In 1923, Louis de Broglie proposed that because light can behave as particles even though it possesses no mass, objects with mass can also exhibit wave-like properties. De Broglie merged equations for the energy of a particle with mass and the energy of a light particle with no mass and arrived at the equation lamba = h / mv, where lambda represents the wavelength in meters, h is Planck's constant (6.626 x 10^-34 joule seconds), m represents the object's mass in kilograms and v represents its velocity in meters per second. Thus, any object with mass that exhibits motion will also exhibit a de Broglie wavelength.
Instructions
1. Determine the mass of the object under investigation in units of kilograms. If you are working with a problem from a textbook, this information may be provided directly. Otherwise, place the object on a balance or scale and determine its mass. If your balance or scale does not measure in kilograms, then use an online tool to convert its units to kilograms. For example, consider an 8-pound bowling ball, which converts to 3.6 kilograms.
2. Calculate or otherwise determine the object's velocity in units of meters per second. Velocity represents distance traveled divided by elapsed time. For example, the length of a bowling alley is 60 feet from the foul line to the first pin, which converts to 18.3 meters. If the bowling ball requires 4.6 seconds from time of release until it strikes the pins, then it exhibits an average velocity, v, of v = 18.3 meters / 3.9 seconds = 4.7 meters per second.
3. Determine the de Broglie wavelength according to lambda = h / mv. Continuing with the previous example, lambda = (6.626 x 10^-34) / (3.6 * 4.7) = 3.9 x 10^-35 meters.
Tags: with mass, meters second, also exhibit, balance scale, bowling ball
Mt. St. Helens' 1980 eruption claimed 57 lives and caused widespread damage.
When asked to list the most destructive volcanic eruptions, geologists may ask, "Based on what criteria?" Volcanoes may claim many human lives or claim few lives but cause extensive property damage. An eruption may have a major impact on animal and plant life, with local or global consequences. Although geologists, archaeologists, paleontologists and historians seldom agree on the exact scope, timing and impact, they do agree that the Earth has experienced numerous destructive volcanoes.
Siberian Traps
Approximately 251 million years ago, the Siberian Traps produced a basalt lava flood sufficient to bury the continental United States in thousands of feet of the dark rock. The Siberian Traps expelled lava for at least a million years, and geologists believe it to be the largest flow of lava ever. Paleontologists believe the Siberian Traps eruption is responsible for the largest mass extinction in history, which occurred around the same time and saw 90 percent of all species die out.
Deccan Traps
In what is now India, the Deccan Traps produced a basalt lava flood that covered more than a million square miles. Even after 65 million years of erosion, the lava left behind reaches 1.5 miles in thickness in parts of India. The timing of the eruption coincides with the disappearance of the dinosaurs, leading some paleontologists to believe that the Deccan Traps were responsible for their extinction, either in whole or in part.
Yellowstone
Yellowstone's geysers prove that magma is still present below the ground.
Yellowstone National Park lies within a massive caldera formed by three eruptions over the past 2 million years, including some of the largest eruptions ever to occur on the planet. Yellowstone is what geologists call a "supervolcano," one that is capable of erupting with sufficient force to have a major global impact. Based on Yellowstone's history, geologists estimate that another eruption would bury as much as half of the continental United States under 3 feet of ash.
Toba
In what is now Sumatra, the eruption of Toba approximately 74,000 years ago left a caldera about 1,080 square miles in size. Geneticists theorize that the eruption caused a near-extinction of the human race. Genetic tests show that all humans are descended from fewer than 10,000 ancestors living as recently as the time of the eruption rather than an older, larger population group indicated by fossil evidence.
Tambora
The largest eruption in recorded history was the Tambora eruption of 1815. The volcano is on Sumbawa Island, one of the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia. Estimates for the death toll range between 60,000 and 100,000, of whom about 12,000 died as a direct result of the eruption and the balance from the famine and starvation that followed. The gas erupted by the volcano lowered temperatures around the world, and 1816 became known as the "year without a summer."
Thera
Archaeologists theorize that Santorini's inhabitants fled to nearby Crete before the eruption.
Thera, on what is now the Greek island of Santorini, erupted about 3,500 years ago. The eruption, rated as a 7 out of 8 on the volcanic explosive index scale, destroyed much of the island and may be the source of Plato's "Atlantis" story. The eruption triggered pyroclastic flows and tsunamis that archaeologists believe may have doomed the Minoan civilization on nearby Crete.
Pelee
In 1902, St. Pierre was a tourist destination on the island of Martinique. When Mt. Pelee erupted in May of that year, there were only two known survivors out of the 30,000 residents and visitors in the city.
Krakatau
Krakatau, sometimes referred to as Krakatoa, erupted in 1883, killing more than 36,000 people in Java and Sumatra. The eruption is the second-largest Indonesian eruption in recorded history. Only remnants of the three volcanoes that comprised Krakatau Island remained after the eruption.
Pinatubo
Pinatubo's 1991 eruption caused geographical changes that continue to cause mudslides.
Prior to 1991, Pinatubo was a forested area in the Philippines with no historical records of an eruption. In that year, however, the volcano awoke, erupting in one of the largest volcanic events of the 20th century. Although the death toll was low for an eruption, with only about 800 people killed, Pinatubo left an estimated 100,000 homeless and caused $500 million in damages.
Vesuvius
Geologists consider Vesuvius the world's most dangerous volcano, due to the population density.
The eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79 buried the Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, killing more than 10,000 people. During the 1700s archaeologists began excavating the towns, uncovering not only the remains of inhabitants who died in the eruption but well-preserved murals and other works of art. The eruption was recorded by Pliny the Younger, a Roman historian who witnessed the event.
Tags: million years, Siberian Traps, Deccan Traps, eruption recorded, more than, basalt lava
Moldavite comes from the "tektite" family, which means "molten" in Greek.
Moldavite belongs to the gem category known as "tektites"--they are the only known gems to have fallen to earth from the sky. Moldavite--which gets its name from Europe's Moldau River Valley, where it was first discovered--has been used in tools, talismans and jewelry over the millennia. Knowing the properties and history of moldavite can help you distinguish the real thing from a fake. Does this Spark an idea?
Instructions
1. Moldavite is characterized by its mossy green color.
Examine the stone's color. It should be a dark, almost mossy-colored green. If the stone you're looking at is a brighter, more vibrant shade of green, it may be an emerald instead of moldavite. If the stone you're examining isn't green at all, then it definitely isn't a real moldavite.
2. Quartz is a stone that has a crystalline structure; moldavite structure is amorphous.
Look at the stone's structure--we're talking about the physical composition of the stone. While many gemstones, such as quartz, have a crystalline structure, moldavite does not. In fact, it is classified as having an "amorphous" structure--"amorphous" literally means "without shape," meaning moldavite may grow in several shapes or patterns.
3. Consider the stone's texture. Because of its amorphous composition, real moldavite is difficult to process into a completely smooth, glassy surface. If the gem in question is the right color, but is as smooth and polished as a piece of bottle glass, it may be a fraud.
4. Examine the clarity of the stone. Just as it is hard to polish moldavite into a smooth surface, it is also difficult to find a real moldavite that is completely clear throughout. Real moldavite is made of silica, but often studded with impurities such as iron and magnesium that can make it less clear than a stone such as diamond.
5. Ask the seller where the stone is from. Moldavite, as stated in the introduction, is a tektite found only in Europe's Moldau River Valley, located in what is today the Czech Republic. If the seller claims the stone was mined anywhere but this region, it is almost definitively a fake.
6. See whether the moldavite easily scratches or dents (warning: this may permanently alter or damage the stone). Real moldavite has a hardness rating of 5.5 on the Mohs hardness scale, the standard scale for measuring gemstones. A diamond has a hardness rating of 10, meaning it's virtually impossible to scratch; comparatively, a real moldavite is vulnerable to scratches and dents and must be handled with care.
Tags: real moldavite, crystalline structure, crystalline structure moldavite, Europe Moldau, Europe Moldau River
General college courses include at least 45 credits.
General education courses are a requirement for any college degree program. Courses take two years to complete, allowing the student to concentrate on a major the junior and senior years. Course studies may vary according to state but most require 45 to 60 credits of general education subjects. The larger universities are able to offer a wider variety of courses and experiences. Students transferring with an associate degree can use credits toward a major as well as meeting the general education requirement.
