Topographical Map Making

Topographical Map Making

Topographical maps depict the three-dimensional features of the earth on a two-dimensional surface. Topo maps show the shape of the surface of the earth in mountains, hills, and valleys through the use of contour lines. These maps also include man-made and natural water features as well as roads and boundaries. Topographical maps are based on a latitude and longitude grid and are used to form the basis for elevation measurements accurately throughout the United States. Updating these maps requires precise planning and the regular application of new features for accuracy.

Significance

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) creates topographical maps for use by government agencies as well as geologists and private individuals such as hikers and campers. These maps function as the basis for measuring elevation around the country with a geographic grid, allow for precise positioning and planning. In addition, topo maps are often used as the base for any number of other maps. These extremely precise terrain maps show natural and man-made features at a large scale to include landscape details.

Creating these maps involves thousands of man-hours of planning, application and update. Topo maps were initially hand-constructed. The mathematics of the geographical grids were hand computed and drawn in the past, as were all of the topography and features. These original base topographical maps that cover the United States are the basis for future digital cartographic updates.

Construction

The construction of topographical maps involves placing features based on exact geographical position. As a result, collecting accurate data is the first step in topographical map making. Control points depicting accurate elevation and position form the basis for the investigation and placement of every item on a topo map.

Most topographic map features are added based on aerial photography. Planes fly during clear weather, often during the winter when trees are free of leaves to track changes in the surface features. Planes take two sets of photos from different flight paths at exact altitudes. Using control points for positioning accuracy, mapmakers view these photos with a stereoscope to see the images in three-dimensions.

Topo mapmakers always have an eye out for changes in charted details. Map makers verify positions of new features such as boundaries, buildings as well as any significant changes to the maps. The verification process must meet high standards for accuracy of details as well as geographic positioning.

Once details are confirmed, map makers hand scribe charting changes onto base maps. These base maps include as many as 10 layers in different colors based on the feature type. Cartographers etch changes into individual layers which later become the print negatives used in the printing process. From start to finish, it takes 5 years to construct a topographic map.

Features

Each color on the topographic map represents a different type of map feature. Contour lines and terrain are brown. Topo mapmakers depict water in blue and forests in green. Minor roads and highways are shown in black and major roads are shown in red. Any changes between editions are depicted in purple to stand out clearly. There is a standardized "legend" for all features depicted on topographic maps.

Scale

Topographical map making is based on the measurement of the relationship between the earth and the surface of the map. This measurement, called the map scale, represents a ratio referring to one inch versus a comparative distance on the earth's surface. The most detailed topographic maps are 1:24,000-scale charts. In essence, one inch on the map equals 2,000 feet on the earth. Scale is standardized on topographic maps with the most detailed charts labeled as "large-scale" maps.

Coverage

The USGS has a continuous series of charts for the lower United States and Hawaii at the 1:24,000 scale. These charts are called quadrangles because each represents a four-sided depiction of 7.5 minutes of latitude and 7.5 minutes of longitude. These topographic quads continue with seamless coverage when two connecting maps are placed side by side.

Tags: topographic maps, topographical maps, United States, base maps, earth surface, form basis

Average Starting Salary For Undergraduates

Starting salaries for undergraduates depend on several factors.

Average starting salaries for job seekers with undergraduate degrees vary widely depending on the field of study. The factors that go into a recent graduate's starting salary include the college major, the the type of employment obtained post-graduation and the kind of institution the graduate goes to work for--a private company or firm, local or federal government, or a nonprofit organization.

Majors and Degrees

Different majors correspond to different starting salaries.

In the job market, a recent graduate's major greatly impacts his starting salary. Social science majors such as psychology and sociology fell on the lower end of the pay scale with salaries in the $30,000 range in 2009. Engineering degrees such as chemical engineering and computer science placed graduates near the top at close to $60,000. Majors such as information technology, marketing and architecture tended to fall in the middle with salaries between $40,000 and $50,000.

Jobs With Top Starting Salaries

Aerospace engineering offers one of the top starting salaries.

On average, engineers are the best compensated in their starting salary. On the very top are those who obtained degrees in aerospace engineering, chemical engineering, and computer engineering and started their careers in 2009 with average starting salaries between $55,000 and $59,000. Meanwhile, degrees in physics, computer science, nursing and economics hover near the top of the pay spectrum at salaries in the low $50,000 range in 2009.

Jobs in the Middle of the Pay Scale

Most degrees generally fall in the wide span of the middle of the pay spectrum. General non-engineering-based sciences such as chemistry, geology and biology majors find themselves in this area of the pay scale with average starting salaries of between $40,000 and $45,000 in 2009, as well as those with business degrees such as accounting, finance, and business management who earned between $45,000 and $50,000. Other majors that land in this range include international relations, architecture, environmental science and medical technology.

Jobs at the Lower End of the Pay Scale

Majors in social sciences and humanities tend to fall at the bottom of the pay scale including those with degrees in psychology, sociology, history and art, who typically earn just over $30,000 starting off in 2009. Communications and related majors join them, including those with degrees in English and journalism. Some professional degrees such as education and social work also fall in this area.

Types of Positions by Salary

While the subject of study has a great deal of influence, the actual post-graduation position significantly impacts that salary. The type of job a person lands often correlates to his major. Chemical engineering jobs, for example, are only offered to those with degrees in chemical engineering. A degree in social work is mostly likely to lead to a career as a social worker. However, many positions are flexible in the types of education they require. A paralegal might have a degree in history or something else largely unrelated, just as many social science majors go into banking. The ability to land a position outside a particular field of study depends on the level of specific skill required for the job and the amount of on-the-job training the employer offers.

Types of Employment by Salary

Starting salaries also depend on whether the work is private, government, or non-profit.

Those going to work in a private industry usually make a larger starting salary than those who take jobs with nonprofits. Federal employees also tend to earn a greater beginning salary than those who go to work for a municipal government or nonprofit. Choosing what type of institution, whether it is a large company, a small firm, any level of government or a nonprofit, can help in determining what the starting salary will be regardless of major. For example, a finance major who works at a major bank on Wall Street will likely make significantly more--as much as $134,000 in 2009-- than one who works for a small town government, who made between $35,000 and $55,000 in 2009.

Future Salary

Another consideration for recent college grads is the rate at which their starting salary will increase, which varies by field. A college graduate with a degree in economics or math, for example, will more likely see his salary double by midcareer than someone with a degree in business.

Tags: starting salary, those with, chemical engineering, degrees such, government nonprofit

Average Salary Of A Registered Professional Geologist

Registered professional geologists are required to pass a state administered professional geology exam to be certified.

Registered professional geologists generally make larger salaries than geologists who are not registered. To become a registered professional geologist, you must have at least a bachelor's degree in an appropriate field and four years of professional experience, and pass the license exam for geology administered at the state level. As of 2011, 28 states in the United States administered exams for professional geology.

Registered Geologists in Petroleum

Registered geologists who specialize in petroleum exploration are the highest paid in their field. According to Geomore.com, a registered geologist with a bachelor's degree and 3 to 5 years of experience in the petroleum field can make an average of $99,000 per year. This is salary only and does not include benefits or bonuses. The majority of geologists in the petroleum industry have a master's degree. Geologists who are registered and have a PhD garner even great salaries, bringing in an average of $153,000 per year with 3 to 5 years of experience.

Registered Geologists in Mining

According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, the average salary for a mining and geological engineer ranged from $48,950 to $129,700. Registered geologists who specialize in mining will use their skills to make geological and topographical surveys of the earth and may be responsible for assisting with mine safety evaluations. The salaries for these positions may vary with location and also vary with experience and level of education.

Registered Geologists in the Public Sector

Registered geologists who work in the public sector in the oil and gas industry may make lower salaries than in the private sector, but still garner substantial wages. According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, in 2010 the average salary of a public sector geologist in oil and gas extraction was approximately $55 per hour or about $129,000 per year. Education, experience and a professional license all contribute to a higher salary in the private and public sectors. Public sector geologists may work for federal organizations, like the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration as well as in the military.

Considerations

As a registered geologist, your salary is dependent on your education level, experience and where you live, and whether you work in the public or the private sector. According to Geomore.com, the most significant contributing factor to wages in the geology field are education and experience. Education also includes certification or registration as a professional geologist by the National Association of State Boards of Geology. As a geologist, it is well worth the time and effort to obtain your professional certification.

Tags: According Bureau, According Bureau Labor, According Geomore, average year, bachelor degree, Bureau Labor

Climate & Weather Influences On Geology

Wind and water can erode rocks, such as sea cliffs, with which they come in contact.

Geology is the scientific study of the Earth's evolution from its creation 4.6 billion years ago to the present day. It comprises all physical and chemical processes that contribute to the creation, composition and structure of rocks. This involves the study of earthquakes, volcanoes, sedimentation and erosion. It includes the investigation of changes in flora, fauna and climate over the 4.6 billion year geological record. Applications of modern geology include exploration for hydrocarbons and minerals, stone aggregates and building materials. Environmental protection, urban development and waste disposal require knowledge of geologic processes and principles.

Temperature

High temperatures cause rocks to heat up and expand. The heat penetrates only a surface layer of the rock that flakes away in the process. Sharp changes of temperature create thermal stress within the rock and make it expand and contract. This stress splits rocks along joints or lines of weakness and eventually, disintegrates the rock mass.

Precipitation

Rain falling towards Earth dissolves carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and produces a mildly acidic solution. When this falls on limestone rocks, it creates grooves and ridges as the rain dissolves the rock material. Rainfall dissolves feldspar, a silica compound that is present in all rocks and is the most common mineral in the Earth's crust, and transforms it into clay.

River Flow

Water accumulates in rivers as a result of precipitation and snow melt. Rivers flow downhill and carve out steep-sided valleys. They carry sediments downstream and deposit them in plains and deltas. A river flood plain is a flattened valley floor where the river meanders in a snake-like fashion, eroding rock and sediment on its convex side, and depositing sediment on its concave side.

Glaciation

A glacier moving down a mountain side.

Glaciers are rivers of ice are the powerful version of precipitation. They are able to cut and carve through rock to form sharp ridges of rock and broad U-shaped valleys. A glacier forms in the freezing temperatures at the top of high mountain ranges. As it moves down the mountain, it carries a mixture of broken rocks and soil until it reaches a lower elevation and higher temperatures where it melts. Ice ages are periods of global cooling when sheets of ice cover whole continents and move from the Earth's North and South Poles towards the Equator. The Earth was entirely covered in ice during the Permian -- Triassic mass extinction period that occurred between 290 million and 252 million years ago. The ice cover caused the extinction of 95 percent of the Earth's species.

Wind

Wind blows sand and sculpts exposed rocks. It reworks particles of rock into smaller pieces, carries them as sand and dust, and deposits them in another location. In desert regions, wind transport creates moving sand dunes. After wind erosion, rocks are more vulnerable to penetration by water and ice.

Tags: down mountain

Job Description For A Geoscientist

Geoscientists study aspects of the earth.

Geoscientists study the earth through researching the planet's structure, physical composition, natural processes and history. Geoscientists play an important role in society. These scientists apply geology, physics and mathematics to solve environmental problems. Research may contribute toward solutions in environmental protection, resource management, safety, public health and welfare.

Roles

Geoscientists have a variety of duties, depending on their employer and specialization. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, geoscientists use sophisticated equipment and instruments to analyze the composition of earth, rock and water. Many seek natural resources, such as petroleum, metals and groundwater. Others work with environmental scientists to clean the environment. According to the American Geological Institute, the National Science Foundation considers the following areas major geoscience subdisciplines: geophysics, geology, hydrology, marine science, oceanography, atmospheric science, meteorology, planetary science, soil science and environmental science.

Environment

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, geoscientists can spend much of their time in the field examining Earth formations, collecting data, conducting surveys, creating field maps and using equipment to measure the earth's magnetic or gravitational field. Such field work requires geoscientists to work irregular and long hours in all types of weather. In laboratories, geoscientists may study specimens. Some geoscientists work in an office where they write reports or enter data.

Education

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, a bachelor's degree in geosciences or a related bachelor's degree with a concentration in geosciences may be the minimum requirement for a few entry-level job positions. Most geoscientists need a master's degree. A Ph.D. is a requirement for advanced teaching and research positions in college institutions.

Salary

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, geoscientists earned a national mean hourly wage of $44.57 and a national mean annual wage of $92,710 in May 2009. Industries that employed the highest number of geoscientists included architectural, engineer and related services with an annual mean wage of $76,220; oil and gas extraction, $136,270; management, scientific and technical consulting services, $73,920; state government, $62,550; and the federal executive branch, $94,560.

Job Outlook

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, employment for geoscientists is expected to grow faster than average at a rate of 18 percent through 2018. Job applicants with a master's degree in geoscience are expected to have excellent job opportunities. On the other hand, candidates who hold a Ph.D. and are applying for research and college teaching jobs will face fierce competition.

Tags: According Bureau, According Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor Statistics, Labor Statistics, Labor Statistics geoscientists

Atv Trails In Black Hills

ATV

ATVs or all-terrain vehicles are a popular mode of transportation and recreation in the Black Hills wilderness area of western South Dakota. In general, ATVs are allowed on logging trails and fire roads but not on hiking trails in the Black Hills.

Black Hills National Forest

Established in 1897 by President Grover Cleveland, the Black Hills National Forest is a beautiful and historic area of parks, canyons, trails and lakes. In particular, the forest has more than 450 miles of total trails for both ATV riders and hikers. ATVs and other motorized vehicles can use the logging trails and fire roads; 80 percent of the forest is open seasonally to ATV riders (and 60 percent is open year-round). The Black Elk Wilderness area does not allow any motorized vehicles.

Black Hills National Forest

1019 N. Fifth St.

Custer, SD 57730

605-673-9200

fs.fed.us/r2/blackhills/maps/recguide3x.shtml

Centennial Trail

Centennial Trail is 111 miles of ATV trails, running from South Dakota's legendary Wind Cave to Bear Butte with stunning wildlife, geology and plant life along the way. The Centennial Trail, or Trail 89 as it's known by locals, also includes more than 30 trail heads for great access.

Centennial Trail

26611 U.S. Highway 385

Hot Springs, SD 57747

605-745-4600

sdgfp.info/Parks/Regions/Custer/centennial_trail_brochure.pdf

Bear Lodge Ranger District

Just across the South Dakota border in the Wyoming portion of the Black Hills, the Bear Lodge Ranger District includes about 10 miles of trails, the North Blacktail ATV Trails, as well as a variety of additional recreational options. While shorter than the other trails, Wyoming residents and others hunting, camping or snowmobiling in the area can enjoy a quick ATV ride on a great trail.

Bearlodge Ranger District

121 South 21st St.

P.O. Box 680

Sundance, WY 82729-0680

307-283-1361

sundancewyoming.com/bhnf.htm

Tags: Black Hills, Centennial Trail, Black Hills National, Hills National, Hills National Forest, National Forest

Properties Of Apatite Stone

Apatite has several uses. Its most common function stems from high phosphorus content: the creation of fertilizer. It can also fluoridate water and provide protection against rust. Apatite also has the ability to screen radiation. According to the Washington State Department of Ecology, apatite chemically attracts strontium-90, a radioactive isotope that can pose long-term health risks.

Hardness

On the Mohs scale of mineral hardness, apatite ranks at 5, according to Geology.com. Talc ranks at 1, and diamond at 10. Apatite has the ability to scratch glass, but a steel knife can scratch it.

Luster

Luster refers to the way light interacts with the surface of a crystal. Apatite's luster can range from vitreous to subresinous. Vitreous luster resembles glass, meaning it has a high transparency. Resinous or subresinous luster, on the other hand, gives the crystal a more translucent appearance, similar to honey.

Cleavage and Crystal Structure

The cleavage of a mineral determines how smoothly fractures occur. Apatite has a poor cleavage--its fracture edges feel rough to the touch because it lacks planes of weakness. Apatite has a hexagonal crystalline structure. Therefore, individual pieces of apatite will naturally occur in a roughly hexagonal shape.

Streak

The streak of a mineral refers to the color of powdered residue it leaves behind when rubbed against a non-glazed ceramic surface. According to the San Diego Natural History Museum, the streak of a mineral never changes even if it has impurities. Apatite leaves a white streak.

Chemical Composition

The chemical composition of a mineral determines its crystalline structure. Geology.com states that apatite belongs to the calcium phosphate group. Some of the other elements that compose it include fluorine, chlorine and carbon. All forms of apatite have molecular structures of five calcium atoms bonded to three groups each of one phosphorus atom and four oxygen atoms.

