What Can Geologists Learn From Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that through the forces of tremendous heat and pressure present deep within the earth have morphed into a different class of rock. Metamorphic rocks are important to geologists because they provide clues on the physical and chemical conditions of the earth. These rocks can help determine when the next earthquake might occur or where the next volcanic eruption might happen.

Crust Decomposition

When metamorphic rocks are exposed to high heat for long periods they break down. This breakdown can disrupt the rock cycle, which can have larger effects on the stability of the earth's crust. By studying the changes and patterns in metamorphic rock, scientists can determine if the earth's crust is decomposing, which is useful in predicting landslides and earthquakes.

Surface Stability

Pressure and heat have the same overall effect on the metamorphic rock. When pressure is applied to the rock, it generates heat, and the pressure along with the added heat will cause the rock to decompose. Decomposition of the metamorphic rock based on pressure will also cause instability in the earth's crust. Geologists studying the effects of pressure on the rocks can help determine which areas of land are safest and best suited for development and human habitation.

Water Sources

Metamorphic rocks have water trapped inside them. This water was present as the clay and sediment deposits were forming the rocks. When studying the composition of rock samples, geologists can determine what rock region has the highest water content and, therefore, where future wells and springs may be. Geologists can then apply pressure to the rocks in an aquifer to allow them to decompose and release the water they contain.

Volcanic Eruptions

Metamorphic rock is the main type of rock that makes up the cone of a volcano. This type of rock is also what keeps the magma from Earth's core from erupting. By studying metamorphic rocks, geologists can learn where and when the next volcanic eruption might occur. This is extremely important as historically, cities and even whole societies have been destroyed by a single volcanic eruption.

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Cool Facts On Neptune

Neptune took the name of the Roman god of the oceans and seas.

On September 23, 1846, Johann Gottfried Galle, using the mathematical work of Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier, discovered a new planet. The planet took the name of Neptune after the Roman sea god, since, as the eighth from the sun, it was deep in the "depths" of outer space. Neptune is some 30 times further from the sun as is the Earth. The planet is so far distant that a probe sent to explore the world, Voyager 2, required 12 years to arrive there.

Size

Neptune's diameter of 30,775 miles across means the planet is almost four times larger than Earth and could hold as many as 60 Earths inside it if it were hollow. Despite Neptune being 17 times more massive than Earth, the gravity is just 1.19 times stronger than our own. One day on Neptune is the equal of 19.1 hours, but the planet needs so long to circle the sun that a year on the planet is the equivalent of 165 years on Earth.

Atmosphere

The winds on Neptune blow in the opposite direction from which the planet rotates. These winds can reach speeds approaching 1,500 mph, making them the strongest discovered in the solar system. Neptune's atmosphere has a composition of 74 percent hydrogen, 24 percent helium and 1 percent methane gas. The methane gas is what gives Neptune its deep-blue color.

Satellites

Neptune has three large moons and five smaller satellites. Triton is the largest moon and holds the distinction of having the lowest measured temperature of any object in the solar system, according to the Enchanted Learning website. Triton's temperature was minus 391 degrees Fahrenheit on its surface. Another moon, Nereid, has such as irregular orbit about Neptune that at its closest it is just 867,000 miles from it but can then move as far as 6 million miles away.

History

The process of Neptune's discovery created a storm of controversy, according to the Space Today Online website. In 1845, an Englishman named John Couch Adams worked out the mathematics that would explain why Uranus behaved oddly in its orbit, figuring on the presence of another planet's gravity. Leverrier's calculations, independent of Adams', came the next year and Galle found Neptune based on those. However, Adams, whose own figures were quite accurate but given little heed in England, argued he too should get credit for his work. Historians now give both men recognition; Galileo may have found Neptune two centuries earlier but failed to realize what it was.

Considerations

Neptune is colder than the seventh planet from the sun, Uranus, but it is more colorful when viewed through a telescope, says the "National Audubon Society Field Guide to the Night Sky." Voyager revealed faint rings about Neptune, but these are not visible to observers on Earth. Neptune is about five times fainter than the dimmest stars you are able to detect with the naked eye. Neptune's orbit about the sun is nearly circular; only that of Venus is more round.

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What Is The Difference Between Relative & Radiometric Dating

Scientists use relative and radiometric dating techniques to determine a fossil's age.

Without relative and radiometric dating techniques, no one would know whether dinosaurs lived 5,000 or 150,000,000 years ago. Geologists, paleontologists and anthropologists use these techniques to establish the age of fossils. By learning how relative and radiometric dating methods work, you can better understand how science uncovers the history of our world.

Relative Dating

Relative dating methods came before radiometric, and are less precise. According to the 2009 edition of "Essentials of Physical Anthropology," relative dating methods rely on the comparison of two or more things to establish a relative age. For example, if two fossils are found at the same site, but at different depths, scientists assume that the fossil found at the greater depth is older. These methods do not give fossils an exact age. Instead, they establish a relative timeline.

Stratigraphic Dating

One of the main methods of relative dating, stratigraphic dating uses the depth at which something is found to determine its relative age. Stratigraphic dating is based on the tendency of lower strata (layers) of rock to be older than higher strata. The deeper something is found, the older it generally is. Stratigraphic dating can be problematic, however. Volcanic activity, earthquakes and the unpredictability of rock formation and accumulation can make the chronology established by this method inaccurate.

Fluorine Analysis

Bone can also be dated through fluorine analysis, another popular relative dating technique. Groundwater typically contains fluorine, which accumulates within bones in the earth as they fossilize. Comparing the fluorine content of two or more fossilized bones found at the same site can therefore show which are older and which are more recent. Fluorine analysis is limited by the fact that it can only be used to ascertain the relative ages of bones from the same site.

Radiometric Dating

Radiometric dating was developed later than relative dating, and requires more advanced technology. Radiometric dating methods rely on the principles of radioactive decay, and work by measuring the decay of certain radioactive isotopes within fossils and other samples. Over time, these isotopes decay and form other elements. This happens at predictable rates, which makes radiometric dating a more accurate and reliable indicator of age than relative dating.

K/Ar Dating

One of the major radiometric dating techniques used today measures the decay of potassium-40. Using established knowledge of potassium-40's half-life, which is the rate at which it decays and changes into argon-40, scientists can date rock material that is millions of years old. In fact, K/Ar dating has been used to date the age of the earth itself. K/Ar dating only works on inorganic material, however. It cannot date bone.

Carbon-14 Dating

To date organic as well as inorganic material, scientists often use the carbon-14, or radiocarbon, dating technique. Like K/Ar dating, radiocarbon dating relies on the measurement of the decay of one isotope into another. Radiocarbon dating uses the decay of carbon-14 to determine age. Carbon-14 decays at a significantly faster rate than potassium-40, which makes radiocarbon dating more appropriate for later material, such as Neanderthal and human fossils. Its accuracy drops significantly on samples more than 40,000 years old.

Maximizing Accuracy

Relative and radiometric dating techniques all have their disadvantages. The degrees of error in each method can make establishing chronologies tricky. In most cases, geologists, paleontologists and anthropologists cross-correlate the results of multiple dating methods for more accurate and tested conclusions. This is an important point to keep in mind, since the results of just one dating technique will almost always be less accurate than a conclusion based on multiple dating techniques.

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What Is The Process Of C3 Photosynthesis

What is Photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis is a biological process by which energy contained within light is converted into chemical energy of bonds between atoms that power processes within cells. It emerged roughly 3.5 billion years ago in geological history and has evolved into complex biochemical and biophysical mechanisms; it occurs today within a variety of single-celled organisms as well as in plants. Earth's atmosphere and seas contain oxygen because of photosynthesis.

There are three types of photosynthesis: CAM, C4 and C3. C3 is the most well-known type of photosynthesis, is used by most plants, and indeed until recent decades was the only type of photosynthesis known to exist.

Photosynthesis Occurs in Two Stages

The two stages of photosynthesis are known as the light reactions and the dark reactions. During the light reactions of photosynthesis, light from the sun is captured through a series of reactions involving the chemical chlorophyll. This results in the synthesis of two high energy chemical compounds: ATP and NADPH, the latter whose chemical energy is held by electrons which can be easily transferred to other compounds. This set of reactions requires water (H2O) from which oxygen is released during the process. In the dark reactions, which can take place either in the presence of light or in the dark, energy from ATP and NADPH is used to bond--or "fix"--carbon dioxide (CO2) to another compound, which already contains several carbon atoms. The difference between C3 and C4 photosynthesis depends on differences in the chemical compounds to which the incoming CO2 is linked during the dark reactions (CAM photosynthesis differs from both C3 and C4 photosynthesis in that prior to fixation, CO2 is an acid form known as carbonic acid).

C3 Photosynthesis

In C3 photosynthesis, the compound to which CO2 is integrated first is a 3-carbon compound. The "enzyme" necessary for this process is known as RuBisCO. C3 photosynthesis is more efficient than C4 or CAM photosynthesis when the environment is cool and moist and when light is plentiful. However, since C3 uses more water than the other two types of photosynthesis, it is not as useful to organisms living in hot, arid environments.

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Water Cohesion Experiments

Water covers about three-fourths of our planet, yet is still a fascinating substance.

"Cohesion" is a phenomenon in which a substance is attracted to itself. With water, the oxygen part of the molecule is negatively charged, while the hydrogen is positively charged. Thus, two water molecules will be magnetically attracted to each other. "Adhesion" describes when water is attracted to another substance, such as clothing. Where water does not adhere to another substance, it will cohere to other like molecules.

Surface Tension

Water coheres to itself in what is called surface tension. To test this, have your students place a drop of water on a piece of wax paper. The water does not adhere to the wax, instead forming a bead or droplet. Because water molecules bond together very tightly, they form the shape with the least surface area, a circle. Have your students experiment with what happens when another water bead meets the first.

Overfill a Glass of Water

Break your students into groups, each with a glass of water that they fill as close to the rim as possible. Have each student in the group guess how many more droplets of water can fit in the glass without spilling over. The water will form a tension and will eventually overfill the glass, with a small dome of water held by surface tension. You may also substitute paperclips in place of adding water, and students can guess how many clips will fit in the glass before the water spills out. The paperclip experiment also demonstrates water displacement.

Pinching Water

With your students at their own lab sinks, give each group a plastic cup and a nail or needle. Have each group punch four holes in their cup close together, along a line. You may want them to mark their holes prior to perforating the cup. When they fill the cup, the water will pour from the holes. Then have them "pinch" the water between their fingers and watch the water form a single stream. The water does not adhere to their fingers, but the water molecules will cohere when pushed close enough together.

Oil and Water

Have your students break into separate groups, each with a graduated cylinder, a sink and some cooking oil. Have them measure 8 ml of water and then try to predict what will happen if they add some oil to the water. Will the oil sink or float? The water will not adhere, and the oil floats. Then try the opposite. With a new cylinder, pour in 8 ml of oil. Will the water now float on top of the oil? In fact, the water will sink due to the greater density of water. The water will not mix with the oil because the two substances do not adhere.

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What Types Of Rocks Contain Fossils

Larval fossils are often found in limestone.

Fossils form over thousands of years on the crust of the earth. Sand and other elements bury plants and organisms under layers and layers of mud and calcify them into stone. A rock's composition and geographic location give clues to the age and identity of the fossils it contains. A fossil, by definition, is at least 10,000 years old. Some may be millions or even billions of years old, since the earth itself has been around for nearly five billion years.

Coquina

Coquina-filled beaches surround the Ancient City of St. Augustine, Florida,

Tiny coquina shells found along the coasts of California and Florida form into beds of fossil rock also known as brittlestar. Examples of coquina limestone known as ophiuroid are on display at the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University and the Florida State Museum. The Peabody also has abundant examples of Miocene brittlestar coquina fossil from the Santa Margarita Formation in California. Miocene fossils are between 5 and 25 million years old.

Limestone

Fossilized leaves

Limestone is the most common fossil rock. The state of Oklahoma has large deposits of limestone fossils, especially in the eastern and southern parts. Rather than being formed with shells, as it is along the coasts, Oklahoma's limestone has primarily plant fossils. Some of the most famous animal fossils found in limestone are from the Jurassic period 150 to 200 million years ago, when England was under water, along with much of Western Europe, especially Germany and Switzerland. Jurassic limestone has also been found in Israel.

Sandstone/Siltstone

The state of Kansas is loaded with gastropods fossilized over millions of years.

Fossils in sandstone are miracles of time, wind, and water, most often deposited from lakes and rivers. Sandstone in South Dakota yields gastropods - shells such as snails and whelks - carried thousands of miles. Sandstone in Death Valley, California contains fossils from the bodies of horses, rodents, even tapirs and camels. Mississippian siltstone found as far north as Ohio bears marine fossils of sea creatures living at the bottom of the ocean 350 million years ago.

Shale

Pennsylvania shale forms beautiful waterfalls

Pennsylvania's coal fields are rich in shale containing over 80 different species of plant fossils. Texas shale is also full of fossils, as is Waldron shale found in Tennessee, near Nashville. The Marble Mountains of California's Mohave Desert have an area open to the public called the Trilobite Wilderness. Trilobites are hard-shelled, insect-like marine creatures, extinct for 300 million years. Look on the map for the Lower Cambrian Latham Shale to find these ancient fossils. In nearby Nevada, fossil-seekers can also find productive deposits of shale.

Volcanic Rock

Fossilized dinosaur bones

Lava from a volcano erupts, covering everything in its path. When the lava hardens into igneous rock, whatever is underneath it becomes fossilized over time. Sometimes whole trees are petrified. One of the most interesting volcanic fossils ever found is dinosaur dung, millions of years old.

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Consequences Of Deforestation In Communities That Live In Floodplains

Forested swamps provide flood protection for the communities in floodplains.

A floodplain is the level area adjacent to an aquatic resource such as stream. In the event of a flood, the floodplain takes on the excess floodwater. Often, these areas contain water-loving, or hydric, soils. Plants in these areas are tolerant of wet soil conditions. Whether or not the floodplains will flood depends upon the topography, geology and other ecological factors. The communities that live in floodplains are at the greatest risk for flooding. Deforestation of these areas increases the risks and consequences of flooding.

Soil Erosion

Trees help protect the communities that live in floodplains by preventing soil erosion. Trees anchor soils in place and stabilize stream banks. Soil erosion results in the loss of topsoil and can compromise crop production. Eroded stream banks can increase the area impacted by flooding caused by spring rains and winter thaw. The aquatic resources become cloudy because of the increase in free-floating sediment. Micro-organisms which form the base of the food chain may die off as a result. The entire ecological community may feel the brunt of deforestation with the removal of this vital link.

Loss of Wetlands

Trees in floodplains are found in a type of wetland called a swamp. Woody vegetation dominates these areas. Deforestation of floodplains results in a loss of these wetlands. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), over 70 percent of the United States forested swamps have been lost. The consequence is a loss of flood protection. Wetlands absorb floodwaters, protecting communities in floodplains. A single acre of wetlands can absorb up to 1.5 million gallons of floodwater that may otherwise flood the floodplain and adversely affect the communities that live there.

Loss of Wildlife Habitat

Forested swamps and other wooded areas of floodplains provide habitat for wildlife. Over one-third of America's threatened and endangered species depend exclusively on wetlands. The presence of forested floodplains is critical for waterfowl such as the wood duck which use these areas. In fact, nearly one half of North American birds will use wetland habitat at some point during their life cycle for food or nesting habitat. For the communities that live in floodplains, the loss of wooded areas can carry economic consequences from the loss of revenue from hunters, birdwatchers and other outdoor enthusiasts. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimated that birdwatchers spent $32 billion in 2001, with a significant percentage willing to travel to pursue their hobby.

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Convert Miles Walked Into Steps Taken

Everyone has a personal average step length.

Being able to judge the distance you have walked, based on how many steps you have taken, is an important navigational skill. Maps show topography, but when clear waypoints and features are missing, it can be difficult to estimate your position "on the ground" unless you know how far you have traveled from the last known position. Once the length of an average step is known, both the distance walked and the number of steps taken can be calculated. The math is simple, but you must already know the length of your average step.

Instructions

1. Enter the number of miles into a calculator. Some calculators allow the entry of values in miles and feet; others require the value as miles and decimal parts of a mile. Check that the entered value is correct.

2. Multiply the distance by 5,280, the number of feet in a mile. The result is the distance expressed in feet.

3. Divide the distance obtained in Step 2 by the length of your average step, expressed in feet. The result is the distance expressed as the number of average steps taken.

Tags: average step, distance expressed, expressed feet, length your, length your average, result distance

Concepts Of Population Growth

Populations grow exponentially.

For most of the life of humanity, population growth remained relatively slow and stable. However, since the Industrial Revolution, global population has exploded from 1 billion to well more than 6 billion as of 2010, according to the University of Michigan. Population growth has five crucial concepts that explain this phenomenon and its effects on the world.

Features

Population growth rates are determined by the size of the current population and birth and mortality rates. You can figure out about when the population should double with the equation 0.69 divided by (birth minus mortality rate). Although the doubling-time equation looks simple, dozens of factors affect birth and mortality rates, such as medical technology and food production.

Sustainability

Eventually, Earth will run into problems with providing space and resources for its population, leading to sustainability issues, according to Rider University. Earth can probably hold up to 100 billion people, but this would lead to most having a very low quality of life. For a desirable average standard of living, Earth should have no more than 20 billion people.

Effects

Population growth affects resources planning for future generations. It is also the biggest environmental concern, according to Carleton College. More people means an increasing amount of trash and pollution from burning fossil fuels. Population growth also means more competition for Earth's current resources. If the developing countries wish to reach parity with the developed countries, Earth needs to quintuple resource production.

Geography

Populations do not expand uniformly throughout the globe. One part of Hong Kong, for example, has a population density of about 1,924,563 people per square kilometer of land, according to Carleton College. Winnebago County, Wisconsin, on the other hand, has a population density of about 138 people per square kilometer.

Considerations

The basic concepts of population tell us that the developed world cannot sustain its current habits of trashing natural resources and burning fossil fuels. We can likely provide for growing populations, but this requires developing a clean, renewable energy and promoting activities such as recycling and water conservation, according to Rider University.

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Outdoor Education Degrees

Outdoor education encompasses many different careers.

Become involved with environmental issues, teach others about endangered species, or work in a forest preserve. With a degree in outdoor education, you have many options to choose from. Choose to pursue a degree in outdoor education and you will major in science or parks and recreations. A major in one of these two areas, with the addition of a specialty, enables you to have a positive impact on the outdoors while raising the awareness of others.

Geologist

Geologists study natural disasters.

A geologist is a scientist who studies the Earth's geological history to be able to better understand and foresee how the processes and events of the past will affect the future of our planet. By studying earthquakes and volcanoes, a geologist is able to provide information regarding safe places to build buildings so they won't be susceptible to catastrophe should a natural disaster take place. A career in geology can lead you to work with a natural resource company, university, laboratory or government agency. An entry level geologist has a four-year degree. Choosing to pursue a master's degree or doctorate in geology provides you with the education and opportunity to work in one of geology's sub-specialties, such as paleontology, volcanology or mineralogy.

Forester

Foresters manage and care for the forest and that lives in it.

A forester is involved with managing, studying and utilizing forest resources. Forests are renewable resources providing us with wood, water, recreation and wildlife. Foresters use their knowledge of ecological, social and economical issues facing forests in order to help manage, maintain and protect them as a renewable resource. Many foresters work in forest preserves where they participate in educating the community by teaching them about the different living things to see and observe in the forest without tampering with the environment. Forestry majors earn a bachelor's degree in science and work in government agencies, forest product companies or natural resource companies. Those who choose to pursue a master's degree in forestry can work in forestry research or teach at the university level.

Parks and Recreation Management

Parks and Recreations Managers may lead you on an adventure travel vacation.

Parks and Recreations Managers (PRM's) work in municipal parks, federal land-management agencies, resorts and clubs and travel and tourism companies. PRM's are responsible for providing education and recreational activities as related to their specific career. Someone working in the travel and tourism industry may work with an adventure vacation company, leading people on a hiking/biking trip through northern Washington State. He may also lead educational and recreational activities while working with a non-profit organization such as Boy and Girl Scouts of America. PRM's hold a bachelor's degree in science, which they receive after fulfilling all educational requirements, plus a 15-week internship in there chosen area of parks, recreation or leisure service agency.

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Facts On The Grand Canyon In Arizona Usa

The Grand Canyon is a national park located in Northwestern Arizona. Due to its "grand" size and natural views, the Grand Canyon is one of the seven wonders of the world. People from all over the world travel to Arizona to tour the Grand Canyon.

Size

According to the U.S. National Park Service, the Grand Canyon spans 277 river miles long, has a depth of one mile and is up to 18 miles wide in some parts.

Geography

The Grand Canyon cuts into the Colorado Plateau, and is said to have formed approximately six million years ago due to the erosion by the Colorado River. With minimal soil present, the Grand Canyon does not have an abundance of vegetation. However, parts of the northern rim contain evergreens.

Ecosystems

Various ecosystems exist in the Grand Canyon. Plants, birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, insects and fish are found in the Grand Canyon.

Archeology

Ancient artifacts were found in the Grand Canyon; some of the oldest dated back to the Paleo-Indian period. There have been over 4800 archeological resources recorded from the Grand Canyon.

Park History

The Grand Canyon became a National Park in 1919. According to a March 2010 update by the U.S. National Park Service, the Grand Canyon attracts nearly five million visitors each year.

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Certified Financial Training

A certified financial analyst helps a company evaluate investment opportunities.

A certified financial training program helps finance professionals learn about the latest tools and techniques available in financial analysis, accounting reporting, investment valuation and fiscal planning. This program also may provide finance professionals with updates in regulations and industry practices. Financial training courses may be taken online, on-site or at industry events.

Purposes

A certified financial training program allows a certified finance professional to learn about new tools, techniques, procedures and principles used in gathering accounting data, performing complex financial analyses and computing tax obligations under different scenarios. A certified finance professional may be a chartered financial analyst (CFA), a certified financial manager (CFM) or a certified public accountant (CPA). For example, a CFA may learn new credit risk computation tools by attending certified financial training courses.

Types

Certified financial training courses may be available to finance professionals through four channels. A finance professional may attend an industry event or a professional seminar to take courses. For example, a CFM may attend an Institute of Management Accountants (IMA) seminar to learn about new financial analysis tools. A certified professional also may enroll in a master's program at a university to take financial training courses. Alternatively, a finance professional may take courses on a company's premises or online.

Features

A certified financial training program covers several topics that may be relevant to finance professionals. This program may feature updates in generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) and how they affect financial statement presentation. A certified financial training program also may cover new tax-saving strategies and fiscal compliance methods. Alternatively, a finance professional may take courses covering new investment valuation and asset selection techniques. A certified financial training program also may help a finance professional understand financial products and markets.

Benefits

A certified financial training program benefits finance professionals and investors. This program may favor a finance professional who is seeking a financial certification, such as the CPA or the CFA, because it increases professional expertise. For a financial professional already certified, this program helps increase chances of career growth and helps fulfill continuing education requirements. A certified financial training program favors investors because well-trained certified finance professionals are more likely to be productive and competent in preparing corporate financial information.

Expert Insight

Qualified finance professionals or accounting and finance scholars may teach certified financial training courses. In cases where topics are complex, a company may hire a consultant or a university professor to teach relevant courses. For example, a retired geology scholar may help an oil and gas company explain to management accountants various costs involved in drilling operations.

Tags: financial training, finance professional, finance professionals, financial training program, training program, certified financial, certified financial training

Sell Gold Coins In Oregon

There are no shortages of places to sell your gold coins in Oregon. Gold coins are one of the easiest forms of gold to sell.Your challenge will be to find the buyer who will pay you the closest to the current spot price for gold. Since the price of gold fluctuates on an hourly basis it does little good to try to compare how much each buyer is offering for your coins by getting a current quote; by the time you get a quote from the next buyer the price of gold may have changed by several dollars an ounce and so the two prices won't really be comparable.The only way for you to know for sure that you are getting the best possible price for your gold coins is to know what percentage of the spot price for gold the buyer is paying for the type of gold you are selling. The buyer paying the closest to the spot price is the buyer you want to sell to.

Instructions

Sell Gold Coins in Oregon

1. Determine if your coins are bullion-type coins or collectible coins. Collectible coins are coins minted before 1935 and intended for general circulation. Collectible coins often have a value to coin collectors that is in excess of their gold value. Collectible coins should be offered to coin dealers, auction houses and private collectors. To determine if your coins have a special value to collectors go to: http://portland-or.yellowusa.com/Gold_Silver_and_Platinum_Buyers.html for a list of gold buyers in the Portland area. If possible, visit some of the buyers in person.Comparison shop the price being offered for your collectible gold coins from several different buyers.

2. Compare prices being offered for non-collectible bullion-type gold coins such as American Eagles, Canadian Maple Leafs and South African Kurgerrands. Contact Portland coin dealers, gold bullion dealers, jewelry shops, private investors and even pawn shops or contact such buyers in your local area. Since bullion-type coins are guaranteed pure and have a guaranteed weight, there is no need to get price comparisons in person. Whenever possible you should get price comparisons as a percentage of the current price of spot gold since this will be the only accurate way of determining which buyer is actually offering you the best price.

3. Locate gold buyers on-line. Ask several of the larger buyers what percentage of the spot price they pay for gold coins of the type you have for sale. Again, because the price of gold varies from hour to hour the only way to compare prices is to know how close each buyer is willing to pay to the current spot price of gold on the world market.

4. Check prices currently being paid for gold coins of your type on Ebay. Look in the Recently Closed auctions and check out prices which have actually been paid.

5. Compare all of the quotes that you have gotten for your bullion-type coins. Because the price of gold fluctuates so much, the price you will get for your coins will be based on the current price for gold on the day you make your sale. Sell to the buyer who is willing to pay the highest percentage of the spot price for gold.

Tags: price gold, spot price, gold coins, spot price gold, your coins, bullion-type coins

Geophysics Degrees

Many universities that offer strong programs in earth sciences will have a geophysics department or offer geophysics degrees. Although there are degrees only in geophysics, it is also possible to find more specialized degrees on specific topics that fall under geophysics, such as seismology and engineering. Even if your university does not offer a more specialized degree than geophysics, you will have the option to concentrate on a specific area of geophysics.

Geological Engineering

Geological engineering is one degree available within the geophysics program. It focuses on how engineering is applied to problems that relate to earth systems. It is a broad field with many interdisciplinary applications. Some examples of projects within geological engineering include site characterization, natural hazard investigations, exploration of mineral deposits, development of fossil fuels, rock stability and groundwater studies. The courses needed for this degree will cover both engineering and science topics.

Seismology

Seismology is a field within geophysics and available as a degree or a concentration. There are many different types of seismology, such as earthquakes, glacial seismology, near surface seismology and volcanic seismology. Seismology investigates how power waves run through different surfaces and the types of damage that can ensue. This degree uses modeling and 3-D images to determine the behavior of waves. Glacial seismology looks at how glaciers move and break apart. Volcano seismology monitors active volcanoes and how seismic noise originates from volcanoes.

Geophysics

There are degrees specifically offered in geophysics. Undergraduate and graduate degrees are available from any school with its own geophysics department. A geophysics degree covers physics, mathematics and geology and how these subjects affect the earth. Geophysics will use theoretical modeling, direct observations, laboratory experiments, remote imaging and computational modeling to study the earth's processes. Some of the main research themes include hazards, environment and energy.

Environmental Geophysics

There are degrees available that specialize in the field of environmental geophysics. This field uses biogeochemistry, statistics and hydrogeology to monitor shallow subsurfaces and natural environments. Many research programs look at monitor and manage environmental contaminants and water resources.

Tags: degrees available, geophysics department, Geophysics There, Geophysics There degrees, more specialized

State Map Activities

Learning about state geography widens perspective on interdependent human relationships.

In fourth and fifth grade geography, students generally learn about their state's physical features as well as memorize the capitals and locations of all 50 states. Elementary school geography also includes learning what states makeup the various regions of the United States and the characteristics of those regions. State map activities can take the drudgery out of paper-and-pencil worksheets and turn memorization into a game or artwork.

State Map Puzzle

Have the children color maps of the 50 states and glue them to pieces of thin cardboard. When the glue dries, have them carefully cut out each state and label the backs with the state name; place all the pieces in a bag. Have the student partner up, taking turns drawing pieces from the bag and challenging each other to name the state. If she is correct, she tries to place the state in its correct geographical location by fitting it together with neighboring states until the map is complete. If not, she drops the piece back in the bag and draws a piece for her partner. For an additional challenge, students must name the state capital as well as the state name or identify bordering states, regions or important geographical features.

3D Topographical Map

Mix up a large batch of salt dough and let students sculpt it into the shape of your state or the mainland United States. Tell them to shape the surface to show important physical landmarks such as major mountain ranges, valleys, mountain peaks and waterways. Have students create a color-coded map key for counties, temperatures, elevations or topographical features and paint the map according to the key.

Guessing Game

Ask students to choose 30 to 100 locations in your state or the United States. Create a set of "Where Am I?" cards that show a picture of an important landmark and list location clues. If a student chooses to cover the whole country, he must make at least one card for each of the states. Single state games can include cities, counties and important geographical features such as mountains, rivers, lakes and national or state parks. Multistate games can also include clues about neighboring states and distinctive landmarks, such as the Statue of Liberty for New York City or the Grand Canyon for Arizona. To play, one student reads the clues to a partner and challenges her to guess the location, including the state name, if the game includes all of them.

State Capital Cards

Instruct students to create a set of cards that lists state names on half the cards and state capital names on the other half. They should shuffle the cards and deal five cards to each player. Explain that the game is played like "Go Fish" with the goal being to collect pairs of states and capitals. Students must ask for specific cards on their turn. For instance, if he has Kentucky, he must ask, "Do you have Frankfort?" as opposed to "Do you have the capital of Kentucky?" to obtain the needed card. If she has Olympia, she must ask, "Do you have Washington state?" The winner is the person with the most matches when all the pairs have been matched.

Tags: state name, United States, cards that, geographical features, important geographical

Gypsum Vs Dolomite

Gypsum Vs. Dolomite

Gypsum, or hydrated calcium sulphate, and dolomite, or calcium magnesium carbonate, are two unrelated minerals. They are both used in certain applications such as fertilization, but are different from each other in a variety of ways.

Colors

The color of dolomite ranges from gray, pink and white to colorless. The color of gypsum ranges from colorless to white.

Hardness

The Moh's scale of hardness is a relative scale rated 1 to 10 and is used to judge the hardness of a mineral (10 being the hardest). On this scale, dolomite rates 3.5 to 4 while gypsum rates 2.

Source

Common sources for gypsum in the U.S. include California, Ohio, Colorado, Michigan, Utah, and New Mexico. Worldwide, it's also found in Mexico, France and Switzerland. Dolomite is found in Canada, Switzerland, Spain, Mexico and throughout the U.S. Midwest.

Etymology

Dolomite was named after French geoologist Deodat de Dolomieu (1750 to 1801). The name gypsum comes from the Greek word for plaster--"gupsos."

Crystal System

Crystals are partly identified by their crystal system. The crystal system for dolomite is trigonal, while the system for gypsum is monoclinic.

Tags: crystal system, Gypsum Dolomite, ranges from

The Properties Of Pumice Stones

Pumice stones are lightweight and porous.

Pumice is a type of volcanic rock formed when lava with extremely high levels of water and gases is violently ejected from a volcano. As explained by the Mineral Information Institute, when the gases escape, the rock become "frothy." Once the rock hardens, the result is a very light, buoyant material. The main use of pumice is for making lightweight construction materials such as concrete. Small "pumice stones" are commonly used at home or in beauty salons to remove dry skin and calluses from areas such as the feet. Does this Spark an idea?

Composition

Pumice has a chemical composition similar to that of obsidian, or volcanic glass. It has very thin, translucent bubble walls of extrusive igneous rock. Pumice stones as used in beauty salons are generally high in silica and low in iron and magnesium.

Density

Pumice is very lightweight. This is due to the air bubbles in it, created as gasses departed during the formation process. Pumice stones vary in density, according to the thickness of the solid material between the bubbles. Average porosity is 90 percent, which is extremely high for a rock material.

Buoyancy

Pumice stones are so lightweight they will usually float on water for a time, before eventually sinking once becoming waterlogged. Large rafts of pumice have been known to float through oceans for decades after volcanic eruptions.

Abrasivity

Pumice stones are abrasive, which is why they are good at removing dry skin and calluses from the feet. Pumice is also used as an abrasive in polishes, pencil erasers, cosmetic exfoliants and the production of printed circuit boards.

Color

Pumice is commonly pale in color, ranging from white, cream, blue or grey, to green-brown or black. Pumice stones found at beauty salons or in pharmacies are generally light gray in color.

Tags: beauty salons, Pumice stones, calluses from, extremely high, Pumice stones, Pumice stones lightweight, skin calluses

The Pay Scale Of A Head Geologist Of Oil Rigs

Geologists work on oil rigs, using science to improve petroleum drilling.

There are 33,600 geoscientists working in the United States, according to a 2008 report by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The field of geoscience includes geologists, who study the Earth, and hydrologists, who are experts on water movements. Geologists are often employed by oil drilling companies, and employees in this valuable occupation often earn a six-figure salary.

Job Overview

Geologists use scientific methods to study the structure of the Earth beneath land or water. The experts who work on oil rigs are classified by the Bureau of Labor Statistics as "petroleum geologists." These scientists examine the seabed to locate new deposits of oil and gas. Petroleum geologists study core samples that are obtained through drilling; they also use sophisticated electronic sensors to map underwater and underground formations. Based on these studies, a geologist must estimate how much oil remains in a location, as well as suggest prospective new drilling sites.

Typical Salary

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median annual salary for all geologists is $79,160 as of 2008. However, the bureau also indicates that geologists in the petroleum industry tend to earn more than this average. Geologists involved in oil and gas extraction, including experts aboard oil rigs, typically receive $127,560 per year. Petroleum geologists typically earn more than other types of geologists, but they often have less job security due to the uncertainties of the oil industry.

Income Variations

A number of factors may influence the actual amount of income earned by a geologist on an oil rig. The type of employer can impact the salary of a scientist: Bureau data indicates that geologists who work for the federal government tend to earn less than their private-sector counterparts. This is due in part to the increased government outsourcing of geological studies to commercial firms. Education and experience may also affect earnings: Petroleum geologists with advanced degrees and experience in the field typically earn more than less-experienced scientists.

Career Outlook

The Bureau of Labor Statistics states that salaries and job opportunities for petroleum geologists will expand significantly in the foreseeable future. Specifically, the bureau predicts that this occupation will grow by 18 percent between 2008 and 2018. This projected growth rate is due to diminishing oil deposits and an increasing demand for energy. Scientists who have the skills and experience to locate new drilling locations are expected to have decent job prospects. Workers who speak a foreign language and are willing to work in foreign locations are expected to be particularly valuable.

Tags: Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor Statistics, Labor Statistics, earn more, earn more than, more than

History Of Crater Lake National Park

History of Crater Lake National Park

Crater Lake National Park was established in 1902 when President Theodore Roosevelt signed a bill making it the fifth oldest national park in the United States.

Formation

Crater Lake formed after an ancient volcano caved in and erupted about 7,700 years ago, creating a deep hole that filled with 4.6 trillion gallons of water from melted snow and rain. It is the deepest and bluest lake in the world.

Founders

John Wesley Hillman, Henry Klippel and Isaac Skeeters, on a quest to find gold, first founded Crater Lake on June 12, 1853. They named it Deep Blue Lake.

Management

William Gladstone Steel, known as the "Father of Crater Lake National Park," learned about Crater Lake in 1870 when he read about it in a newspaper that he wrapped his lunch in. Mr. Steel managed Crater Lake National Park for 49 years.

Geology

A geological survey conducted in 1959 by Captain Clarence Dutton recorded the deepest part of Crater Lake at 1,932 feet.

Landmarks

Notable landmarks include Crater Lake Lodge, Wizard Island, Llao Rock and Skell Head.

Distinguishing Facts

Rim Drive was finished in 1918. Crater Lake Lodge was ready for visitors in 1915. Crater Lake sees the most visitors in July and August.

Tags: Crater Lake, Crater Lake National, Lake National, Lake National Park, National Park, Crater Lake Lodge, History Crater

Gemology Degree Courses In India

Gemology is the study of minerals.

Gemology is a branch of mineralogy and involves the study of natural and artificial gems. Gemology degree courses in India are available at exclusive institutions and offer diplomas, certificates and advanced training in various fields related to the study of minerals and gems. Candidates who successfully complete their training in gemology can find employment in a wide array of fields such as appraising, merchandising and designing gems.

Singem Jewelry Design

Based in Kolkata Mumbai, Singem is India’s largest institute for jewelry studies and offers a three-year bachelor's degree in jewelry design. The school also provides a one-year diploma course in jewelry making and design. Course highlights in jewelry design include diamonds and gemology; other topics comprised jewelry manufacturing, design and business management. The jewelry design program is affiliated with Punjab Technical University and will prepare students for careers in various fields within the jewelry industry. Candidates who successfully complete their training will receive job placement assistance through the school’s career center, which is well connected with some of the top jewelry trade and manufacturing industries throughout India like Shree Ganesh Kewellers, P.C. Chandra and Indian Gems and Jewelry.

Singem Jewelry Design

10 Heysham Road

Bhowanipore, Kolkata 700 020

India

011-91-33-2454

Singem.org

Indian Institute of Gemology

Founded in 1991, the Indian Institute of Gemology provides top-quality education in the identification and grading of gems. Diploma programs in gemology at the Institute include basic and advanced training in gem identification and courses in diamond grading. The programs are designed for candidates who already work in gemology but wish to learn the latest scientific trends in the field. The institute is privately funded and is affiliated with leading jewelers and gem experts in India, as well as the Asian Institute of Gemological Studies in Bangkok, Thailand. Course highlights in gem identification covers a study of precious stones like rubies, sapphires, quartz and pearls. Students will learn about the origins of precious stones, crystal systems in gems and identifying various species and varieties of gems. In order to successfully complete the training, students are required to pass a written examination that covers theoretical and practical topics related to gemology.

Indian Institute of Gemology

10980 Eastern Park Road

Karol Bagh

New Delhi 1100055, India

011-91-235-20974

iigdelhi.com

St. Xavier’s College

St. Xavier’s College is a Jesuit institution affiliated with the University of Mumbai. Prospective students who are interested in earning a degree in gemology can enroll in the department of geology. In addition to providing courses in gemology, course highlights in geology consist of themes like the earth’s solar system, structural geology and morphology of fossils. The department also offers courses in a wide array of topics that relate to gemology or mineralogy such as mineral exploration and definition, introduction to rock forming minerals, classification of crystals and minerals and studies of matter.

St. Xavier’s College

5 Mahpalika Mark

Mumbai, 400 001

India

011-91-22-226-20661

xaviers.edu

Tags: affiliated with, Indian Institute, Indian Institute Gemology, Institute Gemology, successfully complete

Science Websites For Kids

Whether you are a parent or child, a home-school, public elementary or private school student, the Internet can open many doors to learning. Science websites can enhance learning for children who are excited or challenged by science.

NASA Kids' Club

The NASA Kids' Club site is educational and exciting. Children can learn about employees and crews of NASA, play games related to science and view pictures of space with educational captions. Parents can feel secure knowing that their child is not only exploring a safe site on the web but also learning from one of the best science sources available. Find NASA Kids' Club at kids.msfc.nasa.gov.

Bill Nye

Parents who are nostalgic about watching "Bill Nye the Science Guy" can share this show with their kids at Nye's website. BillNye.com provides information about "Bill Nye the Science Guy," "Solving for X" and "Stuff Happens." From this site you can also follow Nye's Twitter, blog and Facebook postings. The site provides at-home experiments for kids to do with their parents. Click on "For kids and teachers," then "Home Demos." This site also has an online store where you can purchase Bill Nye products.

Amusement Park Physics

The world of amusement park physics can be explored on a teachers resource site at www.learner.org/interactives/parkphysics/index.html. Kidsites.com says this site "explores how the laws of physics play a role in the design of amusement park rides. Design a roller coaster, determine the outcome of bumper car collisions, and more."

Brainpop.com

Brainpop.com is an educational, yet fun site for kids to learn about science and health. Children can learn about famous scientists, weather, space, the environment, chemistry, energy, biology, ecology, anatomy, health and medicine, and watch animated science movies.

The Science Explorer: An Exploratorium at home book

The Science Explorer site, operated by the Exploratorium in San Francisco, is great for students and parents who want to be involved with their kids' learning. It offers several at home-science experiments for families to do together. Find the site at www.exploratorium.edu/science_explorer.

National Geographic Kids

Many adults can remember reading their parents' collection of "National Geographic" magazines. These magazines are full of bright, vivid images, along with interesting facts. The magazine also offers a website exclusively for kids, with stories, videos, pictures, activities, games and articles. A cool thing about this site is that a child can set up a profile called "Mypage," where she can bookmark her favorite findings from the site, found at kids.nationalgeographic.com.

Tags: Kids Club, learn about, NASA Kids, NASA Kids Club, site also, with their, amusement park

Activities On Weathering & Soil Formation

Wind, water, ice and snow can erode rocks, cliffs and mountains, creating soil and gravel.

Freezing and thawing, sunlight, wind, water and chemical reactions all weaken rocks, causing them to crack, break and wear down into smaller pieces. Air, water and gravity combine to carry the pieces away from their points of origin. Eroded rock combines with decaying organic matter to become soil. Understanding weathering and soil formation can prevent building where landslides, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, dust storms and floods are likely to occur. Does this Spark an idea?

Make Glacier Models

Line a 2-qt. bowl with a plastic grocery bag. Place a fist-size rock in the bowl. Measure 1/4 cup of medium gravel, 1/2 cup of fine river pebbles, and 1 cup of sand into a 2-qt. bowl. Fill with water and stir. Place the bowl in the freezer until the water has frozen solid.

Remove your glacier model from the freezer and place it on its flat side, on a slope of about 45 degrees. Take notes as your glacier model melts. The Illinois State Museum Geology Online website recommends recording the behavior of glacier models on a wet surface as well as on soil and sand.

Split "Rocks"

Mix plaster of Paris according to package directions. Fill an 8-oz., 3-inch tall yogurt container with medium gravel. Fill a second container with fine river gravel, about 3 mm to 6 mm in diameter. Fill a third container with sand, and leave a fourth container empty. Stir the gravel in the first container as you add the plaster of Paris, until the container is full. Repeat for the second and third containers. Fill the fourth container with plaster of Paris only.

Allow all four containers to harden for four to six hours or more. Remove each hardened "rock" from its container and carve a 1/4-inch to 1/2-inch groove across each rock's diameter, as described by Indiana Geological Survey geologist Deborah Hanuscin. Place each rock upright in a 4-qt or larger flat-bottomed bowl or container, deep enough to cover them with water. Place the bowl in the freezer until the water has frozen solid.

Remove your rocks from the freezer, and observe them while they thaw. Return them to the container, covered with water, and freeze them again. Repeat freezing and thawing until your rocks crack or break apart. Record how many freezes and thaws it took to for the rocks to crack.

Build a Worm Bin

Observe how kitchen waste and garden trimmings become soil by making a worm bin. Drill drain holes every six inches in the bottom of a 20-by-24-by-12-inch plastic storage bin, which is the size recommended by the late Worm Woman, Mary Appelhof, if you want your worms to compost five pounds of garbage a week.

Place the 20-by-24-by-12-inch plastic storage bin inside a 22-by-26-by-6-inch under-bed storage bin. This second bin will prevent your worm bin from leaking. Fill the smaller bin halfway with dampened, wrung-out shredded, corrugated cardboard or non-glossy newspaper, as recommended by Extension Associate Soni Cochran, from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. You can also use shredded leaves, straw, hay or sawdust as bedding material, advises New Mexico State University Extension Horticulture Specialist, George W. Dickerson.

Appelhof, Cochran and Dickerson all advise adding one pound red wriggler worms for every 1/2-pound of garbage the worms will eat. Add gritty substances, such as cornmeal, coffee grounds or crushed eggshells, because worms have a gizzard, like chickens, that helps them digest their food, advises Cochran.

Document the day you add worms to your bin. Record the date and amount of kitchen scraps each time you add them. Record the number of days it takes for your worms to turn everything into soil, and the amount of soil they produce.

Tags: container with, plaster Paris, with water, 20-by-24-by-12-inch plastic, 20-by-24-by-12-inch plastic storage, 2-qt bowl

Oil Exploration Careers

The industry of oil exploration involves determining the location of liquid crude oil deposits, which are usually hidden below the surface of the earth. As crude is seldom visible on land, oil companies must leverage a knowledge of geology, geography and chemistry to calculate the most likely sites for deposits. They must then dig test wells to determine if their guesses are correct. This industry includes thousands of different people holding dozens of different positions.

Geologist

Perhaps the most important profession in exploring for oil is that of the geologist. Crude oil, which was generated millions of years ago, only exists in certain types of rock formations. Geologists are responsible for looking at survey data and rock samples to determine where oil is most likely to be found. These geologists must also work with engineers to plot the best way of both testing for the presence of oil and extracting it.

Land Agent

A land agent is responsible for gaining the rights to explore for oil and produce test wells on a particular piece of land. Land agents will generally contact the owners of the land and attempt to work out a deal whereby the company is allowed to drill in exchange for compensating the owners. In some cases, land agents may attempt to buy the mineral rights to a piece of land, meaning the company has the right to extract minerals from it.

Reservoir Engineer

A reservoir engineer is responsible for supervising the drilling of a particular test well. The engineer will attempt to optimize the drilling so that the maximum amount of oil is extracted. This requires a knowledge of geology, chemistry, and the mechanics of oil extraction equipment.

Energy Economist

In order for a well to be profitable, the cost of exploring for the oil, extracting it and then selling it must be less than the revenue generated by its sale. While many members of an oil company are on the ground exploring, energy economists are responsible for determining if a particular location has the potential to be profitable. The economist can determine this using a number of different variables, such as the expected amount of oil on the site and the logistics of bringing it to market.

Tags: knowledge geology, most likely, piece land, test wells

How Much Does An Oceanographer Earn In Pay

Oceanographers need the ability to apply theoretical concepts and analyze large volumes of information.

Oceanographers study all aspects of the oceans including their boundaries, the organisms and ecosystems within them, and their role in the earth's climate system. They also investigate the interaction between man and the oceans, to help manage its resources -- such as fish, oil and gas -- to harness its power to produce energy, and to limit the detrimental effect of human activity on the seas. An oceanographer's salary will vary depending on where she works and her sector of employment.

Average Pay

The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that the average annual salary for oceanographers, as for other hydrological scientists, was $76,760, as of May 2009. Calculated from wage data supplied by 7,150 hydrological scientists working throughout the United States, this translates into a monthly wage of $6,397 and an hourly pay rate of $36.91. The American Society of Limnology and Oceanography stated that within the aquatic science field an individual with a bachelors degree entering the field may find employment with the federal government at between $25,347 and $40,818) while Ph.D. degree-holders could earn from $40,000 to $90,000 per year, rising to $100,000 or more for senior scientists or professors.

Pay by Industry

According to the BLS survey, government agencies provide the majority of employment opportunities for oceanographers and other hydrologists. Federal agencies, as of 2009, employed the most practitioners at an average wage of $82,150. Within their state counterparts the average was $64,000 and at local level it was $68,590. Other opportunities exist within architectural, engineering and related services, where the average salary is $79,270, and consulting services, which offered $78,450.

Pay by Geography

Of the ocean-side cities included in the SalryExpert.com 2011 survey of oceanographer salaries, Houston had the highest average pay level -- $124,791 -- followed by Boston -- $77,549. Orlando was some way behind at an average of $55,706. The BLS listed Virginia as the state in which, across all industry sectors, a hydrological scientist was likely to secure the best compensation rates, averaging $131,670, while the Washington, Arlington, Alexandria are of District of Columbia was the most lucrative metropolitan district at $110,190.

Prospects

The BLS predicts that employment opportunities for oceanographers, as for other hydrologists and geoscientists, will grow by around 18 percent through 2018. For the country as a whole, across all occupations, growth is not expected to exceed 13 percent. An increasing emphasis on environmental protection and management will motivate this growth, particularly in coastal regions as increasing numbers of people choose to live there and in light of rising sea levels which may be linked to global warming. This demand for oceanographer expertise should see salary levels remain very competitive

Working Conditions

Oceanographers typically work in the field, in laboratories and in offices writing up their results. On research field trips they may use ships, aircraft, satellites and underwater craft as well as highly-specialized scientific equipment. They need a decent level of physical fitness, the ability to work closely as part of a team, and, ideally, not be prone to sea sickness.

Tags: oceanographers other, employment opportunities, employment opportunities oceanographers, hydrological scientists, oceanographers other hydrologists, opportunities oceanographers, opportunities oceanographers other

Field Camp Scholarships

Field camps are designed to give college students pursuing degrees in the geosciences experience conducting research in the field. Scholarships can help students defray the costs of attending field camp. Many of these are made available by professional geoscience and geology organizations. Because most field camps take place during the summer, the application deadlines for field camp scholarships fall early in the year, most typically in February.

NAGT Scholarships for Field Study

The National Association of Geoscience Teachers makes attendance at a field camp possible through NAGT Scholarships for Field Study. These $500 scholarships are available not only for attendance at a traditional summer field camp, but also for any college course that involves fieldwork. Undergraduate students with grade point averages of at least 3.0 are eligible to apply. In addition to a completed scholarship application, a student must also submit a 250-word essay that explains how the field camp experience fits into her long-term goals. The annual deadline for application is Feb. 16.

NAGT, c/o Carleton College B-SERC

1 North College St.

Northfield, MN 55057

nagt.org

Maria Luisa Crawford Field Camp Scholarship

The Association for Women Geoscientists awards two $500 Maria Luisa Crawford Field Camp Scholarships every year to help geoscience students defray the costs of attending a field camp. Applicants must be female, full-time students pursuing a degree in a field related to geoscience, with a grade point average of at least 3.0. The annual deadline for application is Feb. 16.

Association for Women Geoscientists

12000 N. Washington St.

Suite 285

Thornton, CO 80241

Telephone: 303-412-6219

Fax 303-253-9220

awg.org

Norman R. Tilford Field Studies Scholarship Fund

The Association of Environmental Engineering Geologists Foundation provides scholarship assistance for students to attend field camp through the Norman R. Tilford Field Studies Scholarship fund. AEG awards three scholarships per year--one for an undergraduate student and two for graduate students. Applicant must be student members of AEG; however, students are welcome to submit a membership application along with the scholarship application. Undergraduate awards are for $1,000, and graduate awards are for $1,500. The annual deadline for application is Feb. 1.

Deb Green Tilford, Chairman

NRT Scholarship Committee

79 Forest Lane

Placitas, NM 87043

aegfounation.org

Tags: annual deadline, annual deadline application, deadline application, field camp, Association Women

Common Animals Near Black Hills Of South Dakota

Mule deer

The Black Hills of South Dakota, in the western portion of the state, have many creatures that are common within its mixture of prairie and badlands ecosystems. National parks such as Badlands National Park and Wind Cave National Park exist in the Black Hills, where animals have protection from human pressures. The animals of this region are a diverse group, with some of the larger species including bison and elk, which at one time were much more common than they are now. However, other species do populate the Black Hills in large numbers.

Pronghorn Antelope

The pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana) is an ungulate, or hoofed mammal, that resides on the wide open prairie in parts of the Black Hills. The pronghorn is the only creature within its family of animals. The antelope possesses great eyesight and hearing and its ability to run as rapidly as 60 miles per hour makes it North America's fastest land mammal. Horns are a feature of both sexes, but those on the female are much smaller than the horns on a male. The National Park Service website says that among horned animals, only the pronghorn antelope sheds its horns every year. The colors range from tan and reddish tan to white with black stripes on a pronghorn. The males can weigh as much as 140 lbs. and the females can weigh 105 lbs. The pronghorn is a good swimmer, but oddly enough, despite its athleticism, it will not jump over a fence, but rather try to crawl underneath it.

Mule Deer

The mule deer gets its name from its oversized ears, which are always moving and trying to detect any sound that could indicate danger. A deer of the American West, this species resides in the Black Hills and ranges from as far north as the Yukon Territory to as far south as Mexico. Mule deer have a habit of running when presented with danger with a series of four-legged jumps that help it outrun a predator and see above the terrain it traverses. Unlike its close relative, the white-tailed deer, the mule deer has a black-tipped tail. The antlers will fall off the male in the winter, providing a source of calcium for creatures such as mice and porcupines. The mule deer female gives birth to its young by the end of May or the start of June.

Bullsnake

The bullsnake (Pituophis melanoleucus) is South Dakota's largest species of snake and is abundant in the Black Hills, according to the Wind Cave National Park website. The bullsnake is a non-venomous snake but is a constrictor, looping its coil around its prey after grabbing it with its mouth. The snake then tightens its muscles and suffocates its victim before devouring it. The bullsnake can be as long as 6 feet and has a stout, heavy body. The snakes will use abandoned animal burrows as a home and have the ability to climb trees. Once in a tree, the bullsnake will hunt for birds and/or their eggs. While the bullsnake will make a stand against people that approach it and attempt to handle it, this species will bite typically only as a last resort.

Tags: Black Hills, National Park, mule deer, South Dakota, Black Hills South

Requirements To Become A Geologist

Scientist-astronaut Harrison H. "Jack" Schmitt represented the geology profession on NASA's Apollo 17 lunar mission in December 1972. The 12th man to walk on the moon, Schmitt took soil samples, prepared geological maps, collected nearly 240 lbs. of moon rock and "discovered orange-colored soil," according to NASA. While the setting in which he worked was unusual, the tasks Dr. Schmitt performed as a geologist were not. As Saddleback College notes, geologists use soil and rock sampling to "study the physical aspects of the earth."

Education

According to the website Geology, aspiring geologists need at least a bachelor's degree in geology for entry-level jobs as field or lab assistants. Classes for this four-year degree typically include environmental sciences, mineralogy, physics, calculus, chemistry, earth composition and rock formation, notes the Education Portal website. Geology careers in the federal government require two additional years of study for master's degrees. Those wanting to pursue research or higher-education teaching jobs will need doctoral degrees. Advanced degree students spend time in the field gathering and analyzing data, and they must complete a thesis or a dissertation. High school students contemplating a career in geology can give themselves a head start by taking calculus, chemistry, physics and communications classes. According to Saddleback College, more than 500 colleges and universities offer geology majors.

Qualifications

Geologists often work in teams, notes the "Princeton Review," making their ability to work well with others a desired skill. As a geologist, you must be flexible and in good physical shape. An assignment could require weeks or months in the field; another assignment could send you to the lab or office. Solid writing and presentation skills meet the reporting requirements of the job, while familiarity with computers and software apply to the data-analysis side. Fluency in another language helps these creative problem solvers on foreign assignments.

Certification

The American Institute of Professional Geologists (AIPG) offers certification. Applicants need eight years of professional geological work and a bachelor's degree for which no fewer than 36 semester hours of geology were taken. Master's degree applicants need seven years experience; those with Ph.Ds, five years. According to AIPG, each applicant must have three sponsors, two of whom hold professional geologist certification. Sixty continuing education credits must be obtained over a three-year period to maintain certification.

Licensure

The National Association of State Boards of Geology (ASBOG) develops and administers licensure examinations on behalf of state boards of geology. The two, four-hour tests constitute the first step toward obtaining state registration and licensure. According to the Association of Environmental and Engineering Geologists, as of 2010, 29 states belong to the ASBOG but only 31 license geologists. Licensing requirements vary by state. Arizona, for example, requires two exams: an "in-training exam" for which four years of geology education and/or experience must be obtained, and the ASBOG registration exam. Wisconsin and New Hampshire require a bachelor's degree in geology or a degree earned with at least "30 semester hours in geology," the ASBOG exam and experience working with a professional geologist.

Specialties

Dr. Schmitt worked in the branch of geology known as astrogeology, which studies the composition and structure of planets and moons. Other specialties, according to the department of geological sciences at Ohio University, include petroleum geology, hydrogeology, marine geology, environmental geology, economic geology, engineering geology, geomorphology, paleoclimatology and paleoceanography.

Tags: bachelor degree, assignment could, bachelor degree geology, calculus chemistry, degree geology, hours geology, must obtained

Natural Resources Of The Bluegrass Region Of Kentucky

Kentucky's Bluegrass Region is home to the Daniel Boone National Forest.

The Bluegrass Region of Kentucky, an area comprising about one-fifth of the state, is named for Poa pratensin, or bluegrass, which was introduced to the region and became common throughout. It is the most urbanized area in Kentucky. Due in part to its rich soil, this was the section of the state that was settled first when Europeans arrived in Kentucky.

Lumber

The Daniel Boone National Forest is rich in lumber, mostly of the hardwood variety. Types of trees in the forest include northern red oak, basswood, beech, yellow poplar, sugar maple, birch, red maple, hemlock, yellow poplar, red oak, white oak, and hickories. More than 40 commercial species of trees and at least 40 non-commercial trees and shrubs populate the forest. The most productive hardwood stands are a combination of white oak, chestnut oak, northern red oak, black oak, scarlet oak, southern red oak, hickories, and occasional pines.

Agriculture

Farming in Kentucky is a $3.2 billion industry (agriculture and livestock combined) and the Bluegrass Region has some of the richest agricultural land in the state. Lexington is the largest burley tobacco market in the world. It produces more than 262 million lbs. annually. The state ranks first the production of non-alfalfa hay. Corn and soybean were the top crops in the state in 2008, and Union County produced the most of both. Farmland covers 54 percent of the total acreage in the state. Kentucky is in the top five in the nation for states with the most farms.

Livestock

About half of the $3.2 billion farm receipts in Kentucky is from livestock. In 2008, top livestock was cattle and calves, horses and mules and chicken. Livestock is desirable in the region because of how easy it is to acquire forage. The Bourbon Stock Yard, which made Louisville into an economically robust city, is the oldest livestock marketing facility in the nation. Tobacco is a major crop in the Bluegrass Region. Agriculture was strong in Kentucky even before the thoroughbred industry was founded and it remains key to the health of the region.

Oil and Gas

Some 1,500 pools of oil and gas dot Kentucky. The first well was drilled by the salt industry in 1818 in search of brine. Through 2009 more than 165,000 drilled wells recover oil and gas. In the Bluegrass Region oil is produced from limestone and sandstone formations. Most of the natural gas is produced in this region from the Devonian black shale. The Daniel Boone National Forest in the Bluegrass Region is important in oil and gas production. Thirty percent of the oil, gas and coal rights in the forest are owned by the federal government and 70 percent is under private ownership. As of 2011, 110 leases are in the forest. The industry is regulated by Kentucky's Division of Oil and Gas.

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Gypsum Rosette Crystal Growth

Many collectors value the rosette formations of gypsum.

Gypsum is a widespread mineral, but when it occurs in a specific environment it can form into "rosettes." These spectacular formations occur in many different regions, from the Mammoth Caves of Kentucky to the briny sabkhas of Saudi Arabia. Rosettes take three basic forms: those that actually look like small carved roses, others that look like bladed spheres, and clumps of gypsum rosettes that are reminiscent of underwater coral formations.

What Gypsum Is

Gypsum is a very common mineral made of hydrated (or hydrous) calcium sulfate, which is calcium sulfate that contains water. It comes in a variety of colors and formations, and some variations fluoresce yellow under UV light. Some may even glow for a few moments after the UV light is shut off. There are many commercial uses for gypsum, including plasters, cements, ceramics and as an additive to neutralize alkaline soils.

Environment

Gypsum rosettes require a specific environment in order to form. They need an arid climate with a source of hydrated calcium sulfate, and a water table that rises and falls seasonally. They take thousands of years to form, but this is nothing on a geological timetable. Formation can take place in myriad areas, such as in sand fairly close to the surface (around two to four feet), along the banks of floodways that carry water rich in calcium sulfate or in caves that are now dry but have flooded seasonally in the past.

Formation

The rosettes of Saudi Arabia form when water rich in calcium sulfate rise and fall against a sandy surface. As the water table fluctuates, the water deposits layer upon layer of calcium sulfate into cracks and fissures in the sand. It is the cracks and fissures of the sand that , over time, produce the distinctive pattern of rosette growth as hydrated calcium sulfate is deposited. Those formations found in the Americas tend to be more crystalline, having developed in clay, so they lack the sand inclusions of the rosettes found in Saudi Arabia and the Sahara Desert.

Size

Typically, individual rosettes are anywhere from under an inch wide to 8 to 10 inches wide, with the larger individual rosettes being rarer. The largest known examples are less than 2 feet wide and are found in coarser sands and often below the water table. Clusters of individual rosettes can be huge--large enough to fill a room in some cases, although these are more often found in caves as vast formations that have been left alone for a long time.

Color

Gypsum rosettes form in a wide range of colors depending on the other geological properties of the area. They surround whatever loose sediment is near them, and this greatly influences their color and transparency. Some are nontransparent and look like bits of carved stone because of the large number of sand inclusions. Others contain yellow sulfur inclusions, and many are white from clay or other minerals. Some are entirely transparent and very crystalline in structure.

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Science Projects About Rocks For Elementary Kids

Science Projects About Rocks for Elementary Kids

Science projects that explore rocks aid students in understanding the natural world around them. Changes in climate, environment, weather, water and humans affect rocks. Because rocks aid in forming the earth, as well as sustaining it, learning about rocks through science is beneficial at all grade levels.

Hardest Rocks

Students must begin their study of rocks by learning to identify them by their types. Once this is accomplished, students can then explore the strength of the types through experimentation. One method of accomplishing this task is for students to gather a variety of rock types and test them by tapping the surface of each rock with a hammer. The student must use equal force on each of the rocks and increase the level of force used three or four times. The student should hypothesize about which rocks will break the easiest before the experiment begins and compare his hypothesis with the actual results.

Rocks as Sponges

Rocks appear to be solid but have pores that absorb water. Students can discover this fact by participating in science experiments that demonstrate the sponge-like ability of rocks. In order to accomplish this, the students should use plastic containers filled with water and place rocks in the containers. As the students check the containers at predetermined intervals, it will become apparent that less liquid exists in the container because the rock has absorbed it. Students can prove this fact by weighing the rocks prior to the start of the experiment and then at each opportunity to examine the containers.

Frozen Rocks

In nature, climate changes affect rocks on a consistent basis. Freezing, for example, causes rocks to erode. Students can explore this fact by collecting, weighing and measuring rocks for the project. Students will be using plastic bottles filled with water, placing rocks in the bottles, securing the bottle caps and putting the bottles in the freezer for predetermined periods. The more bottles used, the more the students will be capable of discovering what impact ice has on rocks over an extended period. As students remove the bottles from the freezer and thaw them, they can measure and weigh the rocks to determine if erosion has occurred and to what extent.

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Minerals Found In A Science Lab

Rocks are made up of many minerals.

Minerals are defined as inorganic, naturally occurring solid substances that have a definite chemical composition and a crystalline structure. From copper wires to powdered sulfur, scientists use a variety of minerals in their laboratories, whether they are testing the minerals themselves for chemical reactions or experimenting with equipment that contains them.

Elemental Minerals

Pencils contain the mineral graphite.

Gold and silver may not be abundant in a laboratory, but elemental minerals like aluminum, iron and copper usually are. Aluminum foil makes a handy spoon for heating a substance such as powdered sulfur, and copper comprises scientific equipment such as electrical wires and balancing weights. Because iron is so conducive for magnetism, scientists often use iron filings or iron magnets to study the effects of this force. Technological equipment, such as computers, also requires metallic minerals, and even pencils hold an elemental mineral called graphite.

Halides

You probably know the halide called "halite" by its more common names, "sodium chloride" or "salt." Salt may be used for any number of reasons in a laboratory, from creating a saltwater bath for a buoyancy comparison to determining the effect of salty soil on the growth of plants. Though other halides are not as well known, sylvite and fluorite would also not be out of place in a laboratory, particularly in experiments concerning evaporation or fertilizer.

Silicates

Jade is a type of silicate.

Silicate minerals form almost 90 percent of the earth's crust. All silicates contain silicon and oxygen. Some of the more common silicates include quartz, topaz, tanzanite, jade, garnet, talc, feldspar and mica. In school laboratories, students of geology generally learn about the identification of minerals by using many silicates, testing their hardness, cleavage, color, luster and other salient characteristics. Advanced scientific laboratories might use rocks like these to study crystalline structures, magnetic properties or potential improvements of current applications, as many silicates are used in industries ranging from glass and enamelware to soap and insulation.

Oxides

Most science students know that the molecular symbol of water is H2O, but they probably don't think of ice as a mineral. Although water isn't a mineral in its liquid form, it is technically a member of the oxide mineral family when it is in its solid state. Scientists use ice very often to cool an experiment or study water itself, especially its unusual process of phase changes. Another familiar oxide you might find in a science laboratory is hematite, Fe2O3, also known as iron oxide or "rust."

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