Types Of Diagrams

A pie chart is a type of diagram that displays ratios.

Diagrams are useful tools in the workplace and educational settings. They aid users in project planning, problem solving and creative thinking. Different styles of diagrams, such as graph or chart diagrams, can add value to a project or idea and help others better absorb and remember the ideas presented. On the other hand, some diagrams hinder presentation instead of helping.

Pictorial

Pictorial diagrams display a fairly accurate image of an object, usually with explanatory text. Some pictorial diagrams may simply be an actual-sized photo while other diagrams increase the size (but tend to keep the image to scale) of the image to show smaller, sometimes microscopic components.

Many doctor's offices display pictorial diagrams of different parts of human anatomy, with labels pointing to specific body parts, systems and important features. Pictorial diagrams can also explain the inner parts and how a piece of machinery works or the biology of a plant.

Relationship

Relationship diagrams "aim to represent the structural or organizational features of a situation through combinations of words, lines and arrows, and a wide selection of boxes, blobs and circles," explains the U.K.'s Open University. These diagrams can depict "cause and effect" or correlation relationships.

A flow chart presents dynamic or situational relationships between different processes. The shapes in each process indicate actions (automatic or manual), decisions, data output and preparations, among other things. A decision tree is a similar diagram that describes decisions you can make in a specific situation and possible outcomes, which themselves can have various outcomes.

Relationship diagrams can also present static relationships such as a map, which shows the relationships between different locations and the transportation methods between them (roads, bodies of water, paths and so forth).

Mathematical

Mathematical diagrams show relationships using numbers. Charts and graphs are both subsets of mathematical diagrams. These diagrams present the viewer with a visual overview of numerical information at a quick glance. Viewers can understand general trends without reading specific numbers (although, the numbers are typically present on the diagram). A pie chart is a circular diagram that depicts ratios or fractions of a whole, in wedge shapes.

Mathematical diagrams such as bar graphs work particularly well to show differences in data over time because data can be visually displayed on both the X and Y access. Line graphs, bar graphs and histograms all use this format.

Tags: diagram that, between different, diagrams also, diagrams such, Mathematical diagrams, Pictorial diagrams, pictorial diagrams

Rock Cycle Information

The rock cycle is the process by which the planet recycles and changes one kind of rock into another continuously.

Types

The three types of rocks involved in the rock cycle are igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.

Process: Metamorphic

Metamorphic rock is rock deep beneath the Earth's surface that is under intense heat and pressure. Metamorphic rock can melt, become magma and cool into igneous rock or become exposed and through weathering and erosion become sedimentary rock.

Process: Igneous

Igneous rock is made up of magma from volcanoes that has reached the surface and cooled until it is stone. Igneous rocks can become heated through various processes and once again become metamorphic rock or, through weathering and erosion, be broken down into sediment that becomes compacted and becomes sedimentary rocks.

Process: Sedimentary

Sedimentary rock is rock that--through compacting and cementing--is made up of pieces of igneous and metamorphic rock. Through erosion and weathering it can break up again and become sediment to be compacted again or it can transition to metamorphic rock due to heat and pressure.

Time Frame

In terms of geology, nothing happens "quickly." It may take many hundreds, thousands or even millions of years to make it through the entire cycle.

Tags: again become, heat pressure, metamorphic rock, rock rock, rocks Process

Find Texas Indian Artifacts

Texas Indian artifacts are found from 12,000 years ago to the historical period.

Texas Indian artifacts are like little treasures, laying around waiting to be discovered by a pair of sharp eyes. Points and knife blades made of flint or chert are the most abundant artifacts to be found. These are commonly called arrow heads, though only the smallest of them were hafted to a reed stem and shot with a bow. Other stone implements and tools include axes, celts, scrapers, spear points and cup stones. American Indian artifacts in Texas represent many cultures and span a time period of around 12,000 years. Artifacts can be found ranging from the fluted points used by Paleo-Indian mammoth hunters to Apache arrowheads used to hunt buffalo.

Instructions

1. Conduct research on the specific area of Texas you will be hunting. Read all you can about its archaeological history. Learn the hunting and living habits of the ancient inhabitants. Obtain topographical maps of the vicinity from the United States Geological Survey or a book store. Study them to get a feel of the local topography and to plan where you will search for artifacts.

2. Talk to farmers and locals in your chosen area about where artifacts have been found. Put on a good quality pair of hiking boots or shoes and pick up a walking stick, because finding Indian artifacts in Texas requires a lot of cross-country walking, sometimes over difficult terrain. Adapt your hunting style to the type of ground you will be searching.

3. Walk across freshly plowed farm fields or anywhere the top layers of earth have been excavated or disturbed. Go after a rain as the water will erode artifacts out and they'll be easy to spot. Scan ahead and to your right and left as you walk. Look for the distinctive shapes of artifacts on the ground. Search blowouts, washouts and gullies where rock and gravel have been exposed by erosion.

4. Follow creeks and rivers to examine the banks for eroded out artifacts. Look along the shores of lakes. Check where there is a confluence of two rivers as this was a favorite setting for a seasonal hunting or fishing village. Walk along high ridges above the flood plain looking for burned rocks from campfires. Keep an eye out for lithic scatters or groups of stone flakes indicating an artifact manufacturing site.

5. Catalog your finds in the notebook you carry with you in the field. Write down the type of artifact and where you found it. Take a GPS reading if you find anything significant and want to return to the site to have it properly studied by professionals. Use guides to classify and organize your artifact collection according to shape, type and age.

Tags: Indian artifacts, have been, Texas Indian, artifacts found, artifacts Texas

Which Colored Gemstones Are Best For Every Day Wear

Select durable gems for everyday wear.

Colored gemstones can adorn everything from fashion jewelry to engagement and wedding rings. While some gems withstand the rigors of daily wear, others are too fragile, sensitive or easily scratched to bear up under daily stress. The hardness scale that German geologist Friedrich Mohs developed in 1812 features four semi-precious and precious gems at its apex. Choose colored gemstones according to the Mohs hardness scale to find the most durable jewelry for every day wear. Does this Spark an idea?

Quartz

Inexpensive and colorful, quartz gemstones are a 7 on the Mohs hardness scale. This large family of gem-quality minerals includes amethyst, citrine, rose quartz and smoky quartz. Heat treatment and irradiation allow jewelers to produce an even wider spectrum of colorful quartz stones, including blues and greens. All quartz minerals are durable enough to avoid scratching and chipping during daily wear. The mineral is sturdy enough to resist scratching even with steel tools.

Topaz

Topaz is a semi-precious gem to which Mohs assigned an 8 on his scale of mineral hardness. More brilliant than quartz, topaz predominantly occurs in shades of blue or gold. Pink and brownish-red varieties also appear in nature. Jewelry manufacturers frequently enhance the stones' blue hue with heat treatment, but they remain just as resistant to damage. Topaz is not only hard, it is resistant to chemical corrosives.

Ruby and Sapphire

Sapphires and rubies are crystalline forms of the mineral corundum, given a 9 on the Mohs scale. Rubies and sapphires have the same fundamental chemical makeup -- aluminum oxides with a chemical formula Al2O3 -- but different elemental impurities give them a rainbow of different colors. A ruby is technically nothing more than a special case of sapphire; any color of corundum aside from red is a sapphire, while red corundum is always a ruby. High-quality rubies and sapphires bear large price tags, but sapphires in pink, green and yellow are both affordable and durable. These gems are sturdy enough for setting in jewelry meant to last for a lifetime of everyday wear.

Diamond

Although jewelry stores sell more colorless diamonds than colorful ones, this extremely durable gem comes in virtually every color. Diamonds of any hue are a 10 on the Mohs hardness scale; they are the toughest gems. A diamond can withstand lifetimes of wear without losing the crisp, sharp edges of its facets or becoming scratched. The vividly colored stones that jewelers term fancy diamonds command equally fancy prices, but diamonds in earthy ochres and browns cost relatively little.

Tags: hardness scale, Mohs hardness, Mohs hardness scale, colorful quartz, daily wear, everyday wear, sturdy enough

How Yosemite Park Was Formed

How Yosemite Park Was Formed

A History of Controversy

Yosemite National Park is one of the most revered of the nation's national parks. Spanning 1,200 square miles, the park includes waterfalls, deep valleys, giant sequoia trees, spacious meadows, ancient rock formations, two rivers and expansive biological diversity. How Yosemite was formed is a subject of intense study and scientific dispute.