Writing and Speaking
Writing and speaking skills are important to master in order for students to communicate openly and intelligently in any social setting. Courses in writing and speaking can include writing for humanities and sciences, business and technical. Oral communications equips students with speaking skills to prepare for future speaking engagements. Fifteen credits usually satisfy this category.
Natural Sciences
Natural sciences include geology, biology, physical science, astronomy, chemistry, physics and environmental studies. Credit requirements include two courses with labs. For students seeking a science path it is wise to discuss the science choices with a counselor.
Health and Physical Education
Courses that deal with behavior and health that affect society are required. Course topics may include illicit drug use, communicable diseases and sexually transmitted diseases. The physical component includes a wide variety of activities that might include rock climbing, boating, dancing, badminton, hand-ball, ice skating or swimming. The point is to give the student a well-rounded education in various activities that help to maintain health. A course in health and one in physical education are required.
Arts
Rounding off a good general education includes the arts as well as science. Penn State University offers courses in the theater, cultural arts and visual arts, studies in metals, drawing, painting, world art, history and instruments. Two courses will satisfy the general education requirements in this area.
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Humanities
The humanities include history, studies about societies; women and cultures, literature, religions, philosophy, drama and the theater. You can find courses that teach American folklore or Asian literature, Egyptian civilization and fiction. The humanities give the student the opportunity to study the ways and beliefs of pre-existing and current societies.Two courses for a total of six credits are required.
Social and Behavioral Sciences
Anthropology, the study of Native Americans, civic and community engagements, as well as criminal justice, economics and geography are part of the social and behavioral sciences. You can also take courses in linguistics, politics, psychology, sociology and sexuality. The general education requirements are complete with six credits from this category.
Tags: general education, activities that, education requirements, general education, general education requirements, give student
Exfoliation leaves behind a dome-shaped rock form.
The process of weathering breaks down rocks exposed to the elements into smaller particles that can be carried away by wind and water erosion. Weathering is divided into three broad categories: mechanical or physical weathering, chemical weathering, and biological weathering. Mechanical or physical weathering is further divided by its causes into four different categories; the causes are mechanical exfoliation or unloading, thermal expansion, frost wedging, and abrasion.
Mechanical Exfoliation or Unloading
Exfoliation weathering is the process whereby curved layers or plates of rock break away from the rock beneath them leaving behind characteristic dome shaped monoliths such as those found in Yosemite National Park and in parts of the Idaho Batholith, a composite mass of granite rock in central Idaho. The cause of exfoliation is the expansion of the rock. When pressure on the rock is removed or reduced, as when a mass resting upon it is removed by erosion or other means, the rock expands, causing the plates to separate and fall away.
Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion weathering is caused by changes in temperature of the rock. The temperature of exposed rocks is alternately heated and cooled every day it is exposed. When it is heated it expands and when it cools it contracts, and since its constituent minerals expand and contract at different rates, stresses along the boundaries of the minerals cause the rock to crack and break apart.
Frost Wedging
One cause of frost wedging is the expansion of freezing water.
Frost wedging weathering has two causes. One cause is the expansion of freezing water inside the rock itself. Rock is porous and absorbs liquid water when it is exposed to it. As the temperature drops and the water inside the rock freezes, it expands and causes pieces of the rock to break away.
Alternatively, rocks that are repeatedly wet and dried can experience frost wedging weathering without freezing temperatures. This is true because water dissolves salt crystals from the wet rock that grow when the rock dries. This crystal growth puts the same sort of pressure on the rock as the expansion of freezing water.
Abrasion
Wind-blown rock particles abrade surfaces the same as sand-blasting.
Abrasion weathering is caused by the abrading or grinding together of rock particles. As rocks weather into smaller pieces, they are moved around by wind and water and rub against each other, grinding and abrading off more pieces of rock. For instance, small wind-blown rock particles have the same effect on rocks they come in contact with as sand blasting has. Similarly, small rocks pushed along by a stream of water grind against each other, chipping and scraping away bits of rock.
Tags: expansion freezing, expansion freezing water, freezing water, rock particles, against each, against each other, break away
Roses have a long, varied history, serving as symbols of love, beauty, war and politics. According to fossil evidence, roses have existed for at least 35 million years. Modern roses are those developed after 1867, the year the first hybrid tea was introduced. According to Clemson University Cooperative Extension, the most popular groups of modern roses -- hybrid teas, floribundas and grandifloras -- are well-regarded for their repeat blooming and spectacular color and form. Does this Spark an idea?
Top Methods
The top methods of propagating roses are through cuttings, grafting and budding. According to the University of Maryland Extension, propagation by seed is mainly used by breeders when they are trying to develop new cultivars. Seed is also used for Rosa multiflora propagation, which is a rose that is used as rootstock for grafting rose cultivars.
Rose Seeds
Rose seeds can germinate and produce a new rose plant, but chances are high the flowers will not look like the parent plant that produced the seeds. According to New Mexico State University, that's because most roses grown today are hybrids and contain a mix of genetic material from the mother and father plants. Curious gardeners can plant the seeds, but they can expect that the new roses won't closely resemble those of the parent plant.
Rose Hips and Seeds
A rose hip contains rose seeds.
After a rose is fertilized, the ovary swells from the seeds growing inside of it. When it swells to its fullest, it is called a "rose hip." To get rose seeds for propagation, cut the hips from the stem above the leaves after the first heavy frost. Most hips will have changed color over time from green to yellow, orange or red and some may not change color at all, but they may all be taken for seeds. Open hips with a knife; rose seeds are hard, so do not be too concerned about damaging them. The Maryland Rose Society recommends dropping seeds in a glass of water with a teaspoon of bleach. Seeds that drop to the glass bottom are more likely to germinate than the seeds that remain at the water's surface.
Stratification
Rose seeds must be "stratified" before planting, meaning they need a period of moist, cold storage of about 35 degrees Fahrenheit. Place the seeds in containers or plastic bags with a little moist peat moss and store the containers in the refrigerator for 45 to 60 days. Plant the stratified seeds in a pot with potting soil. Keep new plants in sunlight and warm temperatures throughout the winter, then plant outside in the spring. According to New Mexico State University, in a year or sometimes several years, the plants will produce flowers, although they may be quite different from the plant the seeds came from.
Tags: According Mexico, According Mexico State, Mexico State, Mexico State University, parent plant, plant seeds, Rose seeds
Steam from the ground is evidence that geothermal energy is viable in the region.
Geothermal energy is available when heat deep within the planet rises relatively close to the surface. Heat flow gradient quantifies temperature differences between the surface and a specified depth. The greater the heat flow gradient, the more viable geothermal electricity generation becomes. Connecticut has a low heat flow gradient. This is not likely to change in the near future.
Geothermal Energy Source
Concentrated radioactivity, molten rock compressed and heated since the Earth's creation, and friction between tectonic plates contribute to underground heat. In order to be commercially viable, ground near the surface (few miles down into bedrock) needs to have a high heat flow gradient.
Heat Flow Gradient
Usable geothermal energy is like fossil fuels in the sense that some places have lots and others have virtually none. A high heat flow makes commercial use easier and cheaper. The geothermal heat flow map by Southern Methodist University indicates relatively small---40 to 50 mW/m3---heat gradients under Connecticut.
Power Plants
SMU's map shows that there are no geothermal power plants in or near Connecticut. Electricity from geothermal energy is zero or negligible. The Department of Energy's Energy Information Administration supports this conclusion, showing no electricity production through geothermal energy exploitation.
Future Prospects
Unless geothermal generator technology becomes efficient enough to exploit low heat flow gradients, prospects of geothermal electricity in Connecticut remain dim.
The sights to see underground make spelunking an interesting pastime.
Impressive rock formations, cave dwelling animals and water features make spelunking a memorable pastime for those who try it. The underground caverns of Illinois provide exciting locations for spelunking enthusiasts, with several areas having cave systems open to exploration. Spelunking organizations in the state enable those involved in the pastime to meet like-minded people.
General
Anyone considering spelunking in Illinois should note that, since early 2010, many state-owned cave systems have closed to visitors. The reason involves a disease known as white-nosed syndrome, which affects bats living in caves. Organizations, such as the Illinois Department of Natural Resources (dnr.state.il.us) are concerned that human activity in the caves may result in the spread of the disease. Closures will likely remain in place through 2012, although quarterly reviews will assess the need for them.
