The eighth planet is named after the Roman god of the oceans.
Of the eight planets in our solar system (Pluto is no longer considered a planet), only Neptune is not visible to the naked eye. However, two scientists independently guessed the planet's existence and position almost simultaneously.
Planetary Drift
After Sir William Herschel discovered Uranus in 1821, the astronomer Alexis Bouvard calculated its predicted orbit; however, Uranus' path did not quite match Bouvard's charts.
A More Distant World
Two astronomers -- John Couch Adams from Britain and Urbain Le Verrier from France -- posited that the inaccuracies in Bouvard's charts were due to Uranus being influenced by the gravity of a more distant planet. They independently produced calculations predicting the planet's position.
Neptune's Discovery
On September 23, 1846, La Verrier sent his calculations to a Berlin observatory where astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle turned his telescope to the night sky and located the new planet within just one degree of La Verrier's prediction. Adam's prediction was within 20 degrees and both scientists were awarded credit for Neptune's discovery.
Don't let Earth Day pass by without giving your middle-school students activities that will expand their minds and impassion their hearts. Let them know that the earth is worth taking care of and that they can each do their part to make a difference. Make sure that throughout the day's activities you are constantly filling their ears with helpful tips on reduce, reuse and recycle. Help them form habits that will last throughout their lives.
Used Book Exchange
Who says presents are just for Christmas and birthdays? Have your kids celebrate the earth with a book exchange. The catch? Their book has to be used. Have them bring in books they have already read. They can bring in more than one book if they want. The more they bring in, the more they receive. This activity illustrates the value in reusing resources. Be sure to discuss why reusing is an important part of preserving our planet.
Fly a Kite
Don't spend Earth Day cooped up in your classroom. You can't expect your students to grow a passion for their planet if they are never allowed to experience it. Taking them outside on Earth Day to fly a kite will remind them why the earth is so valuable and worth saving. Combine your day outside with a lesson on air pollution; while you are flying your kites discuss where air pollution comes from, how it affects the earth and how each student can decrease his contribution of pollution to the atmosphere.
Trash as Art
Recycling comes in many forms. One way to recycle is to take something you would ordinarily throw away and turn it into a piece of art. Have your students bring in clean materials that would normally be considered trash. These could include scrap paper, aluminum foil, dryer lint, brochures, cards, old clothing, invitations, toilet paper rolls, play programs and church bulletins. Pool everyone's resources at one table. Hold a contest to see who can produce the most creative art project using the materials provided.
Reusable Bags
Give a plain reusable cloth bag to each student. Discuss how using a bag like this will reduce our paper and plastic waste, and ask the class to list reasons why reducing waste improves the health of our planet. Provide various markers and paints to decorate the new eco-friendly bags.
Tags: bring more, each student, Earth Middle, Earth Middle School, Have your
Of the 17 North American azalea species, only one grows naturally in Oregon. Oregon's only azalea is the Rhododendron Occidentale, commonly called the West Coast azalea. This species is difficult to grow outside of the Pacific Northwest and California. It flourishes in moist areas near creeks and in the foothills of Oregon and Washington. Does this Spark an idea?
Distribution
The West Coast azalea grows naturally in 9 of Oregon's 35 counties: Yamhill, Lincoln, Benton, Douglas, Coos, Curry, Josephine, Jackson and Klamath. These counties are all in the west and southwest parts of Oregon, away from the state's higher mountains. The elevation in these counties ranges from sea level to 9,000 feet. However, the majority of the area where azaleas grow ranges from sea level to 3,000 feet.
Sun and Soil
The West Coast azalea does best in slightly sunny to partially shaded areas. It flowers from May to June and can reach sizes of 6 to 10 feet in height and width. It requires moist, well-drained, humus-rich soil. It often grows in large masses among evergreen trees.
Azalea, Oregon
Azalea, Oregon, is a town in Douglas County named in recognition of the vast numbers of West Coast azaleas that grow in and around the town. It sits at 1,644 feet above sea level in a valley that features many creeks.
Rhododendron Occidentale Ethnobotany
The West Coast azalea is commonly used to produce hybrid azaleas, particularly when there is a desire for scent enhancement. The Pomo and Kashaya tribes in California used the West Coast azalea in decorative dance wreaths. The Modesse people used the flower as a poison antidote.