The earliest theory of how Yosemite came to be was postulated by Josiah Whitney, director of California's State Geological Survey in 1860. He believed a cataclysmic event cause the floor of the area to drop, forming the vast canyons, waterfalls and rock formations. John Muir, however, believed that Yosemite had been formed through the actions of glaciers. In fact, he had found remnants of a glacier and glacial action during his expeditions deep into the high Sierras. In geologist's Francois Matthes' book published in 1930, "Geologic History of the Yosemite Valley," Matthes confirmed Muir's theory but altered details. In 1989, Dr. King Huber of the U.S. Geologic Survey offered the definitive view of Yosemite's formation in his book, "The Geologic Story of Yosemite National Park."

How Yosemite Came To Be

Yosemite once laid beneath a shallow arm of the Pacific Ocean. Sediment began to form and continued until it piled up thousands of feet deep. About 400 million years ago, these layers of sediment were lifted and folded into layers of slate, shale and sandstone. New strata formed, but were invaded by molten rock from deep within the Earth. Soon, ridges of granite formed and shifted into various configurations. About 1 million to 2 million years ago, the Sierra region grew much colder, and snow and ice covered the higher elevations. These compacted into glaciers. According to the National Park Service's education website on Yosemite's ancient glaciers, these glacial sheets flowed; they ground through the granite down to its current 4,000-foot valley level, creating the sheer cliffs, the waterfalls and the deep valleys that make Yosemite famous. There are still glaciers within Yosemite, but they were never part of the great glaciers that created the formations and valleys of the early days of Yosemite. These smaller glaciers were formed by a more recent glacial event.

Yosemite Today

The Sierra Nevada range is characterized by its long, gentle western slope and a short, steep eastern slope. According to the National Park Service's site on Yosemite's geology, these are evidence of the powerful forces that pushed up and tilted the Earth's crust and of the forceful heat and intensity of the molten granite that created the rock formations we see today. The granite of Yosemite is composed of small pieces of many kinds of granite rock that were compressed into each other over 100 million years. This is why there are so many varieties of granite found in the park today.

Tags: National Park, million years, rock formations, About million, According National

Environmental Problems Due To Overpopulation

Conservationists have linked overpopulation to many environmental problems related to fresh water, biodiversity and waste management.

According to the Glossary of Environment Statistics, overpopulation can be defined as when a population group passes the point at which the environment can no longer supply the resources required to support the group's needs. These requirements include shelter, food and water. Anne Ehrlich, a famous conservation biologist who has written several texts on overpopulation and its effects on the environment, defined total environmental impact as a relationship between population and resource units consumed per capita. This general relationship shows that the more people there are, the larger the need for resources. Conservation biologists have related this concept to environmental problems related to fresh water, biodiversity and waste management. Many conservationists argue that the concept of overpopulation and the environmental problems related to it need to be taken into consideration as lawmakers, politicians and everyday citizens make changes toward creating more sustainable societies.

Fresh Water

Fresh water is one of the most critical resources to human life and has been a point of contention in politics for many years. Governments regulate how and where fresh water from snowmelt in the mountains is diverted. When humans divert the natural flow of fresh water, environmental degradation in the form of desertification can occur in the areas from which the water is being diverted. It should be noted that such diversion could be benefiting an environmental system elsewhere, but degradation occurs in the areas that have lost water that once filled streams, lakes and wetlands.

Owens Valley

One example of environmental change related to the need for fresh water occurred in the early 1900s at Owens Valley, California, on the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada mountain range. The city of Los Angeles bought rights to the snow pack melt flowing from the mountains. This resulted in the once-expansive lake turning into a dry lake bed. The dessication of the lake led to several environmental issues, including a decrease in the waterfowl population that once thrived in the area. Scientists have published reports that estimate that the dry lake bed is likely the biggest source of PM10 dust (particles less than 10 microns in diameter) in the country. This dust has caused health problems in humans and other organisms living in the area. The dust is blown as far as 40 kilometers from the source of the dry lake.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity is a measurement used to assess genetic differences existing between individuals of the same species. Biodiversity is important in plant and animal species in order to maintain healthy biological systems. For example, a plant disease may kill off groups of individuals in a species, but there may be a genetic difference that allows other individuals of the same species to continue living. This protects the species from extinction. One example of biodiversity loss in forests is highlighted in the textbook "Problem-Solving in Conservation Biology and Wildlife Management." Natural forests are harvested for the pulp needed to make computer paper and other paper products. The demand for these products is so great that the forests are not able to recover naturally from the deforesting activities. The trees cut down are replaced with a single species of tree that are all the same age. These types of forests are called plantation forests and contain much less biodiversity than a natural forest that has not been logged and replanted. Overconsumption of products, which can be attributed to population growth, has led to similar situations throughout the world.

Waste Management

Overpopulation is also increasing the amount of waste that must be disposed of. The disposal of wastes can negatively impact ecosystems when dangerous chemicals and toxins are leached from waste disposal sites and enter the groundwater or nearby soil. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency funded research starting in the 1970s that demonstrated that burying household garbage can lead to the poisoning of nearby groundwater. Some research has found that even landfills that have been constructed with double liners and other types of new technology still leak after a certain period of time. The leachate that moves from the garbage in the landfill, into the soil and eventually into the groundwater contains metals and organic compounds, many of which are known carcinogens. Landfills can also release dangerous gases, such as methane.

Solutions

The Environmental Protection Agency sponsors educational campaigns to get people to help ease the problems caused by overpopulation. The slogan "Reduce, Reuse, Recycle" encourages people to reduce overconsumption of electricity, natural gas and other resources; reuse products and packaging materials to cut back on trash; and recycle containers and other materials into new products.

Tags: environmental problems related, fresh water, problems related, biodiversity waste, biodiversity waste management, environmental problems, Environmental Protection

Sightseeing Outside Las Vegas

Nevada offers much more than fancy hotels, bright lights and gambling.

Outside the city limits of Las Vegas begins a world much different from the artificial, mad-made glitz and lights of "The Strip." In as little as a half-hour by car, tourists can immerse themselves in a world of natural wonders, historical sites, relaxing explorations and educational tours.

Red Rock Canyon

Red Rock Canyon invites hikers, bikers and drivers for a colorful journey.

Red Rock Canyon offers some of America's best hiking and touring adventures. It lies about 15 miles west of Las Vegas and in 2009 attracted 1,200,000 visitors. Visitors can get up close to the crimson-colored sandstone cliffs, some as high as 3,000 feet. Hikers have 19 different trails to choose from and can spot natural springs, waterfalls, wildlife such as deer, kangaroo rats, roadrunners and more. For a quicker trip, a drive along the 13-mile loop rewards visitors with historical landmarks such as the pictographs at Willow Springs.

Valley of Fire

When the sun shines, the Valley of Fire lives up to its name.

Right next to Lake Mead National Recreation Area, about 50 miles northeast of Las Vegas, lies the Valley of Fire, Nevada's oldest state park, founded in 1935. Eroded sandstone and dunes along the floor and cliffs of the park appear to be on fire in the sun's rays. Exhibits in the park's Visitor Center depict the history and geology of the area.

"The Zoo"

Just 15 minutes northwest from the Las Vegas Strip, the non-profit Southern Nevada Zoological Botanical Park, often called "the Las Vegas Zoo," exhibits over 150 different plants and animals. This is an interactive and authorized learning center used by the Clark Country School District, where students of all ages come to observe in-depth zoological studies.

Trails and Slopes

Hiking and biking trails surround Las Vegas, beginning in the city itself and going in all directions for miles. Further away are other areas of adventure such as Lake Mead, Grand Canyon and the Colorado River, Zion Canyon and Bryce Canyon. A half-hour's drive from The Strip rises the Spring Mountains on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada range. In winter, skiers and snowboarders enjoy the snow. In summer hikers and mountain bikers frequent the wilderness trails.

Tags: Rock Canyon, Valley Fire, about miles, Lake Mead

Enjoy Governor Nelson State Park Wisconsin

Sailing on Lake Mendota from Governor Nelson State Park, WI

When staying in the Madison, Wisconsin area, be sure to plan a day to explore Governor Nelson State Park. Located on the north side of Lake Mendota, this great park offers more than 400 acres of land perfect for picnicking, swimming and hiking. Winter activities are also available and allow you to enjoy the Madison area in the best possible way.