Tags: crystalline structure, mineral determines, streak mineral

Atvs At Lake Murray State Park In Oklahoma

Built in the 1930s, south-central Oklahoma's Lake Murray State Park was the first state park constructed in the Sooner State and, at 12,500 acres, it also is the largest. Set on the shores of its namesake lake just south of Ardmore, the park is home to a number of water sports activities and many other recreational amenities, including a system of ATV trails and a campground for ATV riders.

Rules and Regulations

The ATV riding area at Lake Murray State Park (travelok.gov) is open year-round from early morning to sundown. The trails are restricted to motorcycles, and three-wheel and four-wheel ATVs. Golf carts, dune buggies and other larger four-wheel-drive vehicles are not allowed. ATV operators and passengers under age 18 must wear a helmet, and double riding is not allowed unless the vehicle has a seat specifically made for a passenger. A daily fee is charged to access the trails, but ATV/ORV flags are not required.

ATV Trails

Lake Murray State Park's ATV area lies in the northeast section of the park and is home to 10 miles of trails that wind through, up and over a variety of terrain, including wooded and open areas, sand, gullies and hills. The 1,000-acre ATV area is fenced, except where it is bordered by the lake. The trails are rated easy to moderate in difficulty. The ATV area has a large day-use parking lot and restroom facilities.

Campgrounds/Lodging

The ATV Campground is one of nine campgrounds at Lake Murray State Park, which has 323 campsites for RVs and another 500 tent-only sites -- all available on a first-come, first-serve basis. Open year-round, the ATV Campground lies just north of the ATV area, and has 29 RV sites with full hookups, including 12 pull-through sites, plus 10 primitive RV sites with no hookups, and 15 tent sites with electric and water. For camping information, call the park office at 580-223-4044. Campsites have grills and picnic tables, and campground amenities include a playground, restrooms and RV dump station. Other overnight options include the 52-room Lake Murray Lodge, and 56 cabins, ranging from one-room cottages that sleep two, to three-bedroom family cabins that sleep 10. To reserve a cabin or lodge room, call 800-257-0322.

Other Amenities and Activities

The most distinctive structure at Lake Murray State Park is the Tucker Tower, a stone tower on the lake's southern shore constructed in the 1930s as a summer residence for Oklahoma governors. The tower now is used as the park's nature center, which has a collection of wildlife and geological exhibits. Lake Murray is the park's recreational focal point. A concessionaire, Lake Murray Water Sports (lakemurraywatersports.com), rents paddleboats, canoes, kayaks, sailboats, jet skis and other water-sports equipment. Park amenities include a 450-slip marina, 10 boat launches, three swimming beaches, an 18-hole golf course, disc golf and miniature golf courses, tennis courts, 300 picnic tables, nine playgrounds, four hiking trails, riding stables, and 10 miles of equestrian trails. The park even has a 2,500-foot-long airstrip and remote-control airplane field.

Tags: Lake Murray, Lake Murray State, Murray State, Murray State Park, State Park, sites with

Where Is Yellowstone National Park Located

Where Is Yellowstone National Park Located?

Yellowstone National Park is located in the western United States, with most of the park's acreage in the far northwestern corner of Wyoming. Small areas of the park extend into Montana and Idaho, as well.

Geography

Yellowstone National Park is located mostly in the northwestern corner of Wyoming, with small parts in Montana to the north and northwest, and in Idaho to the west. The park is surrounded by other national treasures. It is situated just north of Grand Teton National Park, Bridger-Teton National Forest and the Teton Wilderness Area. To the southeast is the Shoshone National Forest and due east is the North Absaroka Wilderness area. To the north is the Gallatin National Forest and Custer National Forest. In Idaho, to the west, is the Targhee National Forest and to the southwest, the Caribou National Forest.

Identification

The only park entrance that is open all year to vehicle traffic is at the north side on Highway 89 through Gardiner, Montana. People also can enter at the west through West Yellowstone, Montana, which is the busiest entrance. Other entrances are to the northeast at Silver Gate, Montana, or at the south from Moran or east through Cody. The entrances other than Gardiner are open from mid-April to early November. Yellowstone National Park passes are also good for Grand Teton National Park and last for seven days.

Features

Yellowstone was the first of the United States' national parks, established in 1872. It comprises 2,219,789 acres, or 3,472 square miles, and 96 percent of its land is in Wyoming. The park offers majestic mountain scenery and over 300 active geysers, among which is the most popular in the world--Old Faithful. There also are over 290 waterfalls, of which the Lower Falls is the most famous and most photographed. Thousands of steam vents and hot springs both large and small can be found, including Mammoth Hot Springs, a popular destination in the park. Abundant wildlife including bison, elk, and moose provide fascinating viewing and picture-taking opportunities. About 3 million people visit the park each year.

Considerations

A multitude of camping options are available in and around the park, and many motels can be found in Gardiner and West Yellowstone. Visitors also can easily make day trips from a bit further out--Jackson and Cody in Wyoming are good bets, as is Livingston in Montana, which is about 60 miles north of Gardiner.

Misconceptions

Yellowstone National Park is located on a geologically highly-active region, the reason for the active geysers and hot springs. In fact, about 2,000 small earthquakes occur in the park every year. These earthquakes affect the regularity of the geysers, including the beloved Old Faithful. In reality, this geyser has never been quite as faithful as its reputation alleges. The most regular geyser in the park probably is Bead Geyser, with an interval of 23 to 33 minutes. However, Bead's height only reaches 25 feet at the most, while Old Faithful's highest eruptions range from 90 to 184 feet. Old Faithful can be counted on to erupt somewhere between every half hour to every two hours, and the average interval changes even with small earthquakes. Scientists have shown a way to predict approximately when the next eruption will occur by measuring the duration of the one immediately preceding it.

Tags: National Park, National Forest, Yellowstone National, Yellowstone National Park, active geysers, corner Wyoming, Grand Teton

Bachelor'S Degree Average Salaries

The bachelor's degree is not the only ticket to getting a job, but it is becoming increasingly necessary to have to even get your foot in the door for many positions. A bachelor's can also be key to making more money. Those with a high school diploma will make, on average, $1.2 million over the course of their lives, while those with a bachelor's degree will earn an average of $2.1 million. This difference in lifetime earning potential makes earning a bachelor's degree important to raising your standard of living.

Bachelor's Degree Salary

The average annual salary of those with bachelor's degrees in the United States is $52,200, according to the Earn My Degree website. This is compared to $30,400 for those with only a high school diploma. Having some college under your belt bumps you up to $36,800 per year and having an associates degree brings your annual salary up to about $38,200. The jump from the salary of having an associates degree to Bachelor's degree is the largest.

Business, Computers, Science and Engineering

Over the course of your life, a bachelor's degree in business can earn you an extra $349,028 over only having a high school diploma, according to money expert Liz Pulliam Weston of MSN Money. A bachelor's in engineering can net you an extra $497,930, while a Bachelor's in a computer field can bring in an extra $443,180. Science bachelor's degrees have the potential to help you earn another $283,286 in your life.

Liberal Arts, Social Sciences and Education

A bachelor's degree in liberal arts has the potential to help you earn an extra $243,883 over your life and one in the social sciences can bring in $210,080 extra. A Bachelor's in education could lead to $108,461 extra in your working life.

Statistics

The median annual salary of a woman with a bachelor's degree is $41,521. A man's median annual salary if he holds a Bachelor's degree is $57,462, according to PayScale.com. About 69 percent of bachelor's degree holders are females, compared to 31 percent being male.

Some of the highest-paid jobs that people with bachelor's degrees get are in the information sciences and systems field (average starting salary of $54,038), aerospace, aeronautical and astronautical engineering ($57,231 to start), mechanical engineering ($58,392), mining & mineral engineering ($64,552) and Petroleum Engineering ($86,220).

Tags: bachelor degree, annual salary, with bachelor, bachelor degrees, high school

Landforms That Can Naturally Be Found In The Northeast Region

The Northeastern states have some of the most varied landscapes in the United States. You may not associate the Northeast with volcanoes and glaciers, but in fact volcanic and glacial activity, along with the ocean, are the three main creative forces in the formation of the Northeastern natural landforms. The Northeastern states comprise Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania and New Jersey.

Mountain Landforms

Mountains are created by tectonic forces, land pushing up land or rock rising to the Earth's surface through volcanic activity. The main mountain chain in the Northeast is the Appalachian Mountains. Geologists estimate the Appalachians to be nearly 270 million years old and once as tall as the Himalayas. Millions of years of glaciation and erosion have reduced these once great mountains to a mere fraction of their former glory. The Appalachian system extends over 2000 miles from Alabama to the Newfoundland and Labrador province in Canada.

Within the Northeastern region of the Appalachian system you will find the Alleghenies in Pennsylvania, the Catskills in New York, the Green Mountains in Vermont, the White Mountains in New Hampshire and the Berkshires in Massachusetts.

Other landforms in these mountain regions include various lakes, rivers, waterfalls, natural slides and natural springs, each with its own distinctive beauty. New York, Pennsylvania, Vermont and New Hampshire have an abundance of rivers, lakes and waterfalls. In addition to waterfalls, Maine has numerous natural slides and pools.

Glacial Landforms

In addition to eroding the Appalachians, glaciers also formed the landforms of Long Island, Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket. About 25,000 years ago, a process began of advance and retreat of massive glaciers more than 500 feet thick. Glaciers moved huge rocks and scraped bedrock, leaving the land scoured in some places and hilly in others. Eventually the ebb and flow that reshaped the land also left us with exceptional water formations such Cape Cod Bay, the Gulf of Maine and Nantucket and Long Island Sounds.

This advance and retreat also carved out northwestern New York. By the end of the last ice age, the result was Lakes Erie and Ontario. These lakes, of course, are the extreme effects, but evidence of this ice sheet action is found throughout the northeast in the numerous lakes, called kettle lakes. As glaciers retreated they left behind large blocks of ice, which over time melted, leaving a hollowed-out area that would later fill in with water. The Finger Lake region of New York is an excellent example of glacial action.

Coastal and Ocean Landforms

Coastal landforms are created by a combination of ocean and wind forces. The effects are intensified by winter storms, nor'easters and the occasional hurricane. The Atlantic Ocean is a fierce opponent to fragile landscapes. The wind and water move and shape the shoreline, creating white sandy beaches, sand dunes and marshlands. Just one winter storm can erode a dune cliff or move huge boulders from beach to ocean.

Beaches shift and change not only year to year but storm to storm, with erosion being of major concern. A category one hurricane can wash away a beach, decimate dunes and destroy ecosystem of marshlands in just a few hours.

Land Formation as a Force of Nature

The beauty of natural landforms draws the observer in. While some places are pristine and wild, others are calming and peaceful. The forces that create such works of art are destructive and often dangerous yet tend to operate in geologic time, permitting the illusion of permanence.

Tags: advance retreat, Appalachian system, Long Island, natural landforms, natural slides, Northeastern states, some places

Difference Between Runtime & Compile Time

Computer programs execute in two distinct stages.

The inner workings of a computer remain a mystery to the typical user, who relies on the work of programmers to tell the computer what to do. The programmer must understand the way the computer expects to receive commands and the two stages of program execution -- compile time and runtime -- in addition to other concepts.

Compile Time

Compile time translates code from human language to machine language.

The first stage in the execution of a program, compile time, involves the translation from language that humans understand, or source code, to language that computers understand, or machine code. Source code contains words you recognize, numbers in decimal format and organizational groupings that make it easier to comprehend the flow of instructions. The compile time stage completes when the new program is an executable file.

Runtime

Runtime occurs as the computer executes the program.

The computer uses the instructions that compile time produces to execute the program. During runtime, the computer reads from the translation of the source code to accomplish the tasks the programmer has incorporated into the code. Every time someone executes the program, he does so in runtime.

Difference

Runtime and compile time make up two different stages of processing.

Compile time takes place only once, translating the source code into an executable file. The executable file can initiate runtime any number of times without ever needing to revisit compile time unless the program requires changes. Most users of programs experience only runtime.

Compile Time Errors

Compile time errors occur before your program becomes executable.

Errors can occur during both stages of program execution. Compile time errors, or syntax errors, exist in the source code. Examples include misspelled commands, incorrect order of operations, variable type mismatching and omission of necessary elements. A programmer can detect compile time errors quite easily because they're syntactical rather than logical. The compiler will generally point out a compile time error and either explain or give clues about fix them. If the compiler successfully produces an executable file from your source code, your program contains no compile time errors.

Catastrophic Runtime Errors

Runtime errors can cause your program to crash.

Runtime errors occur while a program executes. Catastrophic runtime errors cause a program to crash and stop execution prematurely. Examples include restricted memory access and division by zero. The statement x / y is correct syntactically, but if y contains the value 0 at runtime, it will crash the program. A programmer may find catching catastrophic runtime errors difficult because they usually occur only under certain conditions.

Logical Runtime Errors

Runtime errors can cause unintended behavior.

A logical error does not cause the program to crash, but makes it run in a way that the programmer did not intend. Consider a program with a menu of options that expects the user to enter the option number she desires. If the user enters a letter, the program, expecting a number, converts it to a numeric value and sends the user to one of the menu options. The program executes as though nothing is wrong instead of telling the user that she entered an invalid option.

Tags: source code, executable file, time errors, errors cause, program crash, your program

Make A Model Of The Earth'S Layers

Make a Model of the Earth's Layers

Most kids learn about the earth's layers at some point during their years in middle school or high school. Their teacher may ask them to make a model of the earth's layers as a homework assignment, and they can do so easily by following the steps provided below.

Instructions

1. Paint your small Styrofoam ball red and set it aside to dry.

2. Take four toothpicks and fold a 4-inch section of masking taping in half onto each toothpick. This should result in each toothpick having a 2-inch flag of masking tape on one end.

3. On your four toothpick masking tape flags, write the words "Inner Core," "Outer Core," "Mantle" and "Crust."

4. Cover your red Styrofoam ball in orange clay, leaving a triangular wedge of the red Styrofoam ball exposed.

5. Cover your orange clay with your yellow clay, leaving the same triangular wedge of red Styrofoam exposed, as well as a small wedge of orange clay exposed.

6. Cover your yellow clay with your blue clay, leaving the wedges of red and orange exposed, as well as a small wedge of yellow; then, you can add chunks of green clay on top of your blue clay to show areas of land on the Earth's surface.

7. Place your toothpick flags into your Earth so that the "Inner Core" flag is stuck in the red Styrofoam, the "Outer Core" flag is stuck in the orange clay, the "Mantle" flag is stuck in the yellow clay and the "Crust" flag is stuck in the blue or green clay.

Tags: flag stuck, orange clay, clay leaving, Cover your, Styrofoam ball, yellow clay, your yellow clay

Colleges In Pennsylvania For Archaeology

Archaeology programs in Pennsylvania colleges give students a chance to study abroad.

Students pursuing degrees in archaeology at schools in Pennsylvania will not only have the opportunity to learn the lore and tools of the trade but also to explore locations all over the world through study abroad opportunities. Bryn Mawr College, Penn State and Mercyhurst College, located in different regions of the state, offer degree programs in archaeology, giving Pennsylvania students the chance to choose which program best fits their goal for a career in artifact research.

Bryn Mawr College

Bryn Mawr College trains students specifically in the archaeology of the Mediterranean and Middle East. The college, just outside Philadelphia in Bryn Mawr, offers a bachelor's degree in Classical and Near Eastern Archaeology with concentrations in fields such as geoarchaeology. Students take courses in topics such as classical art, Egyptian archaeology, ancient Greek cities and great empires. The department offers opportunities for field work in destinations such as Turkey, Greece and other locations in the United States. In the graduate program, students earn master's degrees in archaeology with a concentration in one of two areas: Greek and Roman art and archaeology or Near East art and archaeology. Graduate students learn through seminars and supervised study during their first year, then travel abroad for research at archaeological projects in Greece, Turkey, Pakistan, Istanbul and other countries.

Bryn Mawr College

101 N. Merion Ave.

Bryn Mawr, PA 19010

610-526-5053

brynmawr.edu

Pennsylvania State University

Pennsylvania State University, in University Park, Pennsylvania, offers a bachelor's degree in archaeological science. Students learn fundamentals including field and research methods and laboratory science. The program, offered through the College of Liberal Arts anthropology department, includes courses in anthropology, philosophy, geosciences and chemistry. Students also can participate in seminars, internships and research opportunities. Such hands-on experiences offer students opportunities to earn credit for their work as well.

Pennsylvania State University

Department of Anthropology

409 Carpenter Building

University Park, PA 16802

814-865-2509

psu.edu

Mercyhurst College

Mercyhurst College's Archaeological Institute offers Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees in anthropology/archaeology. Students pursuing a bachelor of science degree at the Erie, Pennsylvania, school must take more math- and lab-based courses than those in the bachelor of arts degree program. Both, however, require students to take a foreign language as well as the required department courses for graduation, which include paleoanthropology, archaeology, geology and world cultures. Students also must complete field training programs over the summer, learning excavation techniques, lab procedures and analysis of artifacts. Students also can concentrate in a number of areas, including bioarchaeology and archaeology. Study abroad opportunities include trips to Italy, Egypt, Argentina, Japan and the Galapagos Islands.

Mercyhurst College

501 E. 38th St.

Erie, PA 16546

814-824-2000

mercyhurst.edu

Tags: Bryn Mawr, Bryn Mawr College, Mawr College, Mercyhurst College, Pennsylvania State

California Private Colleges

California has more than 75 nonprofit, private colleges and universities, many of which are ranked among the top American schools on lists by Forbes, Princeton Review and U.S. News and World Report. Every private institution has an independent governing board, unlike schools in the state university systems. Students looking for a private college in California will find that each one has its own individual character, unique opportunities and academic specialties.

Stanford University

Stanford University is one of California's most prestigious universities. Located about 30 miles south of San Francisco, Stanford was ranked eighth on Forbes' 2009 America's Best Private Colleges list and came in 10th overall. Stanford offers three undergraduate degrees---bachelor of arts (B.A.), bachelor of sciences (B.S.) and bachelor of arts and sciences (B.A.S.)---and 13 graduate degrees. It has seven schools: business, Earth sciences, education, engineering, humanities and sciences, law and medicine. The undergraduate student-faculty ratio is low, just 6.4 students to every faculty member. Admissions are competitive. Each year, Stanford accepts about 1,670 incoming freshmen and about 40 transfer students. With a total of approximately 8,440 students pursuing advanced degrees each year, the bulk of enrollment comes from graduate students.

Stanford University

450 Serra Mall

Stanford, CA 94305

(650) 723-2300

stanford.edu

California Institute of Technology

The California Institute of Technology---Caltech for short---placed second on Forbes' 2009 list of America's Best Private Colleges and third overall. Caltech specializes in math, science and engineering fields and also aims to offer its students ample research opportunities and a culturally diverse community. In early 2009, total enrollment at Caltech was at 2,130, including 951 undergraduates and 1,179 graduate students. Caltech students can study in one of nine academic divisions: biology, chemistry and chemical engineering, engineering and applied science, geological and planetary sciences, humanities and social sciences, interdisciplinary programs and physics, mathematics and astronomy.

California Institute of Technology

1200 E. California Blvd.

Pasadena, CA 91125

(626) 395-6811

caltech.edu

Loyola Marymount University

Established in 1911, Loyola Marymount University (LMU) is the largest Catholic university on the West Coast. In 2010, LMU had 5,667 undergraduates, 1,886 graduate students and 1,319 law school students. Undergraduate students can choose from 53 major programs and 57 minor programs. For graduate students, there are 31 master's degrees, one doctoral degree and 15 credential programs. LMU's colleges and schools include the College of Liberal Arts, College of Business Administration, College of Communication and Fine Arts, College of Science and Engineering, Loyola Law School, School of Education and School of Film and Television. Located on a scenic, 142-acre bluff in West Lost Angeles, LMU has been named one of the 10 most beautiful schools by the Princeton Review.

Loyola Marymount University

1 LMU Drive

Los Angeles, CA 90045

(310) 338-2700

lmu.edu

Other California Private Colleges

Other popular and consistently high-ranking private colleges in California include Claremont McKenna College, Pomona College, Harvey Mudd College, St. Mary's College of California and the University of Southern California.

Tags: graduate students, California Institute, Loyola Marymount, Loyola Marymount University, Marymount University

Determine The Steepness Of The Geologic Structure

Rocks that were deposited as flat sheets may become warped by geological processes.

Rock structures can be complex and full of folds and twists. Although original deposits may be laid down as horizontal layers, such as the slit in the bottom of a lake, geological processes often twist and distort them into complex features, producing folds consisting of synclines and anticlines. Geologists examine not only the types of rocks present in an area, but also the directions and angles of their folds and faults. This helps to unravel the history of each geological structure.

Instructions

1. Imagine a horizontal line across the rock face. Geologists call this the "strike" of the structure. Now imagine a vertical line perpendicular to the strike. This is the direction in which the structure slopes. Geologists refer to this as the "direction of dip."

2. Rest the compass clinometer against the rock surface so that it is perpendicular to the strike and aligned with the direction of dip. Record the angle indicated by the white end of the clinometer needle. This is the dip angle, or the angle of steepness of the geological structure.

3. Repeat the measurement at two more locations. Add the three readings together and divide by three to find the average reading. This reduces errors due to minor irregularities on the rock surface.

Tags: geological processes, geological structure, perpendicular strike, rock surface

Children'S Activities In Madison Wisconsin

Madison is home to child-friendly museums, parks and amuseument parks.

Madison, Wisconsin's capital city, offers a range of family-friendly activities and attractions. Many, including the UW Geology Museum and the Henry Vilas Zoo, are free. Parks and beaches in Madison -- many of which line the shores of lakes close to downtown -- offer children and families opportunities to swim, play and relax. Other child-friendly attractions in the city include amusement parks and gardens.

Parks and Beaches

Madison has 13 beaches and more than 260 parks (cityofmadison.com). Enjoy beaches on the shores of Lake Monona and Lake Mendota. Marshall Park has a popular sandy beach with grassy areas for recreation and a forested area. The park is a popular spot for biking, fishing, picnics and swimming.

With views of the downtown skyline, Olin Park is a starting point for exploring the Beltline, Capital City and Wingra bike trails. The park also features a boat launch, beach and playground.

Museums

The Madison Children's Museum (madisonchildrensmuseum.org) is home to Wildernest, a playful space built out of natural materials and sustainably harvested hardwoods for children under 5 to learn about science, math and art. Children can create original art works there, and the science and art Possible-opolis exhibit is built from recycled and reused materials. The UW Geology Museum (geology.wisc.edu) teaches visitors about Wisconsin's natural history with exhibits on fossils, rocks and minerals.

Amusement Parks

Little Amerricka (littleamerricka.com) features 26 rides and attractions, including the 2-mile Whiskey River Railway through the Wisconsin countryside. Children can play a round at an 18-hole miniature golf course, and ride go karts or one of three toboggan roller coasters in the world, bumper boats and cars, roller coasters and other rides.

Vitense Golfland (vitense.com) offers two outdoor and one indoor miniature golf course. Other attractions at Golfland are platform tennis, a water park, an arcade, remote-controlled boats, trampolines, a climbing wall and batting cages.

Zoos and Gardens

The International Crane Foundation (savingcranes.org) works to preserve habitats of the world's cranes. Visitors to the foundation's headquarters in Baraboo can take guided tours and learn about 15 crane species or explore nature trails.

Primates and big cats call the Henry Vilas Zoo (vilaszoo.org) home. Other exhibits at the zoo, which opened in 1911, include the Tropical Rainforest Aviary and a children's zoo with a play area, electric train and carousel.

The Olbrich Botanical Gardens (olbrich.org) features outdoor gardens with Midwest and tropical flora, as well as an indoor conservatory.

Tags: Geology Museum, golf course, Henry Vilas, learn about, Madison Wisconsin

Arizona Train Trip Vacations

Travel by train to the Grand Canyon.

The state of Arizona is home to some of the country's most spectacular natural resources, historical sites and metropolitan areas. A train trip vacation is one of the most adventurous ways to explore all that the state has to offer. It's also a great way to enjoy the scenery of Arizona during the hot summer months.

Grand Canyon Railway

Operated by the Grand Canyon Railway company, the Grand Canyon Train travels round trip from Williams, Ariz., about 30 miles west of Flagstaff, to the South Rim of Grand Canyon National Park. The trip takes about two hours and 15 minutes each way. Guests can spend the afternoon or choose from several vacation packages that include hotel stay, breakfast and dinner.

Grand Canyon Railway

1201 West Route 66, Suite 200

Flagstaff, AZ 86001

928-773-1976

thetrain.com

Amtrak: Southwest Chief

Amtrak's Southwest Chief travels from Chicago to Los Angeles, cutting through Arizona on the way. You don't have to start in Chicago or Los Angeles to enjoy riding the Southwest Chief through Arizona. You can board from any station along the route that is convenient to you. The Amtrak route runs through northern Arizona, with convenient access to the Grand Canyon. The route also includes stops at the Arizona towns of Kingman, Williams Junction, Flagstaff and Winslow. The Southwest Chief offers premium "Superliner" sleeping accommodations and a full-service dining car.

Amtrak

60 Massachusetts Ave.

Washington, DC 20002-4285

800-872-7245

amtrak.com

Verde Canyon Railroad

The Verde Canyon Railroad runs from Clarkdale, Ariz., to Perkinsville, Ariz. History buffs will appreciate exploring the ancient Native American dwellings and abandoned copper mining areas at stops along the route. Verde Canyon Railroad partners with local hotels and resorts in nearby Sedona and other surrounding towns to offer a variety of vacation packages.

Verde Canyon Railroad

300 North Broadway

Clarkdale, AZ 86324

800-320-0718

verdecanyonrr.com

Amtrak: Texas Eagle

While the Amtrak's Southwest Chief travels northern Arizona, the Texas Eagle cuts through southern Arizona on the Sunset Limited line with stops in Benson, Tucson, Maricopa and Yuma. The Texas Eagle connects with a number of other Amtrak train lines providing hundreds of possible vacation itineraries. Like the Southwest Chief, the Texas Eagle offers premium "Superliner" sleeping accommodations and a full-service dining car.

Amtrak

60 Massachusetts Ave.

Washington, DC 20002-4285

800-872-7245

amtrak.com

Tags: Grand Canyon, Southwest Chief, Canyon Railroad, Texas Eagle, Verde Canyon, Verde Canyon Railroad, Amtrak Southwest

Arizona State Climate & Landforms

Arizona is a land of varied climate and terrain.

People think "desert" when Arizona is mentioned, but in truth it is diverse, with mountains, pine forests, chaparral, grasslands, rivers and lakes as well as arid lands. Three regions subdivide the state: the northernmost Colorado Plateau, middle Transition Zone, and southern Basin and Range.

Mountains

Broad basins are separated by mountain ranges in southern Arizona.

Mountains exist in all regions, varying in height and vegetation type. Arizona's highest point is Mount Humphreys (north of Flagstaff) at 12,633 feet elevation. Mountains alternating with broad basins characterize the southern Basin and Range region.

Canyons

The Colorado River is at the bottom of the Grand Canyon.

The Grand Canyon north of Flagstaff is the deepest canyon in the state, dropping 5000 feet at its deepest. Other scenic canyons are Canyon de Chelly and Oak Creek Canyon.

Buttes and Mesas

Monument Valley contains eroded geological formations.

Eroded landscapes of pinnacles, buttes and mesas occur in Monument Valley in northern Arizona and Chiricahua National Monument in southeastern Arizona.

Seasons

Lake Havasu City has reached a summer high of 128 degrees Fahrenheit.

Desert summers are hot, with triple digit temperatures likely from May through September. Lake Havasu City has the highest recorded temperature of 128 degrees Fahrenheit. Desert winters are mild. Mountains with elevations above 5500 feet have forests have temperate climate seasons and temperatures. Hawley Lake experienced the state's low of -40 degrees Fahrenheit in 1971.

Precipitation

Higher elevations get some precipitation as snow.

Summer monsoons extend from July through September. Winter rains come in November through April. Average annual rainfall for deserts is five to 15 inches. Forested areas receive 15 to over 35 inches, some as snow.

Tags: degrees Fahrenheit, Basin Range, degrees Fahrenheit Desert, Fahrenheit Desert, Grand Canyon, Havasu City, Lake Havasu

School Science Projects On Volcanoes

There are many science projects students can do in the classroom to study volcanoes.

With lava and explosions, volcanoes are an exciting and interesting topic for many students. While most youngsters won't be able to study an erupting volcano firsthand, there are a number of science projects they can do in the classroom to recreate a volcano and better understand how one works.

Design a Volcano

One way to better understand a volcano is to create a model of one piece by piece while learning about each element. Start with a plastic bottle, which will represent the conduit. From there, built paper mache layers of the outside of the volcano using scraps of newspaper and Mod Podge glue to shape the cone. Student may need to ball up some newspapers to create the cone's initial curve. Use different colors of paper to illustrate the layers that make a volcano, including the sill, ash and flank. Paint the outside of the finished cone brown or whatever color the volcano they're studying should be.

Erupt a Volcano

Making a volcano erupt is one of the more exciting volcano science projects and involves only a few ingredients. Start with a plastic bottle (which could be the plastic bottle included in a more detailed volcano model). Pour a few teaspoons of baking soda into the base of the bottle. When it's time for the volcano to erupt, pour in about a cup of vinegar. The two chemicals will react, gushing "lava" out the top of the bottle. Beyond observing what an eruption looks like, students can observe and learn about the chemical reaction they witnessed, including how the vinegar (acetic acid) neutralizes the baking soda (sodium bicarbonate).

Volcano Air Pressure Model

In addition to the classic baking soda and vinegar eruptions, students can understand another aspect of how volcanoes erupt through an air pressure model, which will simulate the magma pressure that builds underneath an actual volcano. Take a piece of cardboard, cutting a pen-sized hole in the middle. Elevate the cardboard between two chairs or desks, and spread an inch or two of sand over the surface. Using a can of compressed air or an air jet, blow a burst of air from underneath through the hole in the cardboard. Watch the sand erupt and fall into place. This should create a cone-shaped model of a volcano.

Recreate Plate Tectonics

Plate tectonics is the theory that the earth's surface is broken into shifting plates. Most of the world's volcanoes are found along these shifting plates, created when two plates move to make fissures between the earth's crust. Students can recreate this formation using a few sweet treats. On a piece of wax paper, spread some frosting about one-half inch thick. This represents the asthenosphere, the layer on which the plates ride. The plates themselves can be represented by graham crackers. Students should place the graham crackers in the frosting next to each other, then slowly move them apart or closer together. Observe how the frosting is pushed up where the plates separate or meet. This represents how volcanoes are formed, and how magma can come up to the surface when plates moved.

Tags: baking soda, plastic bottle, better understand, bottle which, graham crackers, plastic bottle which

Are Historical Society Memberships Tax Deductible

Historical societies serve a role in our society. They preserve the past and make it accessible to individuals through records, newspapers, books, pictures and artifacts. They are particularly beneficial to people who are searching their genealogy. To access much of this information, you either need to be a member of the society or pay a day use fee. In some cases, the cost of your membership may be tax deductible.

Gifts to Charity

One common way to deduct a historical society membership from your taxes is to list it as a charitable contribution. You can ask the historical society if its membership dues are tax deductible, but most of them will mention it on their application or advertising because it is a selling point. You can also call the IRS' Tax Exempt/Government Entities Customer Account Services at 877-829-5500. However, you will not be able to deduct an amount that is greater than the value you receive from the membership.

Disregarded Benefits

In determining what the actual value of the membership is compared to the dues, you can disregard certain membership benefits in the calculation, according to the IRS. This includes free or discounted admission to the facility, free or discounted parking, preferred access to goods and services at the historical society, discounts on goods and services and admission to member-only events where the per-person cost is valued at less than $9.60 (in 2010).

Written Statements

If the historical society membership is tax deductible, the society will be able to provide you with a statement for that purpose. The statement will note the actual value of the membership and how much of the dues are considered tax-deductible. The statement does not need to be filed with your taxes but should be kept with your paperwork for the tax year to prove your deduction. This is not required of the society if the value of the membership was under $75 or the benefits can be disregarded.

Business Expense

You may also be able to deduct the cost of membership as a business expense if it is something that you needed in order to perform your business operations. This deduction is not as common as a charitable contribution, but it is sometimes used by small business owners who have need of the services of the historical society.

Tags: historical society, historical society membership, society membership, value membership, able deduct

How Much Schooling To Be An Oceanologist

Oceanographers study the oceans and coastal areas.

An oceanologist, or oceanographer, is a type of geoscientist who studies the planet's oceans and coastal water systems. Oceanographers may study the effects of climate, the physical and chemical properties of the ocean, coastal ecosystems, erosion patterns and the movement of the ocean waters. Subsets of oceanography include marine biology and marine geology. Oceanographers may work for geological surveys, oil and mining companies, universities and research institutes.

Undergraduate Education

A bachelor's degree in geosciences or oceanography is a minimum requirement for any job as an oceanographer. The exact courses you will take depends upon your specialty area. For example, majors in marine biology may need to take courses in general and fishery biology, zoology and biometrics, along with courses in statistics, math, chemistry and physics. Students focusing on climate may need to take courses in environmental problem solving, climate change economics, physical and chemical oceanography and marine modeling, in addition to general courses in biology, chemistry and physics.

Graduate Education

Most oceanography jobs will require a master's degree or a doctorate in a specialty area. If you want to conduct oceanographic research, you will need at least a master's degree. A master's or doctorate program will focus on the specific area of oceanography that you want to eventually work in. For example, if you are studying for a master's in marine biodiversity and conservation, in order to work in marine conservation, you would take courses in marine biodiversity and also topics such as economics of the environment and marine science. Master's and doctoral programs may also involve conducting independent research or study and writing a dissertation.

Post-Doctoral Education

If your goal is to conduct research in oceanography or to teach at university level, you may also need to spend some time working as a post-doctoral researcher in your area of oceanography. This generally involves working on a research project with a research institute, such as the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute in Massachusetts, or conducting research with an organization such as the Monterey Bay Aquarium. You will work under the supervision of a senior researcher, learning to conduct advanced research and write research papers. You may also train as a post-doctorate in a university, conducting research under the supervision of a professor, and teaching some undergraduate or graduate courses.

Additional Education

Many oceanography students work as interns or research assistants during the summer, in order to gain experience in their field and make contacts. This work may take place in a laboratory, or out in the field. Because many areas of oceanography involve working out in the field, on the ocean or in coastal areas, many oceanographers also have SCUBA certification and are licensed to operate various types of boats. Some oceanographers may also be licensed to operate submersibles. Education and work experience in the field of oceanography also involves learning to use remote-sensing equipment and learning use techniques such as digital mapping and computer modeling.

Tags: take courses, area oceanography, chemistry physics, coastal areas, conducting research, licensed operate

Importance Of Recycling Metal

Metal waste such as this can be recycled.

Recycling metal has its advantages. Mining is harmful to human populations and the environment. Without recycling, a nation is dependent on other countries for metal sources. These nations may use their monopoly on metal resources for unfair advantage. After metal deposits are exhausted, recycled resources will be the only "source" of metal.

Effects of Mining

Mining has negative environmental effects. Runoff and machine exhaust make their way into the environment. If these pollutants get into water supplies, as they usually do, local populations may suffer the effects. Recycling reduces the need for mining operations.

Economic Independence

The planet has uneven metal distribution. For example, uranium is a metal likely to be in demand as an alternative to fossil fuels. In 2008 Australia, Kazakhstan, and Canada dominated metal production. This fact gives these countries advantage in negotiations and disputes, just as oil does for OPEC countries. Patented use of recycling technology can reduce, if not eliminate, dependence on nations that may not be friendly.

Limited Reserves

The most basic case for recycling metal is that metal is non-renewable. Used metal combines into complexes and alloys that make it very difficult to extract for further use. This mechanical-chemical "extraction" of metal atoms is the primary challenge in metal recycling.

Tags:

Identify The Stone Tools Of Native Americans

Most stone tools called arrowheads are knife blades or spear points.

Native American stone tools are durable artifacts, surviving from the end of the last glacial period, about 12,500 years ago.Stone age technology and tools saw everyday use until the arrival of the European colonists in the 1500s. Flint knapping techniques of chipping and flaking the brittle stone evolved from the earliest crude tools into sophisticated and finely manufactured artifacts. Pecking and grinding of hard granite provided long-lasting tools and stone implements. In 2011, stone artifacts from 15,500 years ago were discovered in an archaeological dig near Austin, Texas -- "the oldest credible archaeological site in North America," according to archaeologist Michael R. Waters of Texas A&M University.

Instructions

1. Determine if your suspected Native American stone tool is a man-made object or a natural geological rock formation. Look at it under a microscope for signs of being worked. Search for evidence of pecking, sanding or knapping. Examine artifacts found at known Native American habitation and hunting sites. Compare them with the tools you wish to identify. Familiarize yourself with local collections to observe the different types of indigenous stone tools and how they differ from local natural rocks.

2. Keep an accurate record of the locations of where your artifacts were recovered. Use a GPS to take pinpoint readings and write the information in a notebook. Each geological area was occupied by many different cultures over thousands of years. Each culture had their own tradition of making stone tools. Learn the different types and forms of tools made by the cultures from different time periods in your area. Differentiate between the different designs and forms of each culture.

3. Identify the material the tool is made from. Many tools called arrowheads are actually knives and spear tips. These artifacts are most often made of flint or chert, less often from obsidian, jasper, quartzite or colored agate. Seek help from books, the Internet or local geologists with identifying minerals. Know the difference between different colored and textured varieties of the same type of stone. Distinguish between the types of slate commonly fashioned into tools.

4. Study the shape or morphology of the tool as the primary indicator of its classification. Look for crudely chipped scrapers and hand choppers that may not look like tools. Compare the differences between full-grooved and 3/4 grooved axes. Determine if the tool was hafted or hand held. Look for a finely sanded cutting bit on the sharp edges of axes and celts. Consult with local artifact hunters, archaeologists and museums with help in the identification of type and classification of your stone tool.

5. Identify projectile points and bladed tools by their overall outline and the shape of the base. Each culture living in a particular time period had constraints on the shape of their tools, as if they were copied from a template. Pay attention to the base and classify it as articulate, with pointed ears, basal-notched, corner- or side-notched. Stemmed points with rounded "beaver tail" bases are indicative of the Adena culture. Define the point's silhouette as triangular, leaf-shaped or lanceolate. Compare the shapes with those in an identification guide.

Tags: Native American, stone tools, American stone, between different, called arrowheads

Geotechnical Engineer Job Description

Geotechnical Engineer Job Description

Geotechnical engineers are also referred to as "soil scientists." According to Purdue University, the discipline of geotechnical engineering is a specialty under the umbrella classification of civil engineering, focusing on the "analysis, design and construction of foundations, slopes, retaining structures and other systems that are made of or are supported by soil or rock."

Job Summary

A geotechnical engineer utilizes the engineering principles of solid and rock mechanics, geology and construction to understand their affects on the physical environment.

Duties

Geotechnical engineers may work both in the field and the office. Field investigation includes gathering data, implementing lab tests and investigating computer-generated analysis. Office duties are writing and preparing project proposals, writing lab results, calculating analytical findings and using computer programs for two- and three-dimensional simulated experiments.

Collaboration

Geotechnical engineers must be able to communicate effectively and work on a team of hydrogeologists, construction engineers, structural engineers and clients.

Education

A geotechnical engineer usually will hold a Bachelor of Science degree in civil engineering, with a specialty in geotechnical engineering.

Qualifications

A geotechnical engineer must have an Engineer-in-Training license (EIT) or a Professional Engineer (PE) license to officially sign legal documents and designs.

Tags: Geotechnical engineers, civil engineering, Engineer Description, geotechnical engineer, Geotechnical Engineer, Geotechnical Engineer Description

Arcview 3 2 Tutorial

ArcView provides a more sophisticated approach to authoring maps.

ArcView is a geographical imaging system, or GIS, that is used to track and display data collected by geologists. ArcView is a useful tool for scientists seeking visual approaches to all the data they collect. You can use the software to create your own maps, design templates for quick generation of new maps, and display, and communicate with others working on related projects. You can learn the interface once you understand how it's organized.

Instructions

1. Double-click the "ArcView GIS" desktop icon to launch it. Alternatively, click "Start," then "Programs," and then click "ArcView GIS" from the programs list.

2. Click the radio button next to "As a blank project" in the "Welcome To ArcView GIS" window; then click "OK."

3. Click "Views" in the "Untitled" box; then click "New." You open a new window titled "View1."

4. Click the "Add Theme" button.

5. Use your mouse to navigate to the folder where your map themes are stored. Click which map theme you wish to add and click "OK." The map theme appears on the left side of the "View1" window.

6. Click to check the box next to the theme name on the left side of the "View1" window. The map theme is displayed on the right side of the "View1" window.

7. Repeat the previous three steps, adding themes on top of one another. Notice how map themes function like image layers in Photoshop. The theme on the bottom is an entire state or country, the theme on top of it illustrates the bodies of water, and the theme on top of that illustrates roads and highways.

8. Click "File," then "Save Project." Give your project a meaningful name; select which folder the project should be saved in, and click "OK."

Tags: side View1, side View1 window, then click, View1 window, left side, left side View1

How Do The Plates Affect Life On Earth

California's San Andreas Fault marks the boundary between the Pacific and North American Plates.

If you think objects that move only a few centimeters each year cannot profoundly influence life on Earth, think again. Lithospheric plates move at about the same rate your fingernails grow, yet they created the world's tallest mountains and deepest oceanic trenches. Imperceptible plate movement over millions of years has shaped Earth's surface and caused some of the planet's most awe-inspiring, and sometimes terrifying, natural events.