Tags: West Coast, Coast azalea, West Coast azalea, Azalea Oregon, azalea species, from level, from level feet
Marine scientist job opportunities are scarce, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Students can study aquatic mammals like whales, dolphins and porpoises in depth by choosing marine science or marine biology undergraduate programs at New Jersey colleges and universities. While curricula normally feature courses like physiology of marine animals and marine conservation, universities like Rutgers also conduct dynamic research in areas such as nutrient biogeochemistry and coastal ocean observation, and offer students the opportunity to participate in fieldwork and research.
Richard Stockton College of New Jersey
Founded in 1969, the Richard Stockton College of New Jersey is a public liberal arts college in the southern New Jersey community of Pomona. Named after one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, Stockton College features undergraduate and graduate academic programs in several areas, including business, education and natural sciences. Students interested in marine mammalogy can matriculate into Stockton’s Marine Science program. Housed within the college’s School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, the program features a marine biology track featuring courses such as invertebrate zoology, marine botany and mammalogy. The college offers both Bachelor of Science and Bachelor of Arts degrees in Marine Science.
Richard Stockton College of New Jersey
P.O. Box 195
Pomona, NJ 08240
609-652-1776
stockton.edu
Fairleigh Dickinson University
Established in 1942, Fairleigh Dickinson University is the largest private university in the state. The university’s Metropolitan Campus in Teaneck hosts a Bachelor of Science in Marine Biology program. The four-year program’s curriculum combines lectures with a heavy emphasis on fieldwork. Students take general education courses in English, history and mathematics, in addition to a rigorous load of general science courses. Marine biology courses are introduced in later semesters, and include tropical marine vegetation, physiology of marine animals and tropical marine ecology. The program also features a research component that allows students to gain field experience.
Fairleigh Dickinson University
1000 River Road
Teaneck, NJ 07666
201-692-2000
fdu.edu
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Established in 1766, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey is a public research university with three campuses throughout the state of New Jersey. Students interested in pursuing studies in marine science can matriculate into Rutgers’ Bachelor of Science in Marine Sciences program within the Institute of Marine & Coastal Science. Located on the university’s New Brunswick/Piscataway campus, the program features four concentration options: Physical Oceanography, Marine Biology/Biological Oceanography, Marine Chemistry and Marine Geology. In addition to required courses from the college’s core curriculum, students take courses like animal physiological ecology, behavioral biology and invertebrate zoology.
Manufacturers use silicon, a metalloid, to produce many electronic devices.
Metalloids are a group of elements that bridge gaps between metals and nonmetals. This means they share properties of metals and nonmetals. While metalloids typically behave as nonmetals physically and chemically, they conduct electricity similar to metals. Not all metalloids behave in the same way, but their position between metals and nonmetals allows scientists to use them for many different applications.
Boron
Chemists use boron to create sodium perborate, which has uses in bleach, detergent and other cleaning agents. Borosilicate glass, a mixture primarily composed of boron and silicon, effective good insulation properties, making it useful for cookware; Pyrex glassware is a famous example of borosilicate glass. Nuclear reactors sometimes have boron shielding to control the fission reaction.
Silicon
Silicon has multiple uses for humans. Silicon is a semiconductor, which means it conducts electricity but to a lesser degree than metals. Silicon's controlled electrical flow enables manufacturers to use it for electronics applications, such as in computers and radios. Silicon also forms the base of silicone, a type of plastic that manufacturers use for various functions: plastic, ceramics, glass.
Arsenic
Arsenic is highly toxic to most organisms, and so it has wide application as a pesticide, although concerns about human exposure have limited its use. People apply arsenic to preserve wood from bacteria and fungi. Arsenic also has some medical applications as a form of targeted therapy against some cancers. Arsenic also alloys with lead, and manufacturers may add small amounts of arsenic to strengthen lead in products such as batteries and bullets.
Germanium
Manufacturers use germanium, like silicon, for its semiconductor properties. According to the United States Geological Survey, germanium was widely used for transistors, radios and other electronics from the 1950s on, until pure silicon, which has a higher melting point than germanium, became more widely available in the 1970s.
Tags: metals nonmetals, Arsenic also, between metals, between metals nonmetals
Geologists perform surveys of the earth to spot valuable resources.
Geologists gather data by investigating the layers of rock, soil and water that make up the earth. This data can then be used to detect resources like minerals and oil, or to determine the best way to disturb the soil without damaging the local environment. Many geologists work for government agencies like the U.S. Geological Survey or similar surveys at the state level. Others perform these investigations, or surveys, for private industries.
State Geology Survey Salaries
According to the California State University at San Bernardino, salaries for geologists employed by state surveys can vary widely based on their level of education. State survey geologists with a Bachelor of Science degree earn an average of $40,800 per year, while those with a Master's degree earn $43,500. Candidates with a Ph.D. earn an average of $61,900.
Survey geologists employed by state government agencies in the U.S. earn an average of $30.23 per hour, or $62,880 per year. These figures apply to employees of all levels of education and experience, which suggests that many employees in this field hold some form of advanced degree.
Federal Geology Survey Salaries
Geologists employed by the U.S. Geological Survey and other federal agencies earn a median salary of $90,220 or a mean of $94,085 as of May 2009, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. The government's USAJOBS.com employment site shows several geologist positions with the U.S. Geological Survey as of June 2011. These positions pay a base salary of GS-1350 on the federal pay scale, which indicates a wage of $81,230. This base wage does not include regional compensation that is generally added to this figure in areas with a high cost of living.
Survey Geologists in Private Industry
The title of survey geologist may also be used to refer to geologists in private industry, who perform surveying-type work as they analyze sites of interest. California State University at San Bernardino estimates that geologists with a Bachelor's degree earn an average of $43,700 in private industry, while those employed in the petroleum industry earn $52,200. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, oil and gas industry geologists earn an average of $63.56 per hour, or $132,210 per year. These high wages reflect the fact that the majority of employees in this field hold some form of graduate-level degree.
Average Wages for This Profession
As of May 2010, the mean wage for all geologists was $44.89 per hour or $93,380 per year, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. The median wage was $39.66, or $82,500. Oklahoma, Texas and Alaska represent the top-paying states for geologists.
Tags: earn average, Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor Statistics, degree earn, Geological Survey, hour year
Monadnocks occur along the border between the Carolinas.
The plains of the North Carolina-South Carolina border are dotted with massive peaks that seem out of place on the otherwise flat plateau. Although they stand solitary now, they were once part of extensive geological formations that stretched across the region. These kinds of monolithic formations also occur in North Carolina, New Hampshire and Georgia.
Monadnocks
Different kinds of rocks erode at different rates.
South Carolina's monolithic rock formations, including Little Mountain, Caesar's Head and Table Rock, are geological features called monadnocks. Monadnocks are mountains that were originally part of ranges, but over the centuries the rest of the mountains in the ranges eroded, leaving only the monolithic monadnocks standing. They always form in temperate areas with high humidity. These formations remain standing while the surrounding mountains erode because of the nature and composition of their rock.
Composition
Granite is very slow to erode.
Monadnocks are made of types of rock that are much slower to erode than the rocks around them. The monolithic formations in South Carolina are made of quartzite, or sometimes of granite or other dense volcanic rocks. When the Appalachian mountains were formed, the heat released by the layers of the Earth's crust grinding against one another melted the rocks and pushed them to the surface. These layers of once-molten rocks became the monadnocks.
First Stage of Formation
The continents were originally one big landmass called Pangaea.
The monadnocks began to form before the continents split apart. Three hundred million years ago, the area of Pangaea (the original, single continent) that would become the coasts of Africa and North America began to shift and push against itself, and the rocks along that fault line began to melt. The molten rock shifted upwards and then cooled and solidified, forming hills and domes of hard rock within the layers of softer surrounding rock. This set the stage for the unusual formations that would develop over the millennia of erosion.
Second Stage of Formation
The monadnocks have layers have different kinds of granite or quartzite.
When Pangaea began to break apart, roughly 200 million years ago, the forces acting on the Earth's crust reversed. Instead of compressing together and melting due to the heat from that process, the rocks began to fracture and pull away from each other. During this process, molten rock from deeper inside the Earth bubbled up to the surface, where it cooled and hardened. This rock had a different structure from the first kind of molten rock, making a total of three erosion rates in the area -- the original crust, which erodes fastest, and then two kinds of harder rock. These two both erode slowly, but at different rates from one another, forming the varied stratifications of the monadnocks.
Tags: molten rock, South Carolina, different rates, Earth crust, formations that, million years, monolithic formations
Anchoring bookshelves to walls prevents them from falling over during an earthquake.
When there is an earthquake, seismic loading is the amount of force placed on buildings. It is what makes them shake. Retrofitting buildings, and the objects inside them, to handle seismic loading during an earthquake will help everything and everyone escape unscathed. Bookcases are nonstructural items, according to the Federal Emergency Management Agency, and it is up to homeowners to prepare the bookcases for disaster. The importance is not on how many books are on the shelves, but on making the bookcases sturdy to prevent them from falling during an earthquake. Does this Spark an idea?
Building Codes
The International Code Council created a list of safety codes for buildings. These codes are law in many states where earthquakes are frequent. Architects must follow these codes and have building plans approved by a structural engineer. When installing shelving for buildings, the installer must have a specific license. Homeowners, on the other hand, use the codes to install home bookcases and anchor them to the floor, walls or ceiling. While the codes are for bookcases 5 feet tall or higher, anchor any sized bookcase if living in areas with high seismic activity. The requirements for anchoring bookcases depend on location according to the National Hazard Seismic Map created by the United States Geological Survey.
Zone 4
Zone 4 on the seismic zone map has the highest risk for massive earthquake damage, as locations in this zone rest on fault lines. The force of an earthquake is measured by percentage of gravity and written as percent g. When the percentage of gravity is high, that means the earthquake is strong. Locations in zone 4 have earthquakes with forces of 48 percent gravity and up. Areas in zone 4 include the West Coast, the southern coast of Alaska, west Nevada, the eastern coast of South Carolina, as well as the corners of Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas and Missouri. Bookcases and shelving inside buildings located in this zone require anchoring to the walls and floor, with one anchor for every other section of the bookcase. Any shelving taller than 5 feet requires brackets welded to the shelf.
Zone 3
Areas in zone 3 have a high risk for major damage caused by an earthquake, as they rest near major fault lines and are usually the areas around zone 4. The areas have a gravity percentage between 32 and 48 g. Locations include northern and central California, central Nevada, northern Washington, western Montana, central Idaho, northern Utah, central Alaska and parts of Hawaii. In this zone, bookcases require one anchor for every third section.
Zone 2B
While areas in zone 2B are not as likely to have earthquakes that cause major damage, the earthquakes do reach gravity percentages up to 32 percent g. Locations include central Washington, Utah, California, Nevada, Idaho, Oregon, as well as parts of Montana, northwestern Arizona, northern New York, South Carolina, Alaska and the lower Midwest. Place one anchor for every fourth section of the bookcase.
Anchor Installation
Bookcases need anchoring to the wall as well as to the ceiling or floor. If the wall is wood, locate studs on the wall using a stud finder and anchor the bookcases to the studs. Attach sway braces or steel angles using lag bolts that are 1/4 to 3/8 inch in diameter and long enough to reach at least 2 inches into the wall. Metal studs require sheet-metal screws. Walls made from drywall or concrete require anchor bolts installed in the wall before the screws or lag bolts for extra hold. For floors or ceilings, locate the beams or joists in the floor or ceiling and attach the brace using lag bolts or screws. If the bookcases are located in the center of a room, anchoring to the floor is necessary.
Tags: anchor every, during earthquake, this zone, Areas zone, fault lines, from falling
A strong earthquake can cause major structural damage.
In the U.S., according to the U.S. Geological Survey, each of the 50 states has experienced at least one earthquake since 1900. Over 4,000 quakes of various magnitudes took place across the nation in 2012 alone. Although 90 percent of the country's population lives in seismically active areas, most don't have earthquake insurance. If an earthquake damages their home or business, owners must pay out of pocket to repair damaged or destroyed structures and belongings. Earthquake insurance provides an affordable way of paying for damages that may occur.
Geography
Any resident in a state that experiences earthquakes should consider buying earthquake insurance, especially residents of states that have the highest earthquake rates, such as California, Hawaii, Alaska, Nevada and Washington. Earthquakes also happen in the Midwest, and less frequently, on the Eastern Seaboard.
Earthquakes and Homeowner's Insurance
A standard homeowner's insurance policy does not cover damage from an earthquake, and may not cover fire or water damage stemming from one. Purchase a separate supplemental policy, or add a rider to your existing homeowner's policy to cover earthquake-related damages. Standard condominium and renter's insurance also does not cover losses from earthquakes.
Earthquake Insurance Coverage
Earthquake policies offer different levels of coverage. You can cover just your dwelling, include "accessory structures" such as garages and/or storage buildings, purchase a policy that also covers your dwelling's contents or one that only covers contents. It's a good idea to add the "additional living expenses" (ALE) option to any earthquake policy purchased, so you'll have funds for a hotel room or apartment in case your home suffers damage that makes it temporarily unlivable.
Cost of Coverage
Earthquake insurance premiums depend on the amount of coverage, coverage type, deductible and various risk factors, such as location. Older homes cost more to insure while wood-frame homes cost less because wood withstands quake stress better. Deductibles range from 2 percent to 20 percent of the policy amount, so if you insure your home for $100,000, for example, and it's destroyed in an earthquake, you pay the first $2,000 to $20,000 of the rebuilding cost. In California, the average annual policy for a homeowner costs $722, while a renter's policy to replace belongings ranges from $200 to $300. Those rates can go up significantly the closer the home is to a fault line.
Your Insurance Responsibilities after an Earthquake
If your property is damaged during an earthquake, contact your insurance company immediately, even if the quake happens on the weekend. Describe the damage in detail. Although an adjuster will visit the property, it is your responsibility to document damages. Make a list of your destroyed or damaged items, take clear photos of the damage and include them with any required forms the company provides. Keep receipts for major purchases at another location, i.e. a safe deposit box. Provide copies of receipts for damaged items to the adjuster.
Tags: Coverage Earthquake, damaged items, does cover, homes cost, your dwelling, your home
Set on the banks of the Connecticut River, Essex, Connecticut, is a small, quaint town of just over 6,000 people.Located in Middlesex County, Essex comprises three villages: Ivoryton, Essex Village and Centerbrook. Those who live here boast that it is the "best small town in America." Essex offers a rich historical setting, exciting cultural entertainment and the beauty of the Connecticut River. For a lovely wedding on the water, Essex might be the perfect place.
Left Bank Art Gallery
The Left Bank showcases various types of art and design and is perfect for a wedding of artists or people who simply appreciate art and beauty. With a courtyard and over 500 square feet of event space, the gallery caters to clients of all kinds and showcases paintings, sculptures, and home furnishings among other mediums of art. It also showcases works that benefit charities and local initiatives.
The Left Bank Art Gallery
10 Main Street
Essex, CT 06426
860-767-0449
leftbankgalleryessex.com
Connecticut River Museum
Situated on Main Street in Essex, the Connecticut River Museum is on the banks of the Connecticut River and provides a beautiful, unique location for a wedding. The museum is dedicated to showcasing exhibits on the people, wildlife and history of the Connecticut River. The galleries and boathouse provide ample indoor space for a wedding. For an outside wedding, plan to use the large lawn that overlooks the Essex Harbor. Or, for a smaller wedding on the water, the museum can arrange for you to use the historic schooner, the "Mary E," accommodating up to 25 people for an intimate affair.
Connecticut River Museum
67 Main Street
Essex, CT 06426
860-767-8269
ctrivermuseum.org
Ivoryton Library
The Ivoryton Library, built in 1889, is still housed in its original structure and has been operating for over 100 years. For a quaint, small wedding for those who love all things literary and historical, the library is the perfect spot. Located on Main Street in Ivoryton, the library houses more than 7,000 books and holds great historical significance for the town. This is an excellent place to say your vows if you are an avid reader, writer, or simply one who appreciates history and creativity.
Ivoryton Library
106 Main Street
Ivoryton, CT 06442
860-767-1252
ivoryton.lioninc.org
Tags: Connecticut River, Main Street, Connecticut River Museum, Left Bank, Main Street Essex, River Museum, Street Essex
Horizontal and vertical integration helped to spur the Industrial Revolution.
Horizontal integration and vertical integration are corporate strategies that allow a company to grow in such a way that efficiency and profitability are increased throughout the company. These strategies, which are not mutually exclusive, were essential to the formation of America’s first major corporations during the late 19th century and they continue to be important concepts for expanding corporations.
History
Standard Oil used vertical and horizontal integration to dominate the American oil industry.
While you may know that the Industrial Revolution relied on technological advances, like the steam engine and railroads, new ways of managing companies were equally important. According to Digital History, "As businesses grew larger, new bureaucratic hierarchies were necessary. A business' success increasingly depended on central coordination." These new methods were pioneered by industrial magnates such as John D. Rockefeller, who used both to make Standard Oil into a powerful monopoly.
Vertical Integration Features
Vertical integration is the process of taking over your industry's entire supply chain. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil was vertically integrated because it drilled for oil, refined crude oil into usable products and then transported those products to retail outlets. Vertically integrated companies can minimize their own costs while being able to effect competitors’ costs. Rockefeller was known to manipulate crude oil prices to drive refineries to bankruptcy, allowing him to buy them cheaply. His Standard Oil eventually controlled 84 percent of the U.S.oil market.
Horizontal Integration Features
US Steel produced a wide variety of products instead of specializing in just a few.
In horizontal integration, a business offers a wide variety of closely related products and services. Andrew Carnegie’s US Steel is the classic example of horizontal integration. According to Digital History, "In the 1850s, an iron furnace might produce a single product such as cast iron or nails. But U.S. Steel produced a vast array of metal goods."
Theories/Speculation
Social Darwinists saw economic competition as a way to promote overall societal good.
These new corporate strategies developed at the same time that the idea of Social Darwinism was taking hold. Social Darwinism held that the most successful people and strongest companies should dominate so that society would continue to improve. Inspired by Charles Darwin’s notion of survival of the fittest, which he expounded as part of his celebrated theory of evolution, this philosophy was often cited during the years of early industrialization to justify the vast disparities in wealth that existed and to argue against intervention by the government in the economy.
Prevention/Solution
But people who were on the losing end of vertical and horizontal integration believed that such arrangements endangered fair markets. According to West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, "Antitrust law originated in reaction to a public outcry over trusts, which were late-nineteenth-century corporate monopolies that dominated U.S. manufacturing and mining." The 1890 Sherman Antitrust Law allowed the courts to break up companies that were determined to be monopolies in an effort to promote competition.
Tags: horizontal integration, According Digital, According Digital History, corporate strategies, Digital History, Industrial Revolution, Integration Features
Democracies and capitalist, free market societies put much more emphasis on the individual than on the interests of society as a whole. In fact, economics is often a zero-sum game, where every gain is another person's loss. Environmental economics is a subset of economics that examines the functioning of free markets and the new ways to make it profitable to serve the public good.
Features
Environmental economics addresses the difference between what a self-interested individual does in response to market conditions and what is actually in the best interest of society as a whole. In other words, environmental economics posits that free markets often fail to allocate resources efficiently for the greatest benefit of all. Pollution is a classic example where one corporation may not experience tangible costs for its activities, while the adverse affects on the environment are felt by everyone. In other cases, corporations may benefit from exclusive use of public resources that were intended to be enjoyed by all.
Function
The goal of environmental economics is to value such intangible things as the protecting the environment and preventing global warming, and finding ways for market operations to better incentivize these outcomes through new technology and public policy. Most of the efforts center on interdisciplinary studies, bringing together leaders in science, business, government, and of course, economics, and creating curricula that leads to increased understanding of environmental economic principles.
Types
Most of the adherents to environmental economics are classic economists that have pioneered the adaptation of economic understanding to addressing twenty-first century problems with an eye towards pragmatic solutions. Because the realities of affecting these ideas requires the participation of so many fields of activity, though, the lines separating environmental economics from ecology, business and governance can quickly become blurred. And, even within the field as narrowly defined, there are differences between traditional economists and radical Green Economists, who advocate post-capitalist ideology that places sustainability at the center of the economy rather than its periphery.
Significance
Mainstream environmental economics proposes two basic solutions to the inefficiency of free markets. First, environmental regulations enforced by fines can be used to act as an economic force to incentivize reduction of pollution and environmentally damaging practices. There is broad disagreement on how this should be done, either through a quota system or taxes on pollution. Second, they advocate the augmentation of property rights to include free air and water, letting the owners of property to negotiate the costs of infringing these rights with polluters.
Potential
Given that such highly regarded institutions as Harvard University and the World Bank have dedicated environmental economics programs in place, it's unlikely this field of endeavor is going to fade away any time soon. In fact, as climate change intensifies and supplies of natural resources dwindle even further, it's likely the field of environmental economics will only grow in importance. Ultimately, the implementation of its ideas will be in the hands of politicians. While most industries will actively lobby for their own interests, public interest in environmental economics is the best guarantor that meaningful change will occur.
Tags: environmental economics, environmental economics, free markets, Environmental economics, society whole, What Environmental, What Environmental Economics
Volcanologists study volcanoes and related geophysical phenomenon such as magma, lava and volcanic ash. They are well-rounded scientists with backgrounds in a variety of scientific and technical disciplines. They earn advanced degrees and work for universities, observatories and agencies such as the U.S. Geologic Survey. The life of a volcanologist can be exciting but also dangerous when observing active and unpredictable volcanoes.
High School and Undergraduate Education
A strong background in science, math and computer science is essential if you want to become a volcanologist. Students can begin preparing for the profession in high school by taking classes such as chemistry, physics, biology, Earth science, trigonometry and calculus. On the undergraduate level, aspiring volcanologists should major in geology and take classes in geochemistry, geophysics, petrology, remote sensing and sedimentary geology. Students should also seek work as interns and take summer research jobs in university geology labs and government agencies.
Graduate Studies
If you want to work in the field of volcanology outside of being a lab assistant, you need to earn an advanced degree in geology. Universities offer master's and doctoral programs in geology with a concentration in volcanology. Students take courses such as seismology, modeling and simulation, statistics, geohazards, field methods and seminars in specialized topics. Graduate programs also have volcanology study groups so graduate students and postdoctoral fellows can engage in research topics together and go on field trips.
Field Work
A major component of a volcanologist's work is field studies. At the undergraduate level, learning take samples of sedimentation, read sensors, use monitoring tools and visually observe volcanoes in remote locations is important. Graduate students may earn grants to travel to locations around the world with constant volcanic activity such as Indonesia where volcanologists maintain year-round research stations. Students at universities in California, Oregon, Washington, Alaska and Hawaii have easy access to field work since most volcanoes in the United States are concentrated in those states. Classes in geohazards are important when conducting field work near active volcanoes because misjudging volcanic activity can be fatal.
Research
While it is possible to engage in research on the undergraduate level, volcanologists in graduate school work under the supervision of professors and senior researchers on large projects and on individual research topics. After earning a Ph.D., volcanologists can work as paid researchers in post-doctoral programs at universities and observatories and gain opportunities to publish their work in scientific journals.
Tags: undergraduate level, volcanic activity, earn advanced, engage research, field work
The Earth is comprised of multiple layers: the crust, mantle, outer core and inner core. The outermost portion of the crust is called the lithosphere; the crust underneath that is called the asthenosphere. According to the theory of plate tectonics, the Earth's crust is made up of puzzle pieces that constantly act on each other; one hits the other, which crushes another and so on.
Convergent
The world is a big puzzle and those pieces are everywhere. Convergent boundaries are areas of the Earth's crust where one kind of continental plate is subducted, i.e., when two plates collide, the weaker of the pair sinks below the other -- those pieces are sent downward inside the earth. This process may happen at any number of different kinds of boundaries such as an oceanic-continental or oceanic-oceanic, for example. Oceanic-oceanic convergence creates ocean trenches and underwater volcanoes; oceