. One such period of time is the Jurassic Period, which occurred from approximately 200 million to 145 million years ago. This period represents the dominance of dinosaurs during a time of warm temperatures, lush plant life and high levels of carbon dioxide.

Historic Levels

The amount of carbon dioxide, or CO2, in the earth's atmosphere has fluctuated over the history of the planet, according to a chart published by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or EPA, which shows the levels over the last almost 650,000 years. Scientists measure CO2 in parts per million, or ppm. As of 2006, the earth's atmosphere contains approximately 382 ppm of CO2, a number that has been rising and is the highest in the last 650,000 years. This number is historically low compared to the Jurassic Period.

Jurassic Levels

Scientists determine levels of CO2 and the climate in past eras of history by using a variety of measures, including ice core samples, tree rings and ocean sediments. Warm periods and higher levels of CO2 seem to coincide. During the Jurassic Period, the CO2 numbers were high, as would be expected by the warm temperatures and abundant plant life. High levels create a greenhouse warming effect, and plants thrive on carbon dioxide.

PPM

Estimates place the amount of carbon dioxide in the earth's atmosphere at seven times the levels prior to the industrial revolution, or around 1780. Pre-industrial levels were approximately 280 ppm, according to the EPA. That would make the Jurassic Period levels of carbon dioxide around 1,900 ppm.

Explanation

The Jurassic Period was a time of volcanic eruptions. Volcanoes send large amounts of materials into the atmosphere, including carbon dioxide. An explanation for the high levels of carbon dioxide involves numerous volcanic eruptions. These eruptions would have been much more intense and frequent than today's volcanoes. Over an extended period of time, this would explain the high levels of CO2.

Tags: Jurassic Period, carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide, earth atmosphere, high levels, levels carbon, amount carbon

Pharmacy Schools In Louisiana

Determining the proper dosage and type of medication is an essential part of a pharmacist's job.

There are many satisfying career options for those interested in the pharmaceutical industry.Pharmacists require a doctorate in Pharmacology while a pharmacy technician or assistant requires the passing of a certification test. The state of Louisiana plays host to many schools that provide for all of these programs.

University of Louisiana, Monroe College of Pharmacy

The University of Louisiana at Monroe is located in Monroe, Louisiana. The College of Pharmacy offers four basic degree programs, a B.S. in Toxicology, Doctor of Pharmacy, M.S. in multiple areas such as medicinal chemistry and pharmacology, and Ph.D. in multiple areas such as toxicology. The B.S. in Toxicology is a four year program that prepares students for careers as toxicologists or to enter pharmacy school. The Doctor of Pharmacy is a broad program that includes administrative, biological, clinical, pharmaceutical, and social sciences so that the graduate may be prepared to work in any setting from academic to industrial. The M.S. and Ph.D. degrees are designed to specialize students in one area of study. In order to be considered for admission to the College of Pharmacy, all applicants must complete the required prerequisites and University applications.

ULM College of Pharmacy

700 University Ave.

Monroe, LA 71209

318-342-3800

ulm.edu/pharmacy

Xavier University of Louisiana College of Pharmacy

The Xavior University of Louisiana College of Pharmacy is located in the city of New Orleans. The University is historically black and Catholic affiliated. The college focuses on the Pharm.D. degree which is designed to prepare students to work in "medically underserved communities" according the College's webpage. The curriculum includes physical, chemical, biological, and behavioral sciences, and management, a clinical component, and opportunities to participate in scientific research. In keeping with the University's mission, the College of Pharmacy is dedicated to the advancement of students', particularly African-American, impact on health care disparities. In order to be admitted into the College of Pharmacy all pre-requisites must be completed and all required forms filled out.

Xavier University of Louisiana

1 Drexel Drive

New Orleans, LA 70125

504-486-7411

xula.edu/cop

Louisiana State University, Alexandria Department of Allied Health

Louisiana State University, Alexandria is located in Alexandria. While not having a specific pharmacy school like Xavier University and ULM, Louisiana State University, Alexandria offers degrees in many health related fields. The Department of Allied Health offers three degrees, an A.S. in Clinical Laboratory Science, A.S. in Radiologic Technology, and a Certificate in Pharmacy Technology. The Certificate of Pharmacy Technology program consists of 40 credit hours that prepare students with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to work directly under a pharmacist in a retail, industrial, or long-term care setting. The curriculum in the Pharmacy Technology program is based on American Society of Health System Pharmacists' guidelines for Pharmacy Technology Programs and meets all requirements. In order to obtain their certificate, students must fully complete the program and pass the national certification exam.

Allied Health

8100 Hwy 71 South

Alexandria, LA 71302

318-473-6466

alliedhealth.lsua.edu

Tags: College Pharmacy, University Louisiana, Pharmacy Technology, Allied Health, Louisiana College

What College Courses Are Required For A Neonatologist

A neonatologist is a medical doctor trained in the evaluation and care of newborn babies, especially those in urgent care situations. Neonatologists are required to have at least four years of medical school, three years of residency in pediatrics, and another three years of intensive care training with newborns. If you're interested in studying to become a neonatologist, there are several core college courses you will have to take before you advance to a medical school.

Anatomy

Anatomy is the study of the human body and human organs, their structure and how they work together. Every pre-med student must have a solid foundation in anatomy in order to know the function of every organ in the human body. Core subjects include cell structure, skeletal system, muscular system, endocrine system, blood, tissues and cellular metabolism and reproduction. Medical school students are also required to take a clinical gross anatomy course, which allows students to study and dissect an actual human body to gain information about the organs visible to the eye such as the heart or the kidney.

Pathology

A course in pathology is a requirement for any pre-med student who wants to study pediatrics and specialize in neonatology. Pathology is the study of diseases, and pathogens such as bacteria, viruses and parasites. An introduction to pathology course at the pre-med level, gives students a working knowledge of how pathogens contribute to diseases, and gives a broad overview of human illnesses. Medical school students are also required to take courses in medical pathology, which provide comprehensive instruction in the mechanisms of disease and clinical manifestations of disease in organ systems.

Biology

Biology, the study of the structure, organization and evolution of living organisms, is one of the basic college courses required for entrance into any medical school. A biology course will cover subjects as diverse as cell biology, genetics, basic pharmacological principles, homeostasis, feedback, hormone receptors, immunology, nueronal signaling, cellular metabolic function and reproduction. Students in advanced programs will also have to take a course in molecular biology, the branch of biology specifically concentrating on the molecular basis of all biological activity such as protein synthesis, DNA replication and gene expression.

Chemistry

Chemistry, the study of the composition, properties and activities of organic and inorganic matter, is a basic college course required for anyone seeking to specialize in neonatology. Students will learn general chemistry principles such as bonding, molecular structure, thermodynamics, chemical reactivity and energetics. Students will also be required to take an organic chemistry course after learning the foundations of chemistry. Organic chemistry is a specialized branch of chemistry dealing with the structure, properties and reactions of carbon-containing matter.

Physics

Physics, the science involved with matter, space, energy and time, is often referred to as the foundation of all physical sciences including chemistry and geology. A physics course is a requirement for all pre-med students and will include education in quantum theory, electricity, magnetism, optics, kinetics, thermodynamics and mechanics.

Tags: also required, also required take, human body, required take, basic college, have take, Medical school

The History Of The Sierra Ancha Mountains

Ancient cliff dwellings in Arizona.

The Sierra Ancha mountain range is located in central Arizona's Gila County. Its remote location and numerous deep canyons prevent development. Unusually pristine, the Sierra Ancha mountains are home to a wealth of geological and archaeological information.

Archaeology

Hiking is a rewarding activity for those who are not intimated by the remote location.

The rock formations that make up the Sierra Ancha mountains are quartzite and limestone. Their presence indicates the area may have once been on the shores of an ancient sea. The archaeological wonders of the mountain range make it a place of untouched beauty for hikers who are not intimidated by the remote location.

Anthropology

The Sierra Ancha mountains cliff dwellings are home to the ruins of the Anchan and Salado, native American people. These dwellings were built between A.D. 1200 and A.D. 1300. and reach three stories in height in some areas. Built in this remote location, using the hard rock for protection, these native Americans were farmers. They grew corn, beans, and cotton on the canyon floor below.

Climate

High in the Sierra Ancha mountains, the average precipitation is 36 inches per year. This precipitation comes mainly in the form of snow fall. In lower elevations, rain accounts for approximately 20 inches per year.

Habitat

Juniper, Douglas fir and Ponderosa pine trees are the predominate vegetation in the Sierra Ancha Mountains. The dry, hot climate also makes it a perfect home for rattlesnakes.

Tags: Sierra Ancha, remote location, Sierra Ancha mountains, Ancha mountains, cliff dwellings, inches year, mountain range

Duties & Responsibilities Of An Environmental Technician

Environmental technicians help keep work sites safe.

The environmental technician plays a very important role in keeping our environment safe from hazardous materials and pollutants. His job involves testing, monitoring and disposal of materials considered to be a potential environmental threat if handled, stored or disposed of improperly. Most environmental technicians have an associate or bachelor's degree in environmental science, which includes classes in chemistry, climatology and geology. According to Bureau of Labor Statistics, jobs as an environmental technician are expected to increase by 21 percent by 2016. As of May 2006, environmental technicians earned an average of $40,560 per year.

Monitor Work Sites

The environmental technician tests water and soil samples.

The environmental technician works with environmental engineers and scientists to monitor a variety of work settings to ensure environmental and worker safety from pollution and hazardous chemicals. To do this effectively, she collects and tests soil, air and water samples, and looks for toxic gases, poisonous metals and radioactive material. As the environmental technician collects and tests these samples, she analyzes them for toxicity levels and reports her findings to the engineer or scientist with whom she is working.

Hazardous Waste Disposal

Proper disposal of hazardous waste is important to our environment.

When a pollutant or hazardous waste is found, it must be disposed of properly, so that it doesn't contaminate the environment or put workers at risk. There are many regulations with which the environmental technician must be in compliance, such as disposal into specific containers and receptacles with clearly marked hazardous waste warnings. Environmental technicians often work in managing waste operations and participate in keeping inventory of hazardous waste that's been collected. Documentation is very important in this area as is communication since the environmental technician must communicate with companies that will come to the work site to properly remove hazardous waste containers and materials.

Maintenance

A variety of equipment and tools are used by the environmental technician to collect, test and dispose of materials. These tools and equipment must be cleaned and maintained to keep them in good working order. Many tools require calibrating, which involves correcting the precision or accuracy of any tool that is used for measuring. This is very important since the environmental technician is relied upon for accurate testing and collecting results. Equipment in the laboratory must be cleaned and sterilized before it can be used on new specimens. Without this maintenance, new specimens could be tainted from prior samples leading to false conclusions about the new material being tested.

Tags: environmental technician, hazardous waste, environmental technician, very important, collects tests

College Scholarships For Mining Engineering Majors

Many mining engineering majors go on to lucrative careers in mining and mining technology, but it can still be difficult to find the initial money necessary to pay for a postsecondary degree. Luckily, there are a variety of scholarships specifically intended to support students pursuing a college degree in mining engineering. The Society for Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration is the major source for nationally-available mining engineering scholarships in the United States.

The Syd S. Peng Ground Control in Mining Scholarship

The Syd S. Peng Ground Control in Mining Scholarship is available to mining engineering students at both the undergraduate and graduate level. This scholarship is awarded in the amount of $5,000 or more. To be eligible, undergraduate students must be of at least junior standing and must be a member of the Society for Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration. A graduate applicant must be an SME member and must submit a graduate thesis or dissertation abstract. All applicants must submit a resume and a letter of nomination from a faculty member. The annual deadline for application is October 25.

The Gerald V. Henderson Industrial Minerals Memorial Scholarship

The Gerald V. Henderson Industrial Minerals Memorial Scholarship is available to a mining engineering student who is a member in good standing of the SME. This scholarship is available to students at all levels of study. To be eligible, a student must have at least a "B" average and must be able to demonstrate financial need. In addition to a completed application, an applicant must also submit two letters of reference. The annual application deadline is October 25.

The Mining & Exploration Division Scholarship

The SME makes the Mining & Exploration Division Scholarship available to mining engineering students in the amount of $1,500. To be eligible, a student must be in an undergraduate program of study, must be a student member of the SME and must be a citizen or permanent resident of the United States. An applicant must submit two letters of reference from professors, employers or other persons within the mining industry. Applications must be received by October 25.

The McIntosh Engineering Scholarship

The McIntosh Engineering Scholarship is available to undergraduate mining engineering students who are entering their junior year. This scholarship awards $5,000 for a recipient's junior year and $7,000 for a recipient's senior year, for a total award of $12,000. To be eligible, a student must be a student member of the Society for Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration, and must have a GPA of at least 2.75. In addition to a completed scholarship application, prospective applicants must also submit two letters of reference. The annual deadline for application is April 1.

Tags: mining engineering, Scholarship available, applicant must, available mining, available mining engineering, eligible student

Sources Of Earth'S Water

Water exists just about everywhere on Earth.

Water exists just about everywhere on Earth. Of the Earth's 331 million cubic miles of total water, 96.5 percent is found in the oceans. Of the remaining freshwater, most is locked up in glaciers and icecaps or found in groundwater and surface water. One theory suggests that much of Earth's water actually came from comets and asteroids hitting the planet over billions of years.

Oceans

Seen from space the Earth appears blue because of the oceans, which dominate 70.8 percent or 139 million square miles of the surface. The average depth of these seas is 2.4 miles and maximum depths can reach 6.2 miles in several ocean trenches. While the oceans contain 96.5 percent of the Earth's water, it is unevenly distributed. The ratio of land to ocean in the Northern Hemisphere is one to one and a half while in the Southern Hemisphere it's one to four. Because it has more ocean surface, the climate of Southern Hemisphere is often more moderate than the Northern Hemisphere.

Fresh Water

Glaciers contain much of Earth's fresh water.

Only about 3 percent of all Earth's water is freshwater. The majority of this -- about 68 percent - is stored in polar icecaps, glaciers, and permanent snow, mainly in Greenland and Antarctica. Another 30 percent of the Earth's freshwater is actually under the ground in saturated geologic formations, much of it unattainable. The remaining 0.3 percent is contained in rivers and lakes - about 22,300 cubic miles - where most of the water we use everyday exists.

The Water Cycle

The Earth's water exists in a "closed system" much like a terrarium. This means the planet neither gains nor loses the available water, and the same water that existed millions of years ago still exists. This is due to a water cycle that recycles the water all around the globe. This water may begin as ice from a glacier that melts and flows into a river. That river water may flow into a lake or the ocean. Evaporation then turns that water into vapor that rises into the atmosphere where it forms clouds. Finally, those clouds turn into storms and drop the water as either rain or snow and the cycle continues.

Ancient Origins

Comets have have supplied Earth's water.

Scientists estimate that large amounts of water have flowed on Earth for the past 3.8 billion years, and water is believed to have initially surfaced through the eruptions of ancient volcanoes. A 2006 study by the University of Hawaii provided evidence that icy comets may have served as a major source for Earth's water as they crashed into the Earth over millions of years. A second study, reported in the April 28, 2010 issue of Discovery News, found the first evidence of ice on asteroids. With that study, scientists are now suggesting that both comets and asteroids crashing into the Earth four billion years ago supplied the planet's first water.

Tags: Earth water, percent Earth, about everywhere, about everywhere Earth, about percent

The Classification Of Carbonate Porosity

Coral reefs demonstrate primary porosity in carbonates.

Carbonates are minerals that include the carbonate ion, a compound of carbon and oxygen. They are biological materials and deposit close to their original organism's habitat. Carbonates are mollusk shells, animal and fish bones and coral skeletons. These sediments contain nearly half of the world oil and gas reserves and more than half of its water. Porosity is a measure of spaces, or pores, in a volume of rock. Carbonate rocks are very susceptible to textural change and their porosity changes over time.

Primary Porosity

Primary porosity in carbonates occurs during the initial deposition of carbonate sediments usually in warm, shallow seas along continental shelves. These sediments derive from the physical and chemical breakdown of microorganism skeletons. The voids between the deposited particles create the rock's porosity. Coral reefs grow in shallow warm seas and have the chemical composition of calcium carbonate. The spaces between branches of coral reefs are another form of primary porosity.

Secondary Porosity

The deposition of carbonate sediment gradually buries older deposits. As the volume of sediment grows, rainwater replaces the original seawater between the grains of the carbonate deposits. Rainwater is mildly acidic because it dissolves atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrous oxides. These mild acids dissolve some of the carbonate sediments and cement them together. This process is dissolution and it reduces the space between grains, creating secondary porosity.

Dolomitization

Another stage of secondary porosity occurs when the carbonate sediment comes into contact with magnesium-rich water. The chemical reaction produces a carbonate of magnesium and calcium popularly known as "dolomite." Magnesium is present in arid coastlines such as the Persian Gulf. Over time, dolomite forms crystals that increase the space between the grains of the original sediment and increase the deposit's overall porosity.

Fracturing

Carbonate deposits are brittle substances. They do not bend easily in response to Earth movements but fracture and break. These fractures may range between tiny breaks invisible to the naked eye, to wide crevasses. Fractures create another version of secondary porosity. Most of Iran's oil and gas reserves are present in such carbonate fractures.

Tags: between grains, carbonate sediment, carbonate sediments, deposition carbonate, porosity carbonates, primary porosity, secondary porosity

Landforms Of Illinois

Glaciers are the source of many Illinois landforms.

The state of Illinois has a vast history of glacier movements and other historical events that have shaped its geography, leaving behind a number of distinctive landforms. These landforms support the agriculture of Illinois and are tourist attractions for locals and visitors alike.

The Charles Mound

The Charles Mound is the highest natural point in the state. Located a quarter mile from the Wisconsin border, this 1,235-foot-tall landform is a popular attraction within the state. The mound lies inside of the Driftless Area, a region of Illinois and surrounding states that was not covered or compressed by the last of round of continental glaciers. Charles Mound is currently located within a vast area of farmland. As of 2011, the land owners allow public access only on the first full weekends of the months of June through September.

The Central Plains

The Central Plains region of Illinois is an area that covers a little more than 90% of the entire state. This gently rolling landform of Illinois was created when many glaciers during the Ice Age carved, molded and leveled the area into what is still visible today. The Central Plains start at the Western side of Lake Michigan and run south through the state. This landform is divided into three specific sections: the Great Lakes Plains, the Till Plains and the Driftless Plains.

The Great Lakes Plains

The Great Lakes Plains is a low, flat stretch of land along Lake Michigan that was once covered by the waters of Lake Michigan. This area of fertile lowland runs along the entire shoreline of the Great Lakes from Wisconsin through Ohio. Today the lake has receded, and this landform is composed of small hills, lakes and marshes. This area of dark, rich soil is sometimes called the Moraine Region because moraines are hills of soil and rocks that were deposited by melting glaciers at the end of the last ice age.

The Gulf Coastal Plains

The Gulf Coastal Plains is an Illinois landform located in the southern-most area of the state. This land between the Eastern Ohio River and the Western Mississippi River is sometimes referred to as "Egypt" because it shares a close resemblance to the great Nile Delta. South of the Shawnee Hills, the Gulf Coastal Plain becomes hilly, but flattens out toward the Illinois border with the state of Kentucky.

Tags: Great Lakes, Central Plains, Charles Mound, Great Lakes Plains, Gulf Coastal, Lake Michigan

What Are Gorges & Canyons

The Grand Canyon is America's most famous gorge.

Canyons and gorges are some of the earth's most conspicuous features. The 150-mile long Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon of China is one of most notable as it bends and slices through the eastern Himalayas. Nepal's Kali Gandaki Gorge is the world's deepest with a difference of 22,310-feet from its highest peak to the Gankaki River's surface. The 6,000 foot deep Grand Canyon is 277 miles long and exposes two billion years worth of rock layers. Mexico's Copper Canyon, or Barranca del Cobre, is comprised of a system of six canyons cut into the Sierra Tarahumara Mountains.

Canyons

Canyons, gorges, ravines and chasms are geological features that cut into the bedrock to form deep rifts in the earth. Canyons exhibit a wide diversity of forms and topography. Given enough time, canyons will eventually erode into expansive valleys. Canyons, even those in arid regions often feature a river at their bottom. The rocky formations of canyons and gorges are some of the most remarkable landforms on the planet and are a testament to the erosive power of water.

Formation

Canyons and gorges are essentially deep cuts in the earth's crust. Running water is the erosive force behind their formation. Rivers carry hard granular rock particles that wear away at the bedrock over long periods of time until a crevice is carved out of the solid rock. Canyons located in the dry American Southwest are subject to flash floods from the heavy runoff of the parched, crusted soil. The rushing waters carry larger rocks that knock loose more of the canyon walls, enlarging the gorge.

Geology

Many canyons occur in uplifted plateaus with elevations of 1,500 feet or more. Plateaus such as the Colorado Plateau are the remnants of eroded mountains that were formed by the uplifting actions of plate tectonics. Water draining off the steep sides of the plateau over millions of years scour channels in the underlying soft sedimentary rock. Variously aged layers of rock erode differently, giving canyons and gorges their distinctive colors and shapes.

Types

Slot canyons are very narrow deep gorges cut into the sandstone of the plateaus. Slot canyons100 to 200 foot deep may be as little as 3 feet across at the surface. They are carved by periodic high-volume flash floods. Box canyons form when a spring at the base of a permeable rock cliff seeps into the stone and leaks out the cliff's sides causing them to collapse. The heads of box canyons are dead ends, with three sides featuring cliffs.

Differences

Most geologists agree that canyons and gorges are essentially the same thing. They are variations of a valley with steep-sided walls and a river flowing through its bottom. To some geologists the difference is a matter of scale; canyons are bigger than gorges. Some geologists define canyons as chasms located on arid plateaus at least 1,500 feet tall. They must have at least one steep-sided wall. The term canyon is used in the United States while Europeans prefer the word gorge.

Tags: Grand Canyon, canyons gorges, flash floods, foot deep, gorges essentially, gorges some

Purchase Mineral Rights

When purchasing a plot of land or a house on a plot of land, the buyer must look at exactly what rights go with that land, Those may be only "surface rights" --meaning the buyer acquires control of the land surface but may not be able to drill wells or extract minerals. For that, she must hold "mineral rights." The most common type of mineral rights arrangement is a mining lease, enabling the lessee to extract the minerals for a certain period of time.

Instructions

1. Research geological surveys and interview mining operators and other companies that specialize in mineral deposit locations to find property that has minerals beneath it. Your local property records office can help you get started.

2. Perform a title search on the property to discover who holds the mineral rights to the land. Visit the property records office and ask for help if you need it. Typically, you search backwards in time according to the last names of the people who transferred and received the property.

3. Contact the mineral rights owner and ask if he is willing to sell or lease you the rights.

4. Negotiate the transaction. Discuss how long you want the rights for, how you intend to extract the minerals, and other items such as how much you will pay for the rights and whether the owner will receive any royalties on profit made from selling the minerals.

5. Reach an agreement and tender the purchase price. Comply with the terms of the agreement.

Tags: mineral rights, extract minerals, office help, plot land, property records, property records office

Differences Between Slabs & Plates

A slab is a portion of a tectonic plate that is being pushed under another slab. This process is called subduction, and the area where it is occurring is called the subduction zone. Plates are huge pieces of the Earth's crust and uppermost mantle (lithosphere) and are 50 to 250 miles thick. They drift over the Earth at a pace up to 100 mm a year. Sometimes they push together or one rises on top of the other.

Movement

Slabs are responsible for about half of the movement of tectonic plates. As slabs move down into the mantle, which is a layer of molten rock, their gravity provides the energy for the movement of the plates. This happens when one plate is sliding under another one.

Density

There is a difference in density and therefore the buoyancy between the slab and the crust of the plate. This causes slab suction force and also affects the motions of the plate. As the slab contributes its lithospheric material into the mantle, it affects the flow of the currents in the mantle. So there are two different forces: the slab pull from the upper mantle slabs and the slab suction from the lower mantle slabs. Slabs move the plates by both of these forces.

Volcanism

Slabs can contribute to volcanism, which is any activity related to the magma rising from the mantle and pushing through the crust. This activity usually causes volcanoes. If the viscosity of the magma is very thick, it will cause an explosive eruption. If it is thin, it will just flow onto the surrounding area of a volcano. Slabs contribute to this with flux melting. This happens when a volatile material such as water comes into contact with very hot solid rock. The water or other material decreases the melting point of the hot rock. The slab is the source of these volatile materials.

Earthquakes

The movement of plates can cause earthquakes, which happen where plates drift apart, where they scrape against one another, or where one is thrusting against another so that one winds up above the other. A huge amount of friction occurs when one plate scrapes along the edge of another. This usually causes earthquakes without volcanic activity.

Tags: against another, called subduction, happens when, into mantle, mantle slabs, movement plates, slab suction

Figure Out Plunge Direction

Studying plunge directions can clarify rock formations, such as icebergs.

In the study of the earth's rock formations, rock deformation plays an integral role. One type of rock deformation occurs when the rocks and strata fold under stress. Folding has various types of symmetry that impact how the earth is shaped and how geological formations occur. Plunging folds occur on an incline from a horizontal plane in the formation. The direction in which the plunge occurs is important for analyzing the earth's underground map and understanding future formation changes.

Instructions

1. Divide the fold into cross sections by finding the central axis that runs down the center of the fold. This line is vertical and cuts the fold in half. Use a ruler and pencil to create straight lines.

2. Identify the horizontal plane that travels downward to the fold axis. Draw this horizontal line so you can visualize it. The fold axis starts at the top point of the fold. A straight, horizontal line is drawn from the top point and down toward the point where the line would meet the curved strike line of the diagram. Angle the ruler at these points to draw a straight line.

3. Follow the fold axis. When a fold is plunging, the plunge direction travels along the same plane as the fold axis, which is how you know what the plunge direction is.

4. Draw the axial plane, which also begins at the top point of the fold. The axial plane runs back, maintaining the same plane and levels as the fold.

5. Calculate the angle between the fold axis and the axial plane to figure out the angle of the plunge. Use a protractor to measure the angle.

Tags: fold axis, axial plane, horizontal line, horizontal plane, plunge direction, point fold, rock deformation

Sculpture Techniques In Land Art

Typically, land art is the use of materials found in the environment to change a place in a way that could be considered artistic. Robert Smithson's well known earthwork in Utah is a typical example. Artists also employ other materials not usually found in the environment , such as bread, in the case of Peter Hutchinson's "Paricutin Volcano Project." Whether some of the techniques used in land art constitute art or environmental vandalism is debatable.

Double Negative

According to noted art critic Thomas Buser, contemporary sculptor Michael Heizer used power shovels and bulldozers to create his work "Double Negative" in 1969 in the Moapa Valley, Nevada. The work consists of a long trench, created by the displacement of about a quarter of a million tons of earth. The excavated material was dumped into a canyon.

Roden Crater

Artist James Turrell bought an extinct volcano from Hopi Indians in Arizona's Painted Desert. He aims to create something akin to an ancient observatory where visitors can explore the interplay of light and space. In the first phase of the project, Turrell had to move 1.3 million cubic yards of earth. Wanting to create an area of exposed geology akin to the Grand Canyon, Turrell shaped the huge Crater Bowl. He also dug the 854 feet long Alpha (East) Tunnel.

Spiral Jetty

Robert Smithson famously created the earthwork "Spiral Jetty" at Rozel Point on Utah's Great Salt Lake. Using mud, salt crystals and rocks from the area, Smithson created a coil, or spiral, 1,500 feet in length and 15 feet wide. The work has a long straight section leading from the edge of the lake. Smithson then created the coil, in a counterclockwise direction. From the air, it is not unlike a decorative, lower case "b."

Foraging

In 1971, land artist Peter Hutchinson traveled through Colorado's Snowmass Wilderness, with an assistant, as part of a work called "Foraging." The project included making the word "Foraging" in rocks. Hutchinson filmed this part. Later, the pair rearranged wild strawberries to say "The End." Hutchinson filmed this too. In the film, his assistant then starts to remove the strawberries. This is meant to represent the destruction of "the end" and how time is renewed.

Tags: created coil, Double Negative, filmed this, found environment, Hutchinson filmed, Hutchinson filmed this, Peter Hutchinson