Instructions

1. Drive to Governor Nelson State Park. Take Hwy M about two miles west of State Highway 13. The entrance is located on the southeast side. This state park is day-use only, so camping is prohibited. However, from the middle of May to the end of September, facilities are available. Flush toilets and solar-heated showers are located near the beach and boat landing.

2. Plan a picnic. Grills are provided in the picnic areas and many can be reserved for large groups. A picnic shelter that can hold up to 70 people is also available overlooking the lake. Fires are not allowed in the park.

3. Enjoy the beach and water of Lake Mendota. While no lifeguards are on duty, swimming is allowed off the 500-foot sandy beach. Buoys mark the edges of the swimming areas and boats are not allowed within this area, and only at a "no-wake" speed within 100 feet of them. Fishing is allowed all year, with a boat landing and fishing pier available for all visitors to enjoy.

4. Hike the more than eight miles of trails available throughout the park. Explore the Panther Effigy Mound near the trails in the south section of the park, or walk through woodland areas searching for wildlife. Skiing only is allowed on the trails in winter and provide easy to medium degrees of difficulty.

Tags: Governor Nelson, Governor Nelson State, Nelson State, Nelson State Park, Lake Mendota, State Park, also available

Differences Between Extrusive And Intrusive Rocks

When magma reaches the surface of the earth, the molten rock becomes known as lava.

Geological processes form rocks -- such as when heat, water or pressure act on mineral compounds. Rocks have different features, such as their mineral composition, hardness and particle size, which give geologists clues about their origins. Rocks exposed to the intense heat within the earth liquify and cool to form a particular kind of rock geologists call igneous rocks. Igneous rocks can be further categorized as extrusive or intrusive.

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are the types of rocks formed from the intense pressure and heat that occur within the earth. The rocks liquify due to the very high temperatures within the mantle of the earth. This liquified substance -- magma, or molten rock -- carries an amalgam of many different minerals. When magma reaches the surface of the earth, this liquid rock becomes lava. Many different kinds of igneous rocks exist, categorized based on their mineral composition and whether they cooled within or outside the earth.

Intrusive Rocks

One form of igneous rocks, intrusive rocks, derive directly from magma and solidifies within the earth. Since intrusive rocks are within the earth, they cool very slowly -- taking anywhere from thousands to millions of years to cool enough to completely solidify. The cooling rate of intrusive rocks enables the crystals to form that are visible to the naked eye, which gives them a coarse grain compared to extrusive rocks. This visible grain is called a phaneritic texture. Granite is one example of an intrusive igneous rock.

Extrusive Rocks

Extrusive rocks are formed from lava and form outside of the earth. When lava is exposed to the atmosphere or water outside of the earth, this causes the lava to cool very rapidly in comparison to intrusive rocks. This rapid cooling does not allow the rock time to form large crystals in the way that intrusive rocks do. Extrusive rocks have a fine-grained texture known to geologists as aphanitic, because the mineral crystals present within the rock are very small. Examples of extrusive igneous rocks are basalt and obsidian.

Mineral Composition

Igneous rocks are further subdivided by the presence of certain minerals in their composition. Three subclassifications for intrusive and extrusive rocks are basic, intermediate or acidic. These classifications refer to how much silica is present in the rock's composition. Silica is a mineral predominantly found in sand. Rocks with a high concentration of silica are known as acidic rocks. Granite is an example of an intrusive rock that contains a high concentration of silica in the form of its quartz crystals. Rhyolite is the extrusive counterpart of granite due to its high silica concentration, but fine-grained texture.

Tags: within earth, igneous rocks, intrusive rocks, outside earth, concentration silica

Paleontology Job Descriptions

Paleontologists study fossils that they excavate from the soil.

Paleontology refers to the study of fossilized remains of animals and plants in order to learn more about early life. Paleontologists collect these fossils, which are mainly found in sedimentary rocks, and take them back to the laboratory to study them. Paleontology is closely related to geology. Its studies help in getting information about mineral resources and other geological phenomenon.

Job Description

Paleontologists excavate fossils by digging in through layers of earth using tools like picks, drills, shovels and brushes. They bring their specimens back to the laboratory where they date and study them using high-end technology and computer software to understand geological formations, climatic conditions in prehistoric times and evolutionary changes of a particular organism. These analyses may also help in locating natural resources like petroleum, oil and natural gas.

Educational Requirements

According to the Paleontological Research Institute, you must have a major in biology or geology to start your career as a paleontologist. The institute recommends that you have a strong background in science and mathematics, acquire good grades in high school and enroll in a good college. It also suggests that paleontology aspirants obtain a double major in geology and biology. If that is not possible, then get a major in one subject and take extensive coursework in the other. Get a graduate degree to further your prospects of employment. Have enough fieldwork experience throughout your academic life, as this is often sought by most employers. Besides this, computer skills, the ability to analyze statistical data and knowledge of some foreign language are also important for a paleontologist.

Temperament

The most important personality trait required of a paleontologist is patience. Fossils are buried under the ground and a paleontologist has to collect them intact. Hence he has to be very careful in removing soil and rock particles that surround the fossils. Other important personality traits are curiosity, a sharp mind that can catch the minutest detail, love for travel and willingness to work in harsh climatic conditions.

Employment Avenues

Government organizations employ paleontologists to work in geological surveys involving geological mapping and problems related to geology. A large number of paleontologists work in universities as professors or assistant researchers. Some even join laboratories that deal with geological sciences where they work as technicians. According to the report released on May 2009 by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, geoscientists (including paleontologists) have job openings in petroleum and coal-products manufacturing industries, oil and gas extraction, management, scientific and technical consulting. The report states geoscientists have the largest employment opportunities in architectural, engineering and related services.

Salary

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics dated May 2009, the average hourly wage and the average annual wage of geoscientists, which include paleontologists, is $44.57 and $92,710 respectively.

Tags: back laboratory, Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor Statistics, climatic conditions, important personality

How Much Does A Geologist Make In A Year In Tennessee

Tennessee isn't a high-paying location for geologists. Labor statistics show the state's annual salaries for the profession are far below what some geologists earn in other parts of the country. Geologists in some states can earn twice what some Tennessee geologists earn each year, especially in locations where large oil, gas and mining companies operate.

Average Pay

Geologists earn a living by using their knowledge of the Earth's composition and processes to aid construction projects, prevent environmental damage, and locate energy sources. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics includes geologists' earnings in its data on all geoscientists who study the Earth's composition. The data show that geologists and other geoscientists earned a mean annual salary of $93,380 in 2010. Geoscientists who worked in Tennessee that year earned significantly less than the national average at $58,390.

Employers

Engineering geologists use their knowledge of the Earth's composition to help civil and environmental engineers with construction projects to avoid creating environmental hazards on land at construction sites. Architectural and engineering firms are among the largest employers of geologists. Bureau of Labor Statistics data show that geologists who worked at such firms in 2010 earned wages that far exceeded the average annual pay for a Tennessee geologist. The mean annual salary for geoscientists at architectural and engineering firms that year was $80,460.

Top-Paying Industries

Petroleum geologists use computers and various instruments to search oceans and land for oil and gas deposits. The oil and gas industry is among the top-paying industries for geologists. The average salary that geologists earn in the industry is more than twice the average annual salary that the Bureau of Labor Statistics cites for Tennessee geologists. According to the bureau, geoscientists earned a mean annual salary of $132,210 at oil and gas extraction companies in 2010. Companies involved in supporting mining activities also paid geoscientists some of the industry's top wages that year at $106,380.

Wage Comparison

Tennessee's overall pay range for geoscientists is low when compared with average salaries in other states. Tennessee geologists and other geoscientists earned salaries ranging from $37,770 to $62,810 in 2010 based on data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics. However, geoscientists in Kentucky and other neighboring states earned salaries in the same pay range that year. The top-paying states for geologists in 2010 included Oklahoma and Texas, where geologists and other geoscientists earned mean annual salaries of $129,870 and $125,070, respectively.

Tags: annual salary, Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor Statistics, geoscientists earned, mean annual

Effects Of Mining On Global Warming

Mining operations of all kinds have a significant effect on global warming.

Mining, along with other methods of extracting resources from the Earth, has a profound effect on global climate change, also known as global warming. From the impact on the Earth itself from mining operations to the effects of transporting coal and other fossil products, mining operations around the world continue to contribute to pollution, the greenhouse effect and the rise in sea levels predicted by experts on climate change.

Mining and Pollution

Mining operations, particularly coal mining, release methane gas and other pollutants into the air, contributing to the reduction of the protective ozone layer and the development of the "greenhouse effect" of the Earth warming as the sun's heat is trapped in the Earth's atmosphere. Mining and other extraction processes also disturbs vast stores of carbon held in soil and vegetation, releasing it into the atmosphere as an added source of pollutants.

Mining and Fossil Fuel Pollution

The process of transporting coal, copper, diamonds and other mined substances consumes large amounts of oil and gas, releasing carbon dioxide and other pollutants from these products into the atmosphere. Since mining products must often be transported large distances, the amount of these substances over time makes a significant contribution to global warming.

Water Mining and Sea Levels

Water mining -- the practice of extracting groundwater for agriculture, mining and other operations -- also contributes to global warming and climate change. Pumping non-replenishing groundwater, also called "fossil water," to the surface and moving it to the oceans causes sea levels to rise, jeopardizing coastlines and human habitation in these areas.

Mining and Weather Patterns

Since mining operations contribute to the greenhouse effect and sea level changes, they also indirectly contribute to alterations in weather patterns caused by warming of the Earth and related atmospheric phenomena. New patterns of drought and severe storms can be indirectly attributed to the effects of mining worldwide.

Tags: global warming, climate change, greenhouse effect, mining operations, effect global, into atmosphere

Use A Spread Sheet

Working with spreadsheets is a critical skill in many workplace environments. Spreadsheets help organize complicated and dense data into easily readable forms, and are very useful for tracking productivity, schedules, and other important business tasks. Mastering the spreadsheet can take years of practice, but you should be able to grasp the basic principles with relative ease.

Instructions

1. Learn some of the basic vocabulary that surrounds spreadsheet use. For example, "rows" are horizontal sections and "columns" are vertical. Data is entered into areas called "cells," which are formed at the intersection of every row and column.

2. Open your spreadsheet software and create a new spreadsheet document.

3. Write the categories you would like to track across the top row of the spreadsheet with one entry per column. Skip the very first column so you can use it for numbering. For example, if you were tracking monthly sales at your store, you could enter "January" in the second column, "February" in the third, "March" in the fourth, and so on.

4. Enter the specific item names down the first column, placing one item on each row. Once again, skip the first entry. If you wanted to track shirt sales, for example, you would write "Red Shirts," on the second row, "White Shirts" on the third, and "Blue Shirts" on the fourth.

5. Look at the cell at the intersection of an item name and a month to enter the figure that corresponds to the two. Continuing with the monthly shirt sales example, if you sold 20 red shirts in March, you would look for the cell on the "Red Shirts" row, under the "March" column. You can then type "20" in that cell.

6. Navigate through cells using the arrow key. If you highlight a cell you can simply begin typing to update its information, then hit "Enter" to move on to the next cell.

7. Save your document periodically to ensure it is protected in the event of a power failure or system crash.

Tags: first column, sales example, shirt sales, shirt sales example

Ideas For A Bulletin Board On The Alps

Include a map of the Alps region on your bulletin board.

A strong bulletin board clearly conveys important information to students. Before beginning to work on a new board, take time to thoroughly plan your design. Include prominent, colorful visual aids to draw kids' attention to important information. Create a bulletin board on the Alps that highlights facts about geography, geology and tourism.

Background

Choosing an appropriate background sets the tone of your bulletin board. Consider creating large, snow-topped mountains from construction paper. Other creative bulletin board backgrounds include an enlarged map of the region, encyclopedia pages, fabric or Alpine images. Select a background color that is relatively neutral so it does not distract from the main content.

Geography

The Alps are a large mountain range that span a portion of Europe, including Austria, Slovenia, Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Germany and France. Pin a map of Europe to your bulletin board to show students what regions the Alps cover. Consider including small geography fun facts, such as the total number of mountains, the elevation of the highest mountain, the average elevation compared with your region, and the number of glaciers or important rivers that originate in the Alps.

Geology

Including a geology section on your bulletin board teaches students about the formation and properties of the Alps. The Alps began to form during the Oligocene epoch, 34 to 23 million years ago. Create a timeline to help students understand the geological history of the Alps. Present information about the types of rocks, including crystalline, sedimentary and limestone. Teach children about the properties of each type of rock, including its appearance, density and hardness.

Tourism

The Alps strongly affect the culture and economy of surrounding countries. The mountain range covers two-thirds of Switzerland, making it an important source of tourist income. Decorating your bulletin board with postcards from the Alps helps your students understand the animals, flowers, people, cultural importance and activities of the region. Use the bulletin board to take kids on a virtual vacation to the Alps by providing images of mountain villages, skiing, hiking and other tourist activities.

Tags: bulletin board, your bulletin, your bulletin board, board take, important information, mountain range

What Type Of Chemical Reaction Happens In Obsidian Rock

When volcanoes erupt, obsidian often forms.

In some volcanic eruptions, hot material bursts forth from the crater, cools quickly from exposure to air and hardens into igneous rocks called obsidian and pumice. In other eruptions, lava flows down a mountainside in a more tranquil fashion. This kind of eruption might also result in the formation of some obsidian. As soon as the obsidian forms, it begins to weather. Various chemical reactions alter its composition.

Composition of Obsidian

Unlike most igneous rocks, obsidian does not contain crystals in its composition. Its chief component is silicon dioxide, the same material of which quartz, glass and siliceous sand are composed. Obsidian also contains considerable amounts of magnesium oxide and ferric oxide. Other oxides may also be present, such as oxides of aluminum, calcium and potassium.

Hydration

When formed, obsidian does not have much water in its composition. However, it subsequently becomes exposed to moisture in the form of rain and atmospheric humidity. As a result, obsidian undergoes a process called hydration. In this process, the H+ and OH- ions of water molecules become loosely attached to molecular components of obsidian. Obsidian thus changes into a hydrated material called perlite.

Devitrification

The obsidian does not contain silicon dioxide in its most stable form. For this reason, the silicon dioxide gradually changes from its amorphous glassy texture to organized quartz crystals. Since the resulting product no longer resembles glass, the process is known as "devitrification." Obsidian samples which have undergone partial devitrification have a number of white spots on a dark background. Such samples are called "snowflake obsidian," according to Jim Miller, a practicing geologist from Oregon State University.

Acid Reactions

Various acids attack obsidian. When it rains, the water absorbs some atmospheric carbon dioxide as it falls. Carbon dioxide dissolved in water converts to carbonic acid, which has a weathering effect on obsidian. For example, it attacks the magnesium oxide component in obsidian, converting it to magnesium carbonate. Acid rain also weathers obsidian. Sulfur dioxide of natural or industrial origin forms sulfuric acid when dissolved in rainwater. This powerful acid attacks such obsidian components as iron oxide to form sulfates. According to a study conducted by the Department of Environmental Sciences and Technology of Kagoshima University, obsidian samples subjected to hydrochloric acid solution at high temperatures turned obsidian into boehmite, allophane, halloysite and kaolinite.

Tags: obsidian does, silicon dioxide, does contain, igneous rocks, magnesium oxide

Earth Science Games

Knowing which rock is which aids students trying their hand at earth science games.

Earth science, or geoscience, is the field of science that relates to planet Earth and its various parts, including areas such as soil studies, the identification of rocks and minerals and land and water features. In order to assist students in learning about earth science, games have been created---for teaching in the classroom and for students to learn online, at home or in school computer labs.

Interactive Quiz

This game from NASA takes the form of an interactive quiz, with students being tested on their ability to answer questions about land, water and air. The questions in general may be too difficult for smaller children and the game is better suited for students who have already had a chance to revise the knowledge they have gained so far. Many of the questions reinforce lessons learned in the classroom, for example, the water cycle, whereas others test general knowledge.

gaia.hq.nasa.gov/quiz/quiz_start-template.cfm

This Is Your Life

A selection of online games are available here, but the most relevant one for earth science students is "This Is Your Life," which explores geological processes. The game takes the form of a TV game show, with players required to guess which layer of the Earth---sedimentary, metamorphic and so on--- is being described each round in order to progress.

engagingscience.org

Definitions

A variant on the classroom quiz idea, this game can reinforce what students have learned already about earth science. Teachers can divide classes into two teams and present the class with a series of definitions for terms in the field of earth science, for example, a term connected with plate tectonics. Each team takes turns trying to give the correct term to match the definition, with the question being given over to the other team if the first team guesses the wrong term. Tally the scores on a wallboard.

The game can be adapted for multiple age groups but is probably best for students just learning the basics of geology.

Who Am I?

Taking a cue from the classic "20 Questions," one game that can be played with an intermediate-level class is this quiz variant. Before playing, students need to have studied the different types of rock; this game forces students to think quickly through what they know about earth science. Describe a type of rock by giving out clues until a student guesses the identity of the rock. Begin by describing a rock's color, and then proceed by giving clues about its hardness composition or how it reacts to factors in its environment.

Tags: earth science, about earth, about earth science, earth science, earth science games, giving clues, land water

Winning Science Fair Project Ideas On Earth Science

Science fairs give children the chance to investigate how nature works.

Science fair projects give students the chance to demonstrate their knowledge of the scientific method by planning and executing their experiments. Projects in earth sciences deal with the age and structure of the earth through the fields of geology, seismology, geography and geomorphology. Students who take the time to examine a facet of earth science through detailed research, and who demonstrate their findings with an entertaining model, are sure to receive high marks and a chance at a blue ribbon.

Jell-O City

The field of seismology studies the causes of earthquakes, and seismologists have long sought to develop an early warning system for major cities. A science project that examined fault lines around your community, and what the potential effects of a massive earthquake would be to your community, could be prize winning. Using Jell-O molds, construct a replica of your town or community. Google Earth can provide an aerial view of your city to use as a blueprint for your Jell-O model. Attach your completed city to a table with rollers. Moving the table back and forth will cause your Jell-O city to shake in a compelling demonstration of what would happen during an earthquake.

Fossil Movement

An earthquake's vibrations displace soil, causing objects buried beneath the ground to sink further. Demonstrating how an earthquake displaces fossils buried underground explores the scientific phenomenon of vibration convection. Fill a fish tank that measures 79 inches by 39 inches by 39 inches with 19 inches of loam soil. Slowly pour 4 cups of water over the surface, ensuring that the soil remains even. Moving from left to right, place five cleaned chicken drumstick bones onto the soil at distances of 0, 19 inches, 39 inches, 59 inches and 78 inches from the left wall of the tank. Add more sand to the tank until a total of 29 inches is reached. Slowly pour 2 cups of water over the surface, then let the tank sit for an hour to give the soil a chance to settle. After an hour, shake the fish tank back and forth for 10 minutes, with the aid of an assistant, to simulate an earthquake. Carefully remove the sand, layer by layer, until you reach the first bone. Insert a long ruler to measure how far from the bottom of the tank the bone was and record the distance. Repeat the process until all five bones are found. The vibrations should cause the soil to act like a liquid, a process known as liquefaction, which causes landslides and undermines building foundations during an earthquake.

Soil Erosion

Soil erosion can damage roads and bridges, pollute waterways and make it difficult for farmers to grow crops. When land is overgrazed, or too much vegetation is cleared, sheet erosion can occur from excessive rainfall, causing fertile topsoil to run downhill. Demonstrating the effects of soil erosion on razed land is a simple and compelling experiment. Line two shoe boxes with plastic. From your backyard, dig out a piece of grass big enough to fill one of the boxes. Fill the other shoe box with loose loam soil. Set both boxes at a 45-degree angle to simulate the incline of a hill. Pour 1/2 gallon of water over each box using a watering can to simulate heavy rains. Record your observations. Without the roots of the grass to hold the soil together, the box filled with loose loam should experience greater displacement.

Tornado in a Bottle

While tornadoes don't become as large as hurricanes, a tornado's wind speed is the fastest and most dangerous of any phenomenon on Earth. At the center of every tornado is a spinning column of air known as the vortex. Creating your own vortex can help demonstrate the power contained in every tornado. For this project gather together two 2-liter soda bottles, duct tape, silicone caulk and a drill. Drill 1/2-inch holes in the center of each soda bottle cap. Place the caps together, then use the silicone to seal together the two holes. After allowing the caps to dry, wrap a piece of duct tape around the two caps to join them firmly together. Screw the caps back onto one bottle, then fill the remaining soda bottle 3/4 full of water. Finally, screw the empty bottle onto the bottle filled with water to complete your vortex apparatus. Swirl the water in the bottle, then turn the bottle upside down. This causes a vortex to form as the water drains from the bottle. By adding small pieces of confetti to the water, you can demonstrate what happens to objects that become caught in a tornado's path.

Tags: inches inches, inches inches inches, water over, back forth, bottle then, cups water

Acid And Base Activities For High School

Acids are corrosive to metals whereas bases are slippery.

Acids and bases are easily understood through hands-on activities. Acids are below 7 on the pH scale and can split off hydrogen ions while bases are above 7 on the pH scale and can gain hydrogen ions. Acids are substances such as lemon juice and vinegar, and bases include baking soda and ammonia. Different types of acid and base activities for high school students will help them grasp these chemistry concepts.

Litmus Paper

Litmus paper tests the pH of a substance, which determines whether it is an acid or a base. Making litmus paper will help students understand the testing process. Tear pieces of red cabbage and boil them in water for 15 minutes. Strain the liquid into a glass container. Saturate strips of paper towels into the liquid and allow it the dry completely. The red cabbage juice has a pigment molecule called flavin, which will turn red for acidic substances and green-yellow for basic substances. Once the strips are dry, the homemade litmus paper will be ready.

Testing

A simple experiment of testing the pH of different household items is another acid and base activity for high school students. Students should make predictions first about whether substances such as potatoes, liquid soap, apples, vinegar, milk and water are acids, bases or neutral. Litmus paper should be used if students do not make homemade indicator paper from red cabbage juice. Create a chart with the predictions and the results.

Neutralization H2O + NaCl. The solution is neutralizing, but only one hydrogen ion has been decreased. Test the solution with litmus paper and proceed to add more sodium hydroxide slowly until it is neutral.

Computer Games

High school students should also use the computer for more acid and base activities. Websites such as Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing and UC Berkeley offer free online games about acids and bases. The Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing site has a game in which students guess what a substance is after testing its pH while UC Berkeley's GEMS Alien Juice Bar Game offers three challenges. One is to set up a juice bar with acids and bases, the second is identifying acids, bases and neutrals, and the third is mixing the substances.

Tags: acid base, acids bases, school students, base activities, cabbage juice

Description Of The Gis Position

GIS professionals find work in a variety of fields.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) combine hardware, software and geospatial data to facilitate geographically-based decision making. A person occupying a GIS position is skilled in the use of GIS and is often also knowledgeable about the discipline within which the GIS is used.

Natural Resource Management and GIS

GIS is a valuable tool for natural resource management; it can be used to help make important decisions about the conservation of endangered species, restoration of wildlife habitats or selection of areas for agriculture or resource extraction. GIS positions in the natural resource fields can be found in government agencies, private companies and nonprofit agencies.

GIS for Urban Planning

Urban planners use spatial information to keep track of assessor parcels, land use information, road networks and many other types of important community information. GIS positions in local government offices and planning agencies may use GIS to plan for community needs such as open space, emergency travel routes and locations of public facilities.

Academic and Research Careers in GIS

GIS has become increasingly important for many geospatially-based research fields. At the Remote Sensing/Geographic Information Systems Lab at Utah State University, research projects include land cover maps, digital geologic maps and maps of species distributions across the landscape. GIS-based positions at universities include professors and researchers.

Tags: Geographic Information, Geographic Information Systems, Information Systems, natural resource

Online Marine Biology Degrees

Interested students can earn a marine biology degree online.

Marine biology is the scientific study of oceans and their lifeforms. Many biology degree programs in the U.S. are available through online distance learning. However, relatively few of them offer specialized instruction in the particular areas of marine science, aquatic diversity and conservation, coastal management and oceanography. Graduates may apply their knowledge and abilities in a variety of settings, including government and public policy, education, tourism and private industries such as biotechnology and aquaculture.

University of West Florida

Two degrees that address marine biology are available through online distance learning at the University of West Florida. The Bachelor of Arts in maritime studies explores issues of natural resource management, economics and history alongside the physical and environmental science of marine diversity. The Bachelor of Science requires foundational coursework in biology, chemistry, ecology and math in addition to specialized instruction in marine science. Course topics include biological oceanography, marine mammology and physiology, coastal and marine ecology, geology, biogeochemical cycles, coral reefs and the effects of global climate change on marine diversity.

University of West Florida

11000 University Parkway

Pensacola, FL 32514

850-473-7468

uwf.edu

University of Nebraska at Kearney

An online non-thesis Master of Science with a concentration in biology is offered by the University of Nebraska at Kearney. A significant amount of coursework addresses topics pertaining to marine biology, such as invertebrate zoology, symbiosis, environmental and ecological biology, water management, microbial biology, freshwater ecology and Hawaiian biology. An undergraduate degree in biology or a related subject, such as chemistry or environmental science, is required for admission. Courses are delivered through email correspondence, interactive online chats, streaming video lectures and conventional print materials.

University of Nebraska at Kearney

905 West 25th Street

Kearney, NE 68849

308-865-8526

unk.edu

Nova Southeastern University

Nova Southeastern University offers three unique programs pertaining to marine biology that are available through online distance education. These include a Master of Science in coastal zone management, a graduate certificate in marine and coastal climate change, and a graduate certificate in coastal studies. Coursework is delivered online through CD-ROM and interactive multimedia, as well as conventional print materials.

Master’s degree candidates require an undergraduate degree in science with a GPA of at least 2.75 in order to be considered for admission. GRE scores and three letters of reference must also be submitted. The M.S. program is comprised of coursework in marine biology and chemistry, biostatistics, coastal zone ecology, oceanography and geology. Students may choose to participate in field experiences for academic credit in ocean environments such as the Florida Keys, Australia, the Bahamas or Belize.

The graduate certificates address the contemporary environmental, biological, sociological and economic stresses that are affecting the world’s oceans and coastal zones. Coursework also explores the impacts of global warming and climate change on the biological and ecological diversity of ocean life, alongside the extensive social, cultural and economic consequences. Applicants must hold an undergraduate degree in a related subject area in order to be considered for admission. Graduates may choose to apply their credits toward the M.S. in coastal zone management or additional on-campus master’s programs.

Nova Southeastern University

3301 College Avenue

Fort Lauderdale, FL 33314-7796

800-541-6682

nova.edu

Tags: available through, available through online, climate change, coastal zone, marine biology, Nebraska Kearney

Description Of Mars Surface

White polar regions and large-scale surface features of Mars are visible here.

From Earth, Mars is visible as a reddish dot. On closer inspection, features such as mammoth volcanoes are visible. It is possible to infer a very interesting history of the Martian surface from certain geological features.

Color

The surface of Mars is predominantly red. White patches exist at the poles, similar to the Earth's polar regions. Frozen carbon dioxide and (possibly) frozen water are responsible for the white in Martian polar regions.

Geography

Volcanic and impact craters dot the surface. The Olympus Mons is a giant volcano formed by repeated lava flows. Since Mars does not have significant tectonic plate movement, a subterranean hot spot will emit lava over the same location, creating giant isolated mountains on the surface.

History

In the past, Mars almost certainly had liquid water. This is inferred from underground water ice deposits and surface features that look like they could have only been formed by the eroding action of rivers and oceans. Mars has an atmosphere and substantial winds that alter the planet's surface, much as erosion does on Earth. The fact that water-carved features are still visible indicates that liquid water was present on Mars relatively recently.

Tags: polar regions, liquid water, Mars visible, surface features

Description Of Fossil Records

These exhibits are part of the fossil record

Fossil records are chronologically ordered histories of the development, or evolution, of life on Earth. These records are substantiated by fossil remains and the scientific study of these remains. (References 1 and 2)

Fossils

Organisms that lived long ago sometimes leave behind physical evidence. These could be in the form of skeletons or entire organisms. These finds are called fossils. (Reference 1)

Evolution

Organisms that have changed over time are said to have evolved. If an organism's DNA changes, this causes a mutation. Sometimes these mutations are actually improvements and become permanent. (Reference 1)

Out of the Oceans

The fossil record not only shows that life began in the sea, but that these sea creatures eventually colonized the land. Proof of the transition was discovered in 1998 when a fossil fin with hand like skeletal features dating back 370 million years was added to the fossil record. (Reference 2)

Mammalian Ancestors

Based on ear bone fossils of cynodonts, scientists believe these reptiles were the ancestors of mammals. The fossil record shows that the cynodonts died off when the mammals appeared, roughly 230 million years ago. (Reference 2)

Ever Changing

Archaeopteryx, dated at 145 million years ago was the first dinosaur fossil found with feathers. Since that pivotal find other feathered fossils have been found that date either before or after Archaeopteryx. This is an example of how the fossil record is ever changing and will never be complete. (Reference 3)

Tags: fossil record, million years, Organisms that, shows that

What Are Some Interesting Or Unique Features Of Neptune

Named for the Roman god of the sea, the solar system's eighth planet was discovered in 1846 by France's Urbain J.J. Leverrier and England's John Couch Adams, although they were working independently. The astronomers had observed that something was disturbing the orbit of Uranus, and mathematical calculations as to its location soon unveiled Neptune. Intriguingly, the planet was almost identified as early as 1612 by Galileo, but he mistakenly classified it as just another star.

Moons

Neptune has 13 known moons, but Triton is perhaps the most unique due to its unusual backward orbit. This odd orbital pattern, the only one known to occur in our entire solar system, has caused some astronomers to speculate that the moon was actually captured by the planet sometime in the distant past from Triton's original location in the Kuiper Belt, a collection of icy objects clustered in a disk shape on the extreme edge of our planetary system.

Rings

Neptune's rings are also unique in that unlike those around other planets, the ones circling Neptune seem to defy the laws of motion. The planet has three arcs named Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. What has puzzled scientists for years, though, is why the arcs haven't spread out to form a uniform ring. Astronomers now theorize that the gravitational forces from Galatea, one of Neptune's moons that lies closest to the rings, keep them narrow.

Planet Composition

If the data received from probes of Neptune is correct, there is no solid surface on the planet. Instead, the rocky and icy core is completely surrounded by a liquid layer that in turn is smothered by dense gases. The atmosphere around the planet contains thick clouds that are blown around the sky by winds up to 700 miles per hour. Areas of swirling gases create features resembling giant hurricanes that can last for years. One of these supposed storms, the Great Dark Spot, was discovered by Voyager 2 in 1989, seemed to dissipate in 1994 and then appeared to be reforming a year later.

Tags: solar system

Describe The Achievement Ability Test

Achievement tests are a way for educators to track a student's knowledge.

Achievement tests are often confused with other types of tests such as intelligence tests, aptitude tests and knowledge tests. An achievement test seeks to measure the extent to which the test taker or student has "achieved" or learned something, whether through training, memorization, or acquiring new skills. In contrast, aptitude tests measure the student's ability to develop proficiency in a certain area. Common achievement tests include the Standford Achievement Test and the Iowa Achievement Test.

Reading

The reading section of an achievement test encompasses knowledge of vocabulary, phonics, comprehension and other qualities associated with reading and interpretation. Some elementary achievement tests feature further detailed questions about letters and sounds. Other topics in reading achievement tests include literacy development and the ability of the student to answer questions and critically analyze reading passages using literary strategies.

Language

The language portion focuses on the mechanics and principles of writing: grammar, sentence structure, spelling, parts of speech, punctuation and capitalization. This section may feature an actual editing test for students to determine if parts of the document are correct or need to be changed. There may also be several spelling questions featuring common misspellings to see if the student recognizes them.

Mathematics

Mathematics is one of the foundations of achievement tests and is a fundamental skill that every student should have. Depending upon the level of the test (elementary, secondary or beyond), topics in the math portion include: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, geometry, algebra and calculus. Other topics that may be included are statistics, probability, patterns and estimation.

Science

The disciplines of science often featured on an achievement test include biology, earth science, geology, chemistry and physics. Students should expect objective questions that can be answered based upon memorized knowledge. Other types of scientific questions that are slightly more subjective will ask the student to make observations, recognize cause and effect, read standard instruments and draw reasonable conclusions across a wide variety of scientific topics.

Tags: achievement test, achievement tests, Achievement tests, achievement tests include, aptitude tests, Other topics, questions that

Facts On Limestone Rock For Kids

While limestone may seem like nothing more than a plain old rock, this mineral is actually quite an interesting one. Students who hold an interest in geology can learn much about this rock, uncovering an assortment of interesting facts and discovering just what makes this rock different from the rest.

Limestone Definition

Limestone, by definition, is a rock containing at least 50 percent calcium carbonate, or CaCO3. Because limestone is a sedimentary rock, the other elements that make up the rock are determined by the place where the limestone was formed. These other limestone-creating elements can include clay, pyrite, quartz and feldspar.

Limestone Components

Limestone most commonly develops in wet areas when objects settle in the water, creating sediment and, ultimately, sedimentary rock. The primary chemical makeup of limestone is CaCO3. Because limestone originates in wet areas, along with other minerals, it can also include algal, shells and fecal matter from water animals.

Stalactites and Stalagmites

The stalactites and stalagmites that garner so much attention in caves and caverns are products of limestone development. These structures that hang down from cave ceilings, or stick up from cave floors, are formed when water evaporates, leaving limestone in its wake. This process takes tens of thousands of years.

Limestone Color

When completely pure, limestone is white, but because this mineral can be composed of an assortment of different minerals or other elements, it rarely remains this pail hue. The color of limestone is determined largely by what elements combine with the calcium carbonate to make the rock, allowing this stone to be nearly any color in the rainbow.

Limestone Uses

This mineral is commonly crushed and added to construction materials. It is also often used as an additive to thicken paint. When roof shingles have texture, this texture is often the result of crushed limestone added to the tar that covers the tiles. Surprisingly enough, this mineral is also often added to animal feed because some animals, such as chickens, benefit from the addition of limestone to their diets.

Tags: also often, Because limestone, CaCO3 Because, CaCO3 Because limestone, calcium carbonate, from cave

The Advantages Of Petroleum Engineering

Petroleum engineering handles the production, exploration and refinement of petroleum.

Petroleum engineering is a branch of engineering that focuses on producing and obtaining crude oil and natural gas. Specifically, this field deals with the production, refinement and regulation of hydrocarbons for worldwide use. Due to the wide expanse of responsibilities, petroleum engineering involves expertise from chemistry, geology and geophysics. The advantages of petroleum engineering are profound, because petroleum serves as an important energy source.

Optimization of Oil

One of petroleum engineering's greatest advantages lies in maximizing the amount of oil and gas obtained. Using geology, mathematics and physics, these engineers must understand the nature of oil in reservoir rock. Petroleum engineering optimizes oil product through proper well placement, regulating production levels and using state-of-the-art oil recovery techniques. Much of the reservoir analysis is accomplished through sophisticated computer modeling to predict the best location for the well site, as well as proper drilling technique.

Exploration of Oil Deposits

Another major advantage for petroleum engineering is its focus to find and utilize new petroleum deposits throughout the world. As the human population grows with each passing year, industrial demand for petroleum products increases. Finding new oil deposits will help fulfill energy demands and fuel continual growth. Using modeling equipment as well as geological sensors, petroleum engineers are able to detect oil deposits both underground and underneath the ocean.

Safe Drilling

Because the petroleum industry hires thousands of workers to man the drilling stations, petroleum engineering also must ensure safe protocol and procedure. Drilling engineers specialize in the technical aspects of drilling wells to maintain proper safety standards. By working closely with drilling contractors, service personnel and geologists, these drilling engineers plan and carry out the petroleum well drilling process. Maintaining high degrees of safety and regulation enables each well site to maximize its product and to protect its workers from harm.

Petroleum

Perhaps the most important advantage of petroleum engineering is the final product obtained--petroleum. Petroleum has a wide variety of uses, ranging from fuel to lubricants. As of 2011, the world relies heavily on petroleum fuels as the energy source for transportation. Petroleum engineering is valuable because it discovers and obtains the world's most valuable fuel. However, with oil deposits decreasing due to excessive demand, alternative solutions and technologies must be developed to maximize petroleum production.

Tags: petroleum engineering, advantage petroleum, advantage petroleum engineering, energy source, petroleum engineering, Petroleum engineering, well site

Plan A Cheap Trip To The Grand Canyon

Grand Canyon National Park sprawls over a million acres in Arizona.

Grand Canyon National Park in Arizona offers visitors the chance to see one of the planet's natural wonders from the safety and convenience of overlooks along the rim or up close on hikes and mule tours into the canyon. Visitors to the park who want to spend their vacation dollars wisely can save money by paying less for travel, guided tours and concessions. Travelers can plan a cheap trip to the Grand Canyon and still enjoy the scenery and all the national park has to offer.

Instructions

1. Determine how you will travel to Arizona or a neighboring state. Consider driving to the park if you live in a nearby state, especially if you own a motorhome. If you must travel by plane, fly to a major airport like Las Vegas or Phoenix, and rent a car for the 4 to 5 hour drive to the park. Take advantage of Amtrak rail or Greyhound bus service from nearby cities to reach towns near the park, where you can switch to a shuttle service. Purchase a guided bus or motorcoach tour from a nearby city but beware of high tour prices. Take all your travel costs into consideration when deciding reach the park.

2. Find inexpensive lodging near the park. Take advantage of tent and RV campgrounds at the park if you drove your motorhome or brought camping equipment, as Roger Naylor suggests in "Budget AZ -- Free and Cheap at the Grand Canyon." Use Mather Campground on the South Rim or the North Rim Campground on the North Rim for basic facilities like restrooms, showers and laundry. Alternately, look for lodging in area towns like Flagstaff or Williams. Visit in the spring and fall because hotel rates are higher in the summer.

3. Avoid booking a tour company simply for the convenience of getting around Grand Canyon National Park. Use one of the park's free shuttle buses to move from point to point along the rim. Take the blue Village Route (1 hour roundtrip) to reach ranger programs, or the 75-minute red Hermit Rest Route to see scenic and historic sites along the rim. Use the free shuttle buses to guide you through a full day at the park, and take advantage of the free ranger-led programs for educational opportunities.

4. Purchase food at alternate sources in the park. Save money by avoiding the pricey El Tovar Hotel dining room, as Naylor suggests in "Budget AZ -- Free and Cheap at the Grand Canyon." Instead, buy lunch from Canyon Village Marketplace and have an outdoor picnic. Alternately, eat at cafeterias in one of the lodges along the rim for a less expensive option.

Tags: Grand Canyon, Canyon National, Canyon National Park, Grand Canyon National, National Park

Why Do Forensic Scientists Use Soil Analysis

Forensic scientists find telling clues to a crime within soil.

Soil analysis and forensics have been in use for more than 100 years. Soil is analyzed to determine the location of a criminal act, such as murder, or the path of transportation, such as a route used by drug dealers. By examining microscopic and chemical elements of soil, forensic scientists can narrow down a location to specific areas.

Soil Analysis and Forensics

The benefits of soil analysis were first postulated by Sir Conan Doyle in his "Sherlock Holmes" series in the late 19th century. However, the use of soil analysis in forensics did not begin officially until some years later, specifically 1904. Since then, soil evidence and analysis have been used extensively by forensic scientists and in criminal investigations.

Sampling

Soil analysis begins by taking a sampling. Soil is hugely diverse in its characteristics. By examining components of soil;, such as minerals, oxides, microorganisms, fossils and other types of organic matter, a forensic scientist can determine the geography of the sample. Samples may be taken from anywhere. In the case of a vehicle, soil samples come from the interior and exterior of the front bumper and grill, wheel wells and tires, engine compartment, rock panels, tops of mufflers, the interior of the vehicle (including the trunk), rear bumper (interior and exterior), trim on the body and the windshield, and, finally, swabbing the exterior of the vehicle.

Unusual Matter

Aside from the elements that make up soil, forensic scientists also look for anomalies, such as glass fragments or uncharacteristic fibers. Something as simple as a piece of thread can link a suspect to the site of a possible struggle. In some cases, the unusual matter may actually be the soil.

Screening

Soil analysis is comparative in nature. Soil from one location is compared with that of another. The actual makeup of the soil and the size of the particles, among other characteristics, are compared relative to another sample.

For example, Interpol relates a case where forensic scientists used soil analysis to reveal a murderer in Japan. A man was found dead on Mount Fuji, where a particular type of lava occurs. This lava has certain particulates and occurs nowhere else in the world. The same soil was found in the car of the murder victim's wife and on her shoes. By screening the soil where the wife lives, forensic scientists determined that the soil there lacked any of the same lava-based particulates. This was enough to get a conviction.

Primary Minerals

The relative composition of the soil relative to the minerals it holds may also be used in forensic soil analysis. For example, Interpol tells of a rape case in New Jersey that was solved using soil recovered from the shoes and pant legs of the suspect. The soil, although typical for New Jersey, contained large amounts of coal fragments lacking minerals that would be present in naturally coal-rich soil. The detectives were able to trace the rape to an abandoned lot where coal had burned regularly in the past.

Likewise, the presence of certain types of clay, the amount of minerals and relative size can be used to determine a location as specific as a section of a county. The presence and extent of clay mineral deposits, as well as the presence of organic matter in the soil, can pinpoint a location.

Tags: forensic scientists, determine location, example Interpol, have been, interior exterior, location specific

When Was Yellowstone National Park Established

Yellowstone National Park, the crown jewel of all national parks in the United States, was the first national park to be established in any country. Featuring unique geothermal attractions such as the Old Faithful geyser, Yellowstone National Park in the western United States draws millions of visitors each year.

Exploration

Native Americans lived in the Yellowstone area as many as 11,000 years ago, according to the National Park Service website (see "Additional Resources," below). Trappers and mountain men began to explore the region in the early 1800s.

Skepticism

Early explorers, including mountain man Jim Bridger, told stories about the geysers and other geothermal features, but few believed the wild tales.

A Suggestion

Thomas Francis Meagher, who was the acting territorial governor of the area in 1865, suggested that if a place with astounding natural beauty such as the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone existed, it should be preserved as a national park, according to Yellowstone.net (see "Additional Resources," below).

Congress Establishes Yellowstone As a Park

The 42nd Congress of the United States established Yellowstone as a National Park on March 1, 1872. The park, while mostly in Wyoming at its northwest corner, also includes land in Idaho and Montana.

Overcoming Obstacles

Since its establishment as a National Park in 1872, Yellowstone has survived at least one major earthquake in 1959 and wildfires that torched a portion of the park in 1988, to remain the first and foremost national park in the U.S. park system.

Tags: National Park, Yellowstone National, Yellowstone National Park, United States, Additional Resources, Additional Resources below, Resources below

Tools Used For Digging Fossils

You must use the right tools when digging for fossils to avoid breaking your finds.

Knowing that the tiny fossil you just dug up has not seen daylight for possibly millions of years is enough to get anyone hooked on fossil hunting. Both young and old can enjoy collecting fossils as a hobby, and some large examples can be valuable. Being correctly prepared, with the right tools and suitable clothing, will allow you to dig for fossils year-round.

Geological Hammer

These specialized hammers come in various weights, ranging from 8 ounces to 40 ounces and are used to split rocks that you believe contain a fossil. The head usually has one, square flat surface and a thinner chisel-like blade opposite. For longevity, you can use steel-handled hammers, which are sometimes cast from one piece of metal. A disadvantage of steel-handled hammers is that they transfer most of the shock of impact to your arm. Using a wooden or fiberglass handled hammer reduces this shock.

Pick

Picks are used where fossils are located in soft rock and clay soils. The long head usually has a sharp point at one end and a chisel at the other to remove loose material during a dig. As there is no flat surface on the head, they cannot be used to drive a chisel into rock so are often carried in conjunction with a geological hammer.

Chisel

Large chisels are used to split tough or large rocks in the hope of discovering a fossil within. If you take a selection of sizes or, at least a large and a small chisel, you can use the small one for more intricate work once a larger rock has been split. Ideally, you should use a chisel that incorporates a safety guard on the handle to protect your hand. Choose a chisel made from chrome vanadium to ensure that its blade stays sharp.

Brush

Fossils can be extremely delicate and can be destroyed by careless use of heavy implements. Fine sand or shale can be removed with a brush, with little chance of damaging the specimen. Use a fine bristled brush to avoid breaking the fossil while deciding how it can be extracted using your other fossil digging tools.

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Degrees In Volcanology

Many employment opportunities are available for volcanology professionals.

Programs in volcanology train and prepare students to fulfill successful careers studying volcanoes, performing site investigations, analyzing the deposits of volcanic eruptions, conducting scientific research or working with government agencies. If you want to study volcanology, there are multiple schools to choose from in the United States and abroad.

University of Buffalo

The Department of Geology at the University of Buffalo offers master's and doctorate degree programs in volcanic studies. Students benefit from the advanced resources, innovative technological equipment and experienced professors who are highly regarded in the field. The programs teach students the important content and methods of the volcanology discipline, the principals of volcano science, applicable technical skills, and effective research techniques. Furthermore, the doctorate program provides students with an expert-level knowledge of the material, enables them to produce professional articles and qualifies them for elite and prestigious positions within the industry.

University of Pittsburgh

The Department of Geology and Planetary Science at the University of Pittsburgh has a master's degree program in volcanology that equips students with the required knowledge and necessary skills to achieve successful careers in various areas of volcanology. The curriculum incorporates informative lessons, laboratory assignments and research projects, and courses address relevant topics such as igneous and metamorphic petrology, volcanology, isotope geochemistry, pyroclastic rocks and explosions. Other classes students may take to enhance their knowledge of volcanology and the earth sciences include natural disasters, remote sensing, GIS, GPS and computer methods, and geohazards and risk management. Furthermore, students in the program can enjoy the educational privilege of conducting ambitious research projects for prestigious organizations such as NASA, NSF and the NGS.

Michigan Technological University

Michigan Technological University offers a graduate and doctorate degree program in Geological and Mining Engineering and Science, and students in the program can concentrate their educational studies and research assignments on volcanology. This volcanology graduate program is one of the largest in the U.S. and has cultivated many professional volcanologists. The program addresses all of the essential fields, including chemistry, physics, materials science, geology, electromagnetics, atmospheric science and meteorology, engineering, and computer skills. Other significant volcano subjects addressed in the program include volcanology, satellite limnology, atmospheric remote sensing and global change.

University of Lancaster

The University of Lancaster, located in England, is internationally recognised for its research contributions regarding volcanic processes and hazards. The school offers degree programs for prospective volcanology professionals. For undergraduates, the school provides a bachelor's degree in environmental science, and students can concentrate specifically on volcanology during their studies and during their research assignments. The school also awards master's degrees for volcanology research projects. Before generating an original project, students in this program are required to first successfully complete a week of fieldwork conducting research at an active basaltic volcano, such as Mt. Etna in Sicily.

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Types Of Index Fossils

Certain sea shells are examples of index fossils.

Index fossils are the remains of an organism that lived in a particular time period. Index fossils help to date other fossils that are in a similar sedimentary layer. Because index fossils are categorized according to a limited time span, a fossil of an unknown time period may be determined in comparison to the index fossil. Types of index fossils are classified into three different eras.

Cenozoic Era

Types of index fossils found as representative of the Cenozoic Era are considered recent fossils. This era of fossils includes fossils found in the Quaternary period, such as pecten gibbus and neptunea tabulata, and the Tertiary period, calyptraphorus velatus and venericardia planicosta. Pecten gibbus are index fossils found in the Cenozoic Era in the Quaternary period, 1.8 million years ago. Pecten gibbus fossils are similar to sea shells we might find today.

Mesozoic Era

Index fossils found in the Mesozoic Era, the age of medieval life, include the Cretaceous period (scaphites hippocrepia and inoceramus labiatus), the Jurassic period (perisphinctes tiziani and nerinea trinodosa) and the Triassic period (trophites subbullatus and monotis subcircularis). An example of an index fossil found during the Mesozoic Era is the ammonite fossil, found from 65 to 245 million years ago.

Paleozoic Era

The Paleozoic Era, or ancient life, index fossils include fossils from the Permian period (leptodus americanus and parafusulina bosei), the Pennsylvanian period (dictyoclostus americanus and lophophyllidium proliferum), the Mississipian period (cactocrinus multibrachiatus and prolecanites gurleyi), the Devonian period (Mucrospirifer mucronatus and prolecanites gurleyi), the Silurian period (cystiphyllum niagarense and hexamoceras hertzeri), the Ordovician period (bathyurus extans and tetragraptus fructicosus), and the Cambrian period (paradoxides pinus and billingsella corrugata). Trilobites, found during the Paleozoic Era of 245 to 540 million years ago, make up half of the Paleozoic fossils. These index fossils are marine invertebrates with hard exoskeletons belonging to Kingdom Animalia. Trilobites went extinct approximately 250 million years ago during the Permian period.

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