Plate Tectonics Theory

The theory of plate tectonics developed from the original concept of continental drift, an idea that was widely dismissed by the scientific community in the early 20th century. By the 1960s, plate tectonics was universally accepted as the primary force behind earthquakes, volcanism, continental drift, and the creation of mountain ranges and rift zones.

Earth's surface, or crust, combines with the uppermost part of the solid mantle to form a rigid shell about 50 miles thick called the lithosphere that is broken into several pieces called lithospheric, or tectonic, plates. These plates, which fit together like a spherical jigsaw puzzle, float on a semi-fluid layer of the mantle called the athenosphere. Tectonic plates are in constant motion relative to one another, colliding, separating and slipping sideways in a slow-motion process with far-reaching effects on nearly all life on Earth.

Plate Tectonics and Earthquakes

Earthquakes occur primarily along the boundaries of tectonic plates, and are among the most violent, destructive and frightening of Earth's natural phenomena. They are caused by an abrupt release of accumulated stress and tension created by plates converging, subducting or sliding sideways past one another. The history of devastation and death resulting from earthquakes and their after-effects, such as tsunamis, is well-documented. A catastrophic 2004 quake in the Indian Ocean created massive tsunamis that killed more than 230,000 people in 14 countries. The 2011 Tohuku earthquake and tsunami obliterated the Japanese coastal city of Sendai resulting in over 15,000 deaths. The Tohuku event also affected the worldwide economy and severely damaged the Fukushima nuclear power plant, contaminating land for miles around and sending clouds of radioactive particles into the atmosphere.

Plate Tectonics and Volcanism

Like earthquakes, volcanism typically occurs near plate boundaries. Converging plates create subduction zones where an oceanic plate subducts, or dives under a continental plate or another oceanic plate. The descending plate is pushed ever deeper, creating an oceanic trench, destroying the crust material and turning it to magma through friction, heat and pressure. The lighter magma then rises through more dense surrounding rock, eventually reaching the surface to form volcanoes. The Pacific Ocean "Ring of Fire" was created through the subduction process.

The Effects of Volcanism

The effects of volcanism are wide-ranging. Active volcanoes are a threat to nearby plant and animal life. Major volcanic eruptions throughout history have altered landscapes, destroyed forest and farmland, and resulted in significant loss of life and property. When the Colombian volcano Nevada del Ruiz erupted in 1985, it melted glaciers and and buried the town of Armero, 30 miles away under a layer of mud and debris, resulting in more than 20,000 deaths. The colossal eruption of Mt. Tambora in Indonesia had a global effect. In the largest eruption ever recorded, Tambora ejected an ash cloud that temporarily changed Earth's climate, blocking sunlight and reducing temperatures, causing the greatest famine of the 19th century, as crops failed and livestock died throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere. The positive effects of volcanoes include the creation of nutrient-rich, fertile soil that produces crops ranging from coffee and tea to a variety of tropical fruits.

Biodiversity

Tectonic plate movement contributes to the biodiversity of Earth. As extinct oceanic volcanoes slowly erode into the sea, their caldera become habitats supporting a wide variety of marine life. Lava from Kilauea makes the island of Hawaii a little bigger each year, creating new marine oceanic environments. Strange organisms adapt to life in the perpetual darkness, crushing pressures and near freezing temperatures of deep-sea trenches, while others adapt to life near diverging plate boundaries that create hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor, called black smokers, where water temperatures may exceed 400 degrees Fahrenheit.

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Aquifer Types In Groundwater Geophysics

Many acqifers are found in porous rock like sandstone.

Aquifers are formations or groups of formations that contain enough water-saturated material to yield significant quantities of water to springs and wells. By using geophysical techniques, such as ground-penetrating radar or seismic refraction, potential aquifer users can determine characteristics of aquifers, including the size, type of aquifer and vulnerability to contamination, allowing them to select aquifers that will yield sufficient supplies of clean, usable water.

Geophysical Techniques

Two of the most commonly used geophysical techniques in groundwater studies are ground-penetrating radar and seismic refraction. In ground-penetrating radar, radar pulses are transmitted from antennae into the ground. When they hit rock or sediment boundaries, they are reflected back to the antennae. Differences in the returning signal provide information on the nature of the buried sediments and rocks. In seismic refraction, compression or shear waves are generated at a known distance from a recording array. The velocity of these waves is altered by the type of sediment or rock they travel through. Measuring the time from the waves' generation until they reach the array provides insight into the rocks and sediment between the wave source and the array.

Sand & Gravel Aquifers

Aquifers can be found in a variety of unconsolidated and semi-consolidated sediments, as well as in sandstone and carbonate rocks. Water is distributed throughout the pores found between the individual grains in these sediments and rocks. These aquifers can range from a few meters to hundreds of meters in thickness. Sandstone aquifers in the western United States can be more than 6,000 meters thick. Aquifers can also range in size from a few square acres to thousands of square miles. The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, one of the largest in the world, underlies all or parts of Egypt, Chad, Libya and Sudan. Geophysical techniques can determine the areal extent and depth of aquifers, and the porosity of the rock or sediment.

Fault/Fracture Aquifers

Non-permeable rock (including metamorphic or igneous rocks) has only microscopic spaces between the grains. However, water can move though faults and fissures in the rocks. Some cities in the northeastern United States rely on these fracture aquifers for their drinking water. Because the fracture patterns can be complex, they can be difficult to locate. Geophysical techniques can determine the location and distribution of these fractures and provide accurate maps of these aquifers.

Vulnerability

It is possible for chemicals or salt water to enter an aquifer and contaminate the water, making it unsuitable for use by humans. Geophysical methods can detect those characteristics that make an aquifer vulnerable. Because water can quickly and easily permeate aquifers in unconsolidated sediment, there is little time for contaminants in the water to be filtered out or decay naturally. The closer the unconsolidated aquifer is to the surface, the greater the risk. In coastal areas, paleo-channels, buried rivers and streams that are filled with sand and gravel can allow ocean saltwater to enter aquifers, making them unsuitable for drinking water or crop irrigation.

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Odessa Texas Colleges

Odessa, Texas, is in Ector County. The city is home to attractions such as the Parker House Museum and many other museums, a Vietnam Memorial, Ector Theater, the Permian Playhouse and the Odessa Meteor Crater. Students looking to attend school in Odessa have the choice of many colleges located within the city limits.

Odessa College

Odessa College, established in 1946, offers career, technical, continuing education, college preparation, work force training and basic adult education programs. The college provides students with the choice of roughly 70 certificates and 45 associate's degree programs. Majors range from agriculture to photography. The core courses offered by this institution are guaranteed to be transferable to a four-year university. Accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, the college offers classes at the Odessa campus location, online and at Monahans, Pecos and Andrews extension sites. Facilities include on-campus housing, a student success center, a cyber-cafe, recreational buildings and a sports center.

University of Texas of the Permian Basin

The University of Texas of the Permian Basin offers undergraduate and graduate degree programs through its schools of business, education, and arts and sciences to about 3,600 students, as of February 2011. Available majors include accounting, drama, geology, psychology and Spanish. Classes are offered on campus, with online degree programs in areas such as kinesiology, business administration and criminal justice. Student life is rich with clubs, organizations, athletics and free events. Students have access to financial aid, housing, tutoring, a literacy center, child care and psychological services. On-campus facilities include a gymnasium complex and a visual arts studio.

American Commercial College

The Odessa campus of American Commercial College is one of the institution's seven locations. The college occupies a 9,700-square-foot building. Students can choose from medical assistant, medical transcription, administrative assistant, data entry, medical billing and coding, and health care administrative assistant programs. This job-training college features on-site software, laboratory equipment and computers for classroom use to help students earn industry certifications and career diplomas. Programs are designed to provide individuals with accelerated entry into their chosen fields. American Commercial College is accredited by the Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools. Students have access to financial aid, job placement services and counseling services.

Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center

Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center has an Odessa location called the Permian Basin Campus. Established in 1979, this campus includes schools of medicine, nursing and allied health sciences. Undergraduate and graduate degree programs are offered in clinical laboratory sciences, speech, rehabilitation sciences, pharmacy, physical therapy and executive leadership. These programs result in bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees. The Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. Its school of medicine provides fellowship training and residency for third-year medical students. This campus operates more than 20 health clinics in a variety of locations.

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