Organizations
Organizations in Illinois that cater to those interested in spelunking include the Little Egypt Grotto (home.globaleyes.net/carbide). Based in Carbondale, this club schedules trips to local Illinois cave systems, as well as further afield. The Grotto holds monthly meetings at Southern Illinois University (siu.edu), with new members welcome to attend. The Windy City Grotto (windycitygrotto.org) also arranges outings to caves in Illinois and other locations. They hold meetings twice a month at Aurelio's Pizza (aureliospizza.com) in Addison for those interested in becoming a member.
Cave Locations
The Illinois Department of Natural Resources identifies four main regions with geological conditions that result in underground cave systems. These include the Driftless Area in the northwest corner of Illinois, the Lincoln Hills in the west and the Salem Plateau and Shawnee Hills regions in the south of the state. With many cave systems likely to remain closed through 2012, spelunking enthusiasts planning an expedition should check with the organization responsible for managing a cave before traveling, to verify access for visitors.
Cave Types
The Illinois State Geological Survey (isgs.uiuc.edu) identifies two types of cave systems in Illinois. Branchwork caves typically develop in limestone rock areas and feature a large central cave with smaller passages branching off from it. Network caves more commonly form in dolomite rock in Illinois, although they can also develop in limestone regions. These typically feature a grid-like network of inter-connecting passages.
Cave Animals
Spelunking provides the opportunity to view several animal species identified by the Illinois Department of Natural Resources as living in Illinois cave systems. These include the monorail worm and cave salamander. Rare cave creatures include the Illinois cave amphipod, a shrimplike animal that lives in a few caves in the Salem Plateau region.
Cave Protection Act
Those planning a spelunking trip should make themselves aware of the Illinois Cave Protection Act, which identifies activities that those entering a cave system should avoid. These include causing damage to rock surfaces and formations, interfering with any cave animals and organisms, and prohibitions on removing any materials or objects found in a cave system.
Tags: cave systems, Department Natural, Department Natural Resources, Illinois Department, Illinois Department Natural
The Richter Scale was designed in 1935 to measure the magnitude of earthquakes. Most earthquakes above level 6.0 are considered large and an earthquake measuring 9.0 or above is devastating. The results of a 9.0 earthquake differ depending on the area where it occurs, but a few events are likely to occur in any earthquake of this magnitude.
Destruction
A sufficiently large earthquake is bound to cause some degree of damage, but an earthquake measuring 9.0 can almost level cities completely, depending on the earthquake preparedness of the area. Glass from building can shatter and fall, threatening pedestrians walking by. Roofs can sometimes cave in, and in some circumstances buildings can take enough structural foundation to collapse entirely. Most people who die in earthquakes do not die as a direct result of the earthquake, but rather as a result of damaged and collapsing buildings.
Tremors
Any earthquake measuring 9.0 would likely result in significant tremors. Tremors are the small aftershocks that usually accompany earthquakes. In the case of a 9.0 earthquake, the tremors can be quite large earthquakes in themselves. Earthquakes occur when there is a movement in the tectonic plates that all land rest on. Because these plates are connected, tremors often take place quite far from the location of the original earthquake.
Tsunamis
Tsunamis are one of the most devastating aspects of a large earthquake. When tectonic plates shift, the resulting earthquake displaces water. In the case of an earthquake measuring 9.0, the amount of water displaced can be immense. These waves shoot across the water, causing destruction thousands of miles away from the earthquake. These waves devastate seaside towns, wash people out to sea and completely submerge low-lying islands.
Liquefaction
One curious aspect of large earthquakes is soil liquefaction, or simply liquefaction. When immense earthquakes occur, the shaking of the ground creates immense stress on soil. The pressure looks for an escape and finds it in the pores of soil. Water shoots up through these pores, creating a kind of sludge. In turn, this sludge acts like quicksand swallowing whatever lies on top of it. If larger buildings are resting on liquefied soil, they may topple completely.
Tags: earthquake measuring, large earthquake, case earthquake, large earthquakes, tectonic plates, These waves
Hands-on learning will get your students more engaged with plate tectonics, and potentially increase their excitement about science.
Plate tectonics, the study of movements of the Earth's crust over thousands of years, is an exciting topic in science class. Help your students learn about plate tectonics in an even more in-depth way, by giving them projects in plate tectonics that enable them to take a hands-on approach to their learning.
Plate tectonics puzzle
Have students cut a world map out of the tectonic boundaries. Show students images of the continents during various tectonic shifts, and have them put together their "puzzle pieces" in a way that depicts tectonic shifts, thus helping them to understand the extent to which the continents shifted around.
Plate tectonics scientists
Have students research a prominent scientist involved with plate tectonics. Have them prepare a multimedia presentation with images and trivia of that scientist's life. Then, appeal to students' competitive side by having them prepare a game of Jeopardy or a crossword puzzle to test their classmates' comprehension of their presentation. Reward the winning student or team.
Plate tectonics in the classroom
Have students use classroom materials to illustrate the spreading-floor tectonics that created the Atlantic Ocean. A potential method aligns two desks with their edges touching, to symbolize two ocean plates. Place two sheets of paper between the two desks, then have students slowly pull them out. As they pull the papers out, have them draw stripes of different colors on the papers, to symbolize the spreading of the new ocean floor from the ridge.
Instruments to study plate tectonics
Have students prepare a presentation on an instrument used to study the shifting of tectonic plates. Have them interview an expert in the use of the instrument, and bring in contact information of the interviewee. Students should provide pictures of the instrument, and tell the class about when the instrument was invented, what advances the instrument has been used to make, what it is currently used for, and use it.
Tags: Have students, Plate tectonics, plate tectonics, have them, plate tectonics, plate tectonics Have
The financial services industry is a large part of the American economy. In 2010 it employed more than 300,000 people, and employment growth is expected to be between 7 percent and 13 percent until 2018. Salaries increase with years of experience, and pay is higher for people with advanced degrees. The type of banking job also impacts starting salary.
Types of Jobs
Jobs in investment or retail banking have different degree requirements, job descriptions and pay scales. An associate investment banker is the most common entry level job in investment banking. First year jobs in retail banking are usually for the position of branch manager, assistant manager, or personal banker. Both families of jobs involve financial planning and executing financial transactions, but the difference is in the customers. Investment banks work with large institutions, and retail banks work with individuals and small to medium sized companies.
Investment Bankers
An investment banking associate in his first year who has a bachelor's degree could expect his total compensation to be between $50,000 and $100,000 in 2011. The base salary is closer to $50,000, but commission, bonuses and a profit-sharing plan may increase pay. The pay range is heavily influenced by experience and education level. Workers in their first year make much less than those with more experience, and workers with bachelor's degrees make less than those with master's degrees.
Branch Managers
In a retail bank, the branch manager is responsible for branch profits and the performance of other employees in the branch. Branch managers are typically the highest paid employees in a branch, and, as of 2011, the salary for first-year branch managers with a bachelor's degree was between $30,000 to $50,000. Branch managers usually have a bachelor's degree in business administration, management or finance.
Assistant Managers and Bankers
Assistant branch managers are responsible for overseeing adherence to bank security procedures, and a personal banker is the primary bank sales agent. As of 2011, the salaries for first-year employees with a bachelor's degree was between $31,000 to $40,000 for assistant branch managers, and $28,000 to $36,000 for personal bankers. Assistant branch managers tend to have larger starting salaries, but bankers have higher earning potential due to commissions.
Tags: branch managers, with bachelor, Assistant branch managers, bachelor degree, bachelor degree, bachelor degree between
Both animals and plant fossils are found in some sedimentary rocks.
In some areas of the world, certain types of rocks contain fossils of both plants and animals that lived many millions of years ago. These now-permanent impressions give us a glimpse into what life was like in the Earth's ancient history.
Initial Formation
For a fossil to form, animals or plants first fell into mud or silt in water and settle. Over time, more layers of silt or mud covered the remains, compressing them between the layer below and the one above.
Preservation
The anaerobic environment in this sediment initially prevented the remains from decomposing. Pressure from additional layers of sediment that formed above the remains compressed them flat, forming an impression between the layers of silt.
Impression
Pressure and heat eventually changed the silt into layers of finely grained rock, such as shale and slate, commonly called sedimentary rock. Over many centuries, the matter in the remains was slowly dissolved, with the resulting space acting as a mold that filled with minerals, preserving the impression as a fossil.
Geological Changes
As time passed and the waters receded from geological changes, the once-wet regions became dry land. Further geological changes exposed the rock surface, making it possible to see the fossils within.
Collecting
Many people hunt fossils in geological formations. Removing large sections of rock, then split them along the layers, hoping to reveal the fossil of a fern, fish, trilobite or other life that existed millions of years ago.
Tags: geological changes, layers silt, millions years
Geodes are spheroid-shaped, hollow rocks that have an inner lining of small crystals projecting inward. Geodes are natural phenomena formed out of millions of years of geological evolution. While experts don't know for certain how geodes are actually formed, there are theories among geologists about the processes that take place. There are generally two types of geodes. One geode is made out of lava. The other is made from dolomite, a limestone-like sedimentary rock. Each geode is created through different processes. All geodes, no matter how they are formed, must contain hollow bodies in which crystals can form.
How Geodes Are Formed From Lava
Some geodes are formed out of molten lava rocks. After the molten rocks cool, they create gasses that, when dissolved, turn into bubbles. These bubbles turn into cavities once the rocks harden. The early stages of these cavities are called thunder eggs. According to experts, the minerals that form into crystals may have flowed into these cavities in two ways. Either the minerals could have come from the hot water flowing through the cracks in the lava rocks as they cooled, or they could have been deposited much later as mineral groundwater. However the convention, minerals such as quartz are introduced into the thunder egg through a flow of water, thus creating the opportunity for crystals to form.
How Geodes Are Formed From Dolomite
The formation of geodes from dolomite is much more complicated that those formed out of lava rocks. The theory of how dolomite geodes are formed came from geologist Robert Maliva in 1987. His theory goes that the geode cavity formed from a small, hard spheroid that later dissolved and became a cavity, a process that began over 350 million years ago in the warm, shallow waters that once covered what is now the central United States region. Lime sediments grew in the warm saltwater. When the saltwater interacted with sediments rich in calcite, the calcite metastasized into the minerals dolomite and anhydrite.
The anhydrite then turned into hard spheroid bodies inside the dolomite. Meanwhile, the dolomite changed from a sediment into a hard rock. Anhydrite will dissolve even in the slightest amounts of acid in water. Thus, after acidic water was introduced, outer areas of the anhydrite broke away and were replaced with quartz, which were in the beginning only small fibers of crystal. The centers of the anhydrite bodies were then dispersed completely. Quartz was fed through the rock from water rich with minerals, forming the crystals that grow inside. Over time, the rocks disintegrated, leaving the dolomite to open the elements and causing it to dissolve. The hardened quartz then separated from the dolomite, turning into geodes formed on the ground.
Tags: lava rocks, could have, crystals form, crystals form Geodes, form Geodes, form Geodes Formed, from dolomite
Motor coach tours are a comfortable way to tour the Grand Canyon.
Motor coach bus tours are a comfortable and exciting way to tour the Grand Canyon. Many tours originate in Las Vegas, pick up passengers, and return them to their hotels after a long day of sightseeing. Many themed tours are also available, as well as luxury and VIP tours, ensuring that motor coach tours offer something for everyone.
Xanterra Parks & Resorts
Xanterra Parks & Resorts operates a fleet of buses offering several unique Grand Canyon Tours highlighting the area's fascinating history and geology, and narrated by knowledgeable, entertaining guides. Tours vary in length and are fairly economical.
The two-hour Hermits Rest Tour travels along an old Santa Fe Railway wagon road, stopping along the Grand Canyon's West Rim at many scenic outlooks. The Desert View Tour covers 52 miles in 3.75 hours, stopping at at Lipan Point, one of the East Rim Drive's most spectacular viewpoints.
Sunrise and Sunset Tours, lasting about 1.5 hours, are also available. Travelers can witness the sun rising over the ramparts of the Palisades of the Desert and setting at Yaki or Mojave Point on the South Rim.
Vegas Tours
Vegas Tours offers numerous specialized Grand Canyon motor coach tours. One of the most personalized is the VIP tour on the customized luxury mini bus with extendable reclining seats, flat screen TVs, and lunch provided--and just 14 people per tour.
Another alternative is the 13-15 hour South Rim Adventure Tour on a luxury double decker bus, including hotel pickup, panoramic windows, available IMAX, and complimentary lunch. Stops include the Hoover Dam and Lake Mead, Grand Canyon South Rim, Mather Point, an Indian Hopi House, and the National Geographic Visitors Center.
Hualapai Indian Nation/Cowboy Adventure
A themed option is Vegas Tours' Deluxe Grand Canyon West Rim Hualapai Indian Nation / Cowboy and Western Town Adventure. After crossing the Hoover Dam, guests are invited to explore the sacred and pristine lands of the Hualapai Indians, watch a wild west show in a cowboy town, explore an Indian village, enjoy a wagon ride, and have lunch at an Indian BBQ or Cowboy Cookout.
South Rim
Grand Canyon Bus Tours South Rim tour lasts about 15 hours from pick up (at any major Las Vegas hotel) to drop off. The tour makes a quick stop at the Hoover Dam, the moves on to the Grand Canyon entrance for a lunch stop. After lunch, the bus travels into the Grand Canyon National Park, stopping at scenic points such as Yavapai Point and the Bright Angel Lodge.
West Rim
The Grand Canyon West Rim tour about 12 hours long. The tour includes a stop at the Hoover Dam, then moves into the 900-year-old Joshua Tree forest in Hualapai Indian Tribal Lands. The bus stops at Eagle Point to tour replicas of traditional Native American dwellings and experience a cultural performance. Visitors also have the chance to visit the thrilling glass-bottomed Grand Canyon Skywalk. Finally, the tour visits Guano Point to see mine and cable car remnants and eat an outdoor barbecue lunch with a view of the canyon and the Colorado River.
Tags: Grand Canyon, coach tours, about hours, Canyon West, Grand Canyon West, Hualapai Indian
Get Insurance Protection Against Natural Disasters
Basic home owner's insurance does not cover every contingency. If you live in an area where natural disasters, such as floods or earthquakes, occur, you need to buy additional protection to cover your home in the form of rider on your home owner's policy.
Instructions
1. Check with the U.S. Geological Survey, in your local phone directory, or the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for maps showing the earthquake and flood risks in your area. FEMA can be reached at (800) 358-9616.
2. Contact the federal flood insurance program for background information on the types of policies available through private insurance companies. The federal flood insurance program can be reached at (800) 638-6620.
3. Call several different insurance carriers.
4. Ask them specifically about their rates for riders covering the current value of your home for flood, earthquake, hurricane or other natural disasters.
5. Go with the carrier that offers the best balance of rates and protection for your situation.
Tags: your home, Against Natural, Against Natural Disasters, federal flood, federal flood insurance
The Piedmont is the province farthest east of the Appalachian Mountains, stretching 1,000 miles between southern New York and Alabama. A transitional upland bridging higher country to the west and the low woods and swamps of the Atlantic-Gulf Coastal Plain eastward, the Piedmont is generally a low, rolling plateau strung with shallow valleys. Several landforms are particularly notable in the region.
Geography
West of the Piedmont is more rugged terrain of the Appalachians. At its southern toe in Alabama and Georgia and in its northwestern extent in Pennsylvania it borders the Valley and Ridge province. In between those abutments, the Blue Ridge lines the western Piedmont from northern Georgia to southern Pennsylvania. Some of the Appalachian Mountains' most imposing, high-relief ranges lie in the Blue Ridge province, including the Great Smoky Mountains along the Tennessee-North Carolina line and the Black Mountains of North Carolina, which include the chain's highest summit, 6,684-foot Mount Mitchell. The Piedmont's northern end abuts the New England province of the Appalachians.
Fall Line
The eastern boundary of the Piedmont constitutes one of the great topographic frontiers in North America, the Fall Line. Here rivers tumble in waterfalls and cataracts off the older and more resilient rocks of the plateau to the low-lying Atlantic-Gulf Coastal Plain. The Fall Line has had major implications for human settlement along the East Coast for centuries: It marked the farthest upstream point for shipping in the big Coastal Plain rivers as well as the farthest downstream for relatively easy crossing of the narrower drainages above the drop.
Monadnocks
Isolate lone summits are common in the Piedmont, composed of rock more resistant than surrounding layers that end up being eroded and weathered away, leaving the tougher material as outcrops. In North America, these landforms are often called monadnocks, which stems from an Abenaki Indian word for a New Hampshire peak that may mean "the mountain that stands alone" or "smooth mountain." Elsewhere they go by the moniker "inselberg." Notable examples in the Piedmont include Georgia's Stone Mountain, whose north face bears a large rock carving of Jefferson Davis, General "Stonewall" Jackson and General Robert E. Lee, and Kennesaw Mountain in the same state, where a major Civil War battle was fought in 1864.
Hudson River Palisades
Among the most famous geologic features in the immediate vicinity of New York City, the Palisades are a belt of columnar traprock along the western shore of the Hudson River. They stem from an intrusion of an igneous diabase sill into weaker sedimentary layers of the Newark Basin, one of the structural depressions in the Piedmont, some 200 million years ago. Erosion of surrounding sandstone and shale left the traprock sheet exposed. They exceed 600 feet in elevation and support critical natural communities such as mixed-oak forests and talus aprons.
Tags: Coastal Plain, Fall Line, Appalachian Mountains, Atlantic-Gulf Coastal, Atlantic-Gulf Coastal Plain, Blue Ridge, Hudson River
Explore the fault that makes California's terrain so trecherous.
The California fault line is responsible for the abundance of earthquakes that have hit California in recorded history. This line is created by the meeting of the North American and Pacific tectonic plates. As these plates move, sometimes independently of each other, they create an Earth-shaking spectacle. Teachers can engage their middle school students in a high-interest exploration of this phenomenon by engaging them in fault line activities.
Fault Line Map
Familiarize your students with the California fault line by turning a fault line map into a coloring page. Create copies of a fault line map, like the one featured on TeachingBoxes.com. Provide your pupils with copies of this diagram and art supplies. Allow them to take a break from the serious study of middle school and add color to this bland diagram. As they place color on the image, they will commit it to memory. Display the fault line artwork around the classroom.
Movement Prediction Tools
Fault line movements are largely unpredictable, making earthquakes an even more imposing threat. Scientists do, however, have some means by which to determine when a fault line might cause a quake. Engage your students in an exploration of these tools. Divide students into groups of three or four. Provide each group with print resources as well as the Internet. Instruct the groups to search their provided resources for tools that scientists may be able to use to predict movement and therefore save lives.
After students have completed their study, create a list of tools they found on the classroom chalkboard. Allow each group to select one of the listed tools to research in greater depth. Instruct groups to create posters that explain their assigned tools and tell others how the tools could help build a better understanding of fault line behavior.
Earthquake Brochure
Those who live in the California earthquake zones or in close proximity to any fault line may be consistently vigilant and watch out for signs of earthquakes. As you conclude your earthquake study, ask students to use their understanding of these natural disasters to create an informative brochure that could be used by individuals who live in earthquake-prone areas. Either provide students access to a computer publishing program that offers a brochure template or paper and art supplies, and ask them to craft an engaging and educational brochure to impart earthquake information to the masses.
Tags: fault line, fault line, California fault, California fault line, each group
Religion courses cover ministry, counseling and education.
The state of North Carolina is home to more than 110 colleges and universities and a number of Bible colleges, all of which offer online courses as part of distance education programs. Students wishing to take online religion courses for continuing education or to work toward a degree have a selection of institutions that range from small private Bible colleges to the community college system and large public universities. Religion courses offer study in various areas, including Christian ministry, Christian counseling, Biblical foundations, Christian education and music.
Heritage Bible College
The college offers a variety of religion courses leading to associate's and bachelor's degrees. Majors include religious education in Biblical studies, Christian studies and religious education in pastoral ministry. Students may choose courses toward a minor in music or Christian counseling.
Applications must include appropriate fees, letter of purpose, pastoral and general reference, high school transcript or GED diploma, medical history, immunization verification and college transcripts. All materials must be mailed to the college by Aug.1 for fall semester and Dec. 10 for spring semester.
Heritage Bible College
1747 Bud Hawkins Road
P.O. Box 1628
Dunn, NC 28334
800-297-6351
heritagebiblecollege.edu
John Wesley College
John Wesley College is an interdenominational Bible college founded to teach lifelong learners. The college offers religion courses through seven programs of study that lead to Bachelor's of Arts degrees, Associate's of Arts degrees and certificates. Majors include theology, pastoral ministry and Christian ministry. Admission requirements include high school graduation, 2.0 GPA on high school or college work and pre-admission testing.
John Wesley College
336-889-2262
johnwesley.edu
Piedmont Baptist College and Graduate College
The college's Spurgeon School of Online Education provides seven-week religion courses for undergraduate and graduate students. Courses lead to associate's and bachelor's degrees in several majors, including Christian ministry, Bible and Bible with selected minor. The school also offers master's degrees in Biblical studies and ministry. Piedmont Baptist College encourages enrollment by ministers, military personnel, missionaries and lay leaders. Students complete an online application for admission.
Spurgeon School of Online Education
Piedmont Baptist College
420 S. Broad St.
Winston-Salem, NC 27101
800-937-5097
pbc.edu
University of North Carolina Online: Philosophy and Religion Courses
The University of North Carolina (UNC) has 17 campuses throughout the state, each of which has online courses, including 37 courses in the Philosophy and Religion program area. Courses include African and Asian religion, Judaism and Christianity. The UNC online website provides a list of links to the websites of its 17 campuses. Students enrolled at one of the UNC schools may register online for the courses.
University of North Carolina Online
northcarolina.edu
Tags: North Carolina, religion courses, Baptist College, Christian ministry, high school
Redwood trees make up part of California's coastal resources.
California, known as the Golden State, abounds with a wide range of natural resources. A varied terrain makes life possible for many unusual plant and animal variations. With both the highest and lowest points in the continental United States (Mt. Whitney and Death Valley, respectively) the wide range of elevation is also a factor in resources. The coastal regions are no exception. From cold, rocky cliffs to warm, sandy beaches, the California coast stretches 840 miles long. It is no wonder there is such a variety of coastal resources.
Forests
There are five major tree communities in the coastal regions of California: Douglas-fir, mixed-evergreen, closed-cone, Riparion and redwood. Many of the California redwoods exceed 200 feet, many even reaching 369 feet and 15 feet in diameter. Some of the redwoods are estimated to be 2,200 years old. There are very few other forests that are structured similarly to these redwood forests and one of the other three is the Giant Sequoia Groves in the Sierra Nevada range in California.
The redwood forest covers over 5,100 square miles, which is slightly larger than the state of Connecticut. The Redwood forests are home to many distinct species of plants and animals. Animals that find a home here are bears, fishers, pine warblers, including the endangered marbled murrelet, many types of amphibians, fish and insects.
Wetlands
Coastal wetlands are comprised of natural communities that have a combination of aquatic, semi-aquatic, and terrestrial habitats. Wetlands provide a habitat for many organisms, including many endangered species.
The coastal wetlands produce high levels of oxygen and filter toxic chemicals out of water. They also reduce flooding and erosion. While the value of wetlands was not understood in the early 1900's, efforts have been made in recent years to restore the natural habitats for many endangered species by establishing wetland reserves. Concentrated efforts have been made by the California Resources Agency in different areas of the California coast, totaling near 58,000 acres.
Mountains
California's coastal mountain ranges span 800 miles of the 840 mile coastline. Breaking only at the Golden Gate, the coast ranges provide a continuing line of mountains and valleys stretching from the northwest corner of the state to the Mexican border. The mountain ranges also form a separation in the state of California, dividing the coast from the interior deserts and Central Valley region.
The mountain ranges provide a place for timber industries and the cool coastal fog, combined with the hot inland valleys, creates a prime environment for cultivating wine grapes. The temperate climates moderated by these vast, coastal ranges allow a wide variety of fruit and nut trees to flourish. Many cool weather vegetables, such as spinach, can be grown in these areas of the state. 73 percent of the spinach grown in California comes from Monterey County. California produces 74 percent of the spinach grown in the United States, made possible by the cool climate near the coastal ranges.
Tags: mountain ranges, spinach grown, been made, California coast, California coastal, coastal ranges
Finding a good internship is one of the most important things you can do to prepare yourself to find a job in oceanography, whether you are getting ready to graduate from college or looking to explore a new career field. Often, an employer you complete an internship with will eventually offer you a full-time position. Due to the specific requirements of this field of work, there are a few things to keep in mind in your quest to get an internship in oceanography.
Instructions
1. Demonstrate your interest in oceanography by participating in school-related activities before applying for an internship. Most universities with departments that offer degree programs in the field of oceanography will also host a variety of clubs and organizations for students and faculty interested in the topic. Taking part in these types of activities is a good way to network with other people in oceanography who may be able to direct you toward an internship and provide you with a good recommendation for the position.
2. Volunteer at local oceanography organizations whenever the opportunity arises. Contact these organizations to let them know you are interested in helping out in any way possible with any special events and projects. Though volunteer work is usually unpaid and may be infrequent, this is the kind of experience that is looked upon highly by employers, because it shows a dedication and passion for oceanography that is likely to make you a devoted and enthusiastic intern.
3. Look for job listings for internships by using resources provided by oceanography societies and organizations. The Oceanography Society and other similar groups provide valuable information about current jobs and internships for oceanographers (see Resources below). Becoming a member of such an organization is also a good way to keep yourself up to date on any news in the field and is definitely a valuable item to list on your resume.
4. Update your resume to reflect your specific skills and experience in oceanography. You may want to create a new version of your resume that is customized to highlight these aspects of your professional background to use specifically for applying for oceanography positions. An employer may only spend a few moments reviewing your resume, so it is important to remove any filler and focus on the aspects that relate directly to oceanography.
5. Show enthusiasm for oceanography when you get an interview for an oceanography internship. These positions are usually highly competitive, so it is essential that you convince the employer that you have a real passion for ocean science and will take the position seriously. Reading the latest research on oceanography before your interview will allow you to converse with your potential employer on the subject and will demonstrate your passion for the science and your willingness to learn.
A polished mineral sample suitable for jewelry-making.
Smooth, shiny rocks are relatively common in the natural environment, as small stones roll in the surf or on stream bottoms for centuries. This constant abrasion against other rocks creates stones that are pleasing to both eye and touch. Humans have improved on nature when it comes to smoothing stones: by using a mechanical rock tumbler we can polish stones to a glossy finish that is so attractive that polished samples are often used for jewelry and other keepsakes.
Instructions
1. Load the rock tumbler with the rock and mineral samples. Weigh the samples on the scale to avoid exceeding the tumbler's rated weight.
2. Add about one tablespoon of coarse (60-90) grit to the tumbler for each pound of rock. Add some gravel and sand with the grit if there are only one or two large samples. Add sufficient water to cover about two-thirds of the rocks.
3. Tumble with coarse grit constantly for two weeks. Check the tumbler after five to seven days to see if the grit has broken down. When the grit breaks down, pour off the water and add coarse grit and water as before. Continue tumbling for a total of two weeks.
4. After tubmling with coarse grit, the stones are rounded and smooth but do not display gloss.
Check the rocks for edges. Continue tumbling with coarse grit for another week if there are any sharp edges or corners.
5. Empty the contents of the tumbler. Wash the rocks to remove all traces of grit. Empty the tumbler and wash and rinse it entirely, then allow to dry. Examine the rocks, and discard any broken or very small pieces.
6. Return the rocks to the tumbler with medium (120-220) grit and water in the same amounts as in the coarse polishing step. Tumble for another week to 10 days.
7. Empty the tumbler, and wash the rocks thoroughly to remove any trace of the grit. Wash out all traces of grit from the tumbler, and dry the barrel. Discard any that are broken or undersized.
8. Return the rocks to the tumbler with pre-polish (500) grit and water as above. Use about three-quarters of the amount of grit as used in the first two tumble stages. Tumble for one week to 10 days.
9. Empty the tumbler, wash out any remaining grit, and dry the barrel. Wash the rocks thoroughly to remove the pre-polish grit. Inspect the stones and discard any are too small to polish (less than one-quarter inch or so) or that have broken.
10. If the stones are hard enough, polishing creates a smooth surface that is shinier than naturally-polished stones.
Return the smoothed rock to the tumbler with polish-quality grit and water. Tumble for two weeks.
11. Empty the tumbler and wash both tumbler and rocks thoroughly. Return the rocks to the tumbler with water and a small amount of bar soap. Tumble for four to eight hours to clean off any remaining dirt or crushed grit .
If you're interested in the dynamic nature of our planet, up-to-the-minute reports on earthquake occurrences around the world may also pique your curiosity. The U.S. Geological Survey offers this information to the public through its website. The site gives information not only on where temblors occur, but also the time they occur and their magnitude.
Instructions
1. Log onto the Internet, and navigate to the U.S. Geological Survey's Earthquake Hazards Program website. A link is provided in the References section.
2. Notice the two maps -- one a U.S. map and the other a world map -- on the home page. Both contain colored squares of various sizes marking the epicenter of where recent activity has occurred. Larger squares indicate earthquakes of greater magnitude than smaller squares do. Red squares indicate activity that has occurred in the last hour, blue within the last day and yellow within the last week. Click on the map that contains the location in which you're interested. This will make the map larger on your screen.
3. Click again on the map, this time on the location within the map in which you'd like to review. This will zoom in on the area. Click again to further zoom in. Click on the colored square marking the area in which you're most interested. This will bring up data regarding the quake such as its magnitude, depth and closest cities.
Tags: This will, Click again, Geological Survey, interested This, interested This will
Studying earth changes is part of the field of geology.
By studying changes in the Earth, kids can learn about volcanoes, earthquakes, floods, and landslides. Science projects provide hands-on opportunities to delve into the processes involved in changing the underlying structure of the Earth. Students can explore the causes of these phenomena and their effects on the environment.
Soil Erosion
In this project, you will measure the erosion of soil in various locations of your choice. Locate three to five soil sites on slight slopes. Use milk jugs with the tops cut off to make sampling containers for each site. You will need three identical containers for each testing site. Bury the containers so the top is even with or a little below the surface of the soil. Record the site locations, type of soil, and plant cover at the location. Take pictures of each site. After each rain, measure the soil collected in each container. Dry the soil before measuring. Note the date and time of each sampling, the amount of rainfall, and the weight of the soil. Average the collection results from each site and graph the differences. Note the differences in erosion by soil type.
Soil Types and Liquefaction
In this project you will explore soil liquefaction which can lead to landslides. Obtain three identical pails. Fill each pail with a different type of soil: loam, sand, and clay. Stack three bricks on top of the soil in one of the pails. Use a marker to draw a line thirty millimeters from the base of the bricks to measure the sinking of the bricks. Gently pour 100 mL of water into the soil. Wait two minutes, and then pour an additional 100 mL of water into the soil. Repeatedly add water until the bricks sink 30 millimeters. Record how much water was added prior to liquefaction. Repeat the procedures for the other two soil types. Graph the amount of water required to liquefy each soil type.
Effects of Chemical Weathering on Rocks
In this experiment, you will observe and record the role of carbon dioxide in the weathering of four different rock types. Fill four eight ounce cups three-fourths full of tap water and four with carbonated water. Put a rock fragment in each cup, and label each cup according to its contents: tap water or carbonated water and limestone, granite, marble, or sandstone. Observe any changes. After fifteen minutes, check the cups and record any changes. Leave the rocks in the cups overnight and observe any changes. Graph any differences you observe based on rock type or differences in reaction in water with carbon dioxide versus water without.
Ring of Fire
In this project you will use information about volcanoes to explore plate tectonics. Log onto the Smithsonian/USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report website, and gather data concerning volcanic activity, including: longitude, latitude, elevation, kind of volcanic formation, and type of volcanic activity. Make or purchase a blank world map transparency. Plot the volcanic activity on the map. Locate a map of the Earth's tectonic plates. How does the volcanic activity relate to the location of tectonic plates?
Tags: each site, project will, this project, this project will, volcanic activity, about volcanoes, carbon dioxide
Geotechnicians select and prepare instruments for geological surveying.
Geotechnicians work in the geology field, helping scientists collect and analyze geospatial information. Because mapping geological sites requires strong knowledge of mathematics and computer technologies, employers look for candidates with excellent problem-solving, scientific and technical skills. Although they act as assistants to geologists, geotechnicians must be able to prioritize their work and perform tasks without direct supervision. The average salary for surveying and mapping technicians, which include geotechnicians, was $40,370 according to a May 2010 Bureau of Labor Statistics report.
Function and Average Salary
Although the average salary for geotechnicians and other surveying technicians is just under $41,000, annual wages for this role range from as low as $23,450 to as high as $60,870 per year. Geotechnicians are paid measure the contour, shape, location and elevation of land masses and features. Their duties range from collecting water, rock and soil samples, to conducting experiments and analyzing test results. Geotechnicians use instruments such as hand and measuring tools to search for oil and gas deposits, and they prepare geological maps. These professionals also analyze seismic survey and record oil well- and borehole-drilling activities.
Geography
Average salaries for geotechnicians working in the U.S. ranged significantly across major metropolitan cities. A July 2011 SalaryExpert report showed that geotechnicians employed in Miami averaged $32,317 per year. However, geotechnicians working in Los Angeles averaged an annual wage of $65,008. Likewise, professionals in Houston reported an average salary of $65,040. In Charlotte, geotechnicians reported an average salary of $52,100 per year. Professionals also averaged $43,347 in Chicago, $45,036 in Atlanta and $49,749 in New York City.
Benefits
Similar to other occupations, geotechnicians received employee benefits such as bonuses, vacation time and health insurance. Geotechnicians received an average bonus of $3,558, according to Salary Expert. However, average bonuses ranged from as low as $2,407 to as high as $4,618. Moreover, employee benefits for geotechnicians averaged approximately $8,321 per year. Employee benefits ranged from $5,628 to as high as $10,800 annually.
Potential
According to the BLS, jobs are projected to increase 19 percent for surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying and mapping technicians through the year 2018. As an employee in the geology field, geotechnicians should find ample employment opportunities within construction firms that use geographic information system (GIS) and global positioning system (GPS) technologies to build infrastructure such as roads, bridges, sewage systems, mining sites and power grids. Also, geotechnicians will need to replace professionals who are retiring or transitioning to other sectors. Geotechnicians with a college education and proficiency in geographic mapping systems should have the best job prospects during the 2008 to 2018 decade.
Tags: average salary, from high, geology field, geotechnicians working, mapping technicians, range from, ranged from
In times of economic uncertainty, investors purchase gold as a hedge against fluctuating stock, commodity and currency markets. In December 2010, an ounce of gold was selling for upwards of $1,400 per ounce, with no end of the upward trend in sight. With a little research, patience and free time, you can prospect for gold in a location near you. If Lady Luck is on your side, perhaps you will hit the mother lode, a large deposit of solid gold, and retire as a millionaire.
Geological Research
Before embarking on prospecting for gold, research the geological formations in your area. Gold has been found in every U.S. state, and many formations have been documented for hundreds of years. Due to the unique geological pressures necessary to create gold, where gold was found in the past is a key to where you will find it in the present.
Visit you library, look at USGS topographical maps and identify areas where prospectors have struck gold in years past. Look for rivers and streams leading downhill from areas where gold was found. Purchase the most detailed topographical maps ideally with GPS coordinates to ensure that you are in the optimal place for gold prospecting.
Get an expert edge by talking with a geology professor at a nearby university. You can also join a god prospector's club to share tips and tricks of the trade. Your best bet at finding gold is knowledge, so be creative in seeking out information from other sources besides books and maps.
Gold is Heavy
According to GoldFeverProspecting.com, gold is 19 times as heavy as water, which means that gold will always sink to the lowest level. Keeping this statistic in mind is key to searching for gold. Think about how gold will run down a hillside or mountain and which places the gold will be trapped in the natural environment. For example, look for places that will slow the flow of gold down, such as the inside of a river bend, under large boulders, where a stream widens, cracks under moss and under patches of gravel.
Throw a branch or some rocks into a stream and watch how the current flows, where the current slows down and which obstacles trap items. This may give you some insight on where to start hunting for gold.
Use a Gold Detector
Gold detectors are small machines that detect gold and are attached to a pole. Using a gold detector, you can avoid the backache of stooping, panning and sluicing to find gold nuggets. You can also cover more territory in a small amount of time than using traditional methods.
With the popularity of prospecting, there are numerous gold detector manufacturers. Pick a detector designed specifically for finding gold -- not all other metals. Ask a dealer to let you test drive a few detectors before purchasing to find the most comfortable fit for you and the appropriate machine for the gold density in your prospecting area. Do not test the detector in a building. The materials and the walls will interfere with your readings. Instead, take the detector on a field trip and try finding gold with it before finalizing your purchase.
Tags: finding gold, gold will, areas where, gold detector, gold found
The secret to a healthy, organic garden is in the soil. Healthy soil provides plants with the right balance of nutrients and water-and the community of creatures that live in the soil, including earthworms, insects and microbes, help plants scavenge for nutrients and fight off diseases and pests. Before you add anything to your soil-it's a good idea to get a soil test. The test will tell you the pH of your soil, as well as the percentage of organic matter it contains and nutrient levels. You can also have the lab test for toxins in your soil, including heavy metals such as lead and arsenic. Help ensure that you get the most accurate results possible by sending the lab a representative sample of your soil. Here's how. Does this Spark an idea?
Instructions
1. The easiest way to find a local laboratory that performs soil tests is to call your local Master Gardeners or your county's extension service. You can also ask for a recommendation from a reliable nursery. Prior to gathering your soil sample, call the lab and find out if they have any special instructions and ask what container they prefer you send the sample in.
2. When gathering soil for the sample it's important to include soil from several sites in your garden. This way the soil is representative of the entire garden and not just one bed. If parts of your garden have dramatically different soil, then you may want to consider sending in separate samples from each area.
3. To take a sample, clear away any plant debris on top of the soil. Then, insert a small spade into the soil and remove a 6-inch-deep, 6-inch-wide section of soil. Using a trowel, dig out a small scoop of soil from the bottom of the hole and place it in a plastic or glass container.
4. Repeat Step 3 in several parts of your garden (or in each raised bed of a vegetable garden) until you have the amount of soil the lab needs. Stir the soil together.
5. Make sure you've gathered all of the information the lab requested and then send it in along with the sample. If you are an organic gardener, be sure to request organic amendment recommendations.
Tags: your soil, your garden, parts your, parts your garden, soil from, soil including, soil sample
Geometry has important applications in several disciplines. It has particular importance in architecture because geometry is used to calculate space, angle and distance, which have immediate significance for architectural design. Art uses geometry in depicting spatial depth. Aspects of non-Euclidian Geometry such as fractals can be found occurring naturally in nature.
Origins of Geometry
Geometry is the method of measuring and calculating angle and space. The word "geometry" itself means "to measure the earth." Geometry arose from the practice in ancient Egypt of needing to calculate farm acreage to enable accurate taxation. Geometry as a mathematical discipline was refined by the ancient Greeks, such as Pythagoras and Euclid, who coined the phrase, "Euclidian geometry." The French mathematician Descartes added algebra to geometric theorems in the 17th century, creating analytic, or "non-Euclidian" geometry.
Art
The use of geometry in art was seen most prominently during the Renaissance when the use of perspective was used in painting. This created a sense of three-dimensional depth and horizon on a two-dimensional surface. Geometry was also utilized in Leonardo Da Vinci's sketches and paintings, utilizing not only depth of fields but also proportion. Knot designs and mandalas also include geometric shapes.
Architecture
Geometry has been used in architecture of the ancient Egyptians and Greeks. Geometry for the Greeks was an expression of numerical values with regards to proportion; a small numerical value was equal to a larger one when the proper equation was applied. This influenced the Greek approach to architecture, which emphasized symmetry in a building. This philosophy in turn influenced the Romans, who transmitted their architectural methods to Western culture.
Fractal Geometry
Fractal equations are a branch of geometry which deal with recursive or self-similar dimensions. This means that a fractal equation or algorithm will yield a repetitive pattern as it gets larger in value. When its values are graphically plotted, a fractal pattern looks the same macroscopically as a section of it would look in close-up. Fractal equations can be used to describe formations in nature, such as geological features and cloud formations.
Fractals in Nature
Fractal patterns appear in nature, such as the formation of a nautilus shell, on fern leaf vein patterns and in the branching structure of lightning. The structure of chromosomes are also fractal patterns, as the chromosome components also have the same basic structure. Fractal equations have also been applied to calculate the distribution patterns of earthquakes and their aftershocks. Geographical mapping software in computers also utilize fractal algorithms to scale landscapes to different sizes.
A polytechnic college or university is a higher education facility that offers degrees in vocational areas. Polytechnic universities offer programs for those who wish to be farmers, veterinarians or engineers. These universities often are places where students and professors work together researching industrial arts, applied sciences or technical fields.
Virginia Polytechnic University
Virginia Tech, as it is called, is a research university with programs in agriculture, architecture, business, sciences, engineering and veterinary medicines. Located near Roanoke, it has the largest student body in Virginia with about 30,000 full-time students. It also has numerous sports teams. The university offers both undergraduate and graduate degrees.
Virginia Polytechnic University
Blacksburg, VA 24061
540-231-6000
vt.edu
Polytechnic Institute of New York University
Offering degrees in engineering, applied sciences and research, the institute is an affiliate of New York University. NYU-Poly is one of the oldest engineering schools in the United States, opening its doors in 1854. Along with its programs in New York City, NYU-Poly also has programs in Israel, Abu Dhabi and China. The university specializes in math, science, engineering and telecommunications programs.
Polytechnic Institute of New York University
6 MetroTech Center
Brooklyn, NY 11201
718-260-3600
poly.edu
California Polytechnic State University
Cal Poly-San Luis Obispo--or just SLO--is located on California's central coast. The university offers graduate as well as undergraduate programs. Some of the degree programs include astronomy, astronautics, biotechnology, civil engineering, dairy science, field and wildlife and marine biology. The school as a student population just under 20,000.
California Polytechnic State University
1 Grand Ave.
San Luis Obispo, CA 93407
805-756-1111
calpoly.edu
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute is in Troy, New York, overlooking the Hudson River. Rensselaer offers degrees from five schools including engineering, science, architecture, humanities, and arts and sciences. Aeronautical engineering, biology, chemistry, electronic arts, philosophy, psychology, and geology are some of the programs offered. The university offers both undergraduate and graduate programs. Rensselaer is a very small university with a student body of less than 10,000 students.
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
110 Eighth St.
Troy, NY 12180
518-276-6000
rpi.edu
Tags: Polytechnic Institute, Rensselaer Polytechnic, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, university offers, York University, applied sciences
Mining engineers are involved with prospecting for and extracting minerals, metals and coal for energy and manufacturing industries. They may design mines, supervise their construction, and work with other engineers to develop efficient means of transporting the raw mined materials to the processing area. Mining engineers emphasize safety for both miners and the environment. The entry level requirement for a career as a mining engineer is a bachelor's degree, according to the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics.
High School
Candidates who wish to pursue a career in engineering must have a solid high school background in math and science. High school students should elect higher mathematics courses such as geometry, trigonometry and calculus in addition to basic math and algebra. They should additionally take courses in physics, chemistry and Earth sciences, such as geology.
Undergraduate Degree
Most entry level mining engineering jobs require candidates to hold at least a bachelor's degree from a program that's accredited by the Engineering Accreditation Commission of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology. Coursework for a mining engineer undergraduate degree may include classroom studies, laboratory work and field experience. Courses may include calculus, chemistry, physics, design, statistics, fluid mechanics, mechanics of minerals, mine safety, mine design, electrical circuits and structural geology. Mining engineer candidates may also study explosives, ventilation and methods of extraction as minor courses of study.
Graduate Degree
Some mining engineer positions require candidates to hold advanced degrees at the master's or doctorate level. The Department of Mining Engineering at the Colorado School of Mines, for example, offers an Engineer of Mines master's degree, a Mining and Earth Systems Engineering master's degree, and a Mining and Earth Systems Engineering Ph.D. degree. Candidates for graduate degrees may enter either a thesis or non-thesis program. Fields of study may include geomechanics, computerized mine design, bulk material handling, rock fragmentation, underground excavation and mineral processing. A mining engineering master's degree typically requires at least 30 hours of post-graduate studies, while the Ph.D. program generally requires at least 72 hours of post-graduate studies.
Employment Considerations
The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects new employment opportunities for engineers in all disciplines to grow by approximately 11 percent between 2008 and 2018. Some engineering specialties, including mining engineering, should experience greater demand with new job growth projected at around 15 percent. Mining engineers who are willing to travel overseas and stay for extended periods may have the greatest employment opportunities.
Tags: Mining engineers, master degree, bachelor degree, Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor Statistics, candidates hold, degree Mining
NASA scientists are responsible for some of mankind's most symbolically impressive achievements.
NASA put man on the moon, sent probes to the edge of the solar system, and helped build the International Space Station. Behind all these feats are the hardworking scientists and engineers who make the magic real. You might expect that for a job title as prestigious as "NASA scientist" the pay is suitably astronomical, but the reality lies closer down to Earth.
NASA Is Part of the Civil Service
NASA, or the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, fulfills the federal government's mandate for a civilian space agency. As such, it belongs to the "civil service," which comprises all non-military federal workers. Like most of the civil service, NASA uses the General Schedule developed by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) to determine pay levels for many of its employees, including its scientists. Thus, NASA scientists tend to earn a salary comparable to that of similarly qualified and experienced government scientists outside NASA.
Pay Levels
The General Schedule uses a graded pay system based on salaries in the private sector. Civil servants earn pay raises for job promotions, experience, and time on the job. NASA reports that its entry-level pay for scientists range from about $33,000 to $44,000 annually. Senior career scientists earn between $120,000 to $180,000.
Locality Pay
In addition to their base salary, NASA employees receive a benefit called "locality pay." Locality pay accounts for the different costs of living in NASA's various work locations, as well as other quantifiable costs such as erratic work hours and remote work locations. According to NASA figures, locality pay ranges from 5 percent to 12 percent of the base salary.
Comparison with Private Sector Workers
When it comes to comparisons with private workers, the U.S. Office of Personnel Management finds that, on average, federal employees earn only about 80 percent of what their private-sector counterparts do.
When it comes to NASA scientists in particular, you have to look at the type of work they do and compare that to the market demand for those same services in the private sector. NASA employs a wide variety of scientists, including astronomers, physicists, atmospheric scientists, chemists, and materials scientists. For a group like physicists, the best money lies in healthcare and specialty services, not the federal government. But for a group like astronomers, who have very few entrepreneurial opportunities in their field, the federal government pays the best.
Tags: federal government, NASA scientists, base salary, civil service, General Schedule, group like
Many oil field jobs require specialized training and education.
From an occupational or career perspective, working in one of America's crude oil fields requires a large group of dedicated individuals, many with specialized training and education. Whether it's identifying a promising drilling location, drilling the well itself or supervising the entire operation, many universities and technical schools provide the training and practical experience required to support our domestic oil industry and help meet the nation's energy needs.
University of Texas at Austin
From its Cockrell School of Engineering, the University of Texas at Austin conducts undergraduate and graduate degree programs in petroleum engineering. A petroleum engineer supervises an entire oil drilling operation, designing the facilities and methods needed to maximize an oil well's production. Those duties include building the storage tanks, pipelines and other infrastructure needed to transport crude oil from the wellhead to a refinery, as well as developing and implementing the enhanced extraction techniques required to coax more oil from older existing wells.
Colorado School of Mines
Before oil can be extracted, someone has to find it. This is the job of a petroleum geologist. From its campus in Golden, Colorado, the Geology and Geological Engineering Department of the Colorado School of Mines, trains aspiring students in courses such as petrology, earth minerals, engineering terrain analysis and geological fluid mechanics. Petroleum geology involves not only locating oil bearing formations, but analyzing the stability of the surrounding soil structure before the roads, pipelines and other oil field infrastructure can be built.
Murchinson Drilling Schools
Located in Albuquerque, New Mexico, Murchinson Drilling Schools was founded at the request of major oil and oil field service companies to train foreman in the technical and leadership skills needed to successfully oversee drilling operations. The curriculum includes courses in practical drilling technology, advanced well control, advanced drilling technology and floater technology to support offshore deep-water drilling. Students receive instruction from experienced oil field professionals as well as through the use of computer driven simulators, testing and professional evaluation.
Petroleum Institute for Continuing Education
The Petroleum Institute for Continuing Education Inc. (PEICE), was established in 1998 and is headquartered in Alberta, Canada. From facilities located in Houston, Denver, London, England and Calgary, Alberta, the organization offers courses in drilling, exploration, heavy oil and oil sands, petroleum refining and petrochemicals as well as reservoir engineering and petroleum reserves. Course work and instruction is delivered through a combination of formal classroom training, online self study, industry conferences and customized mentoring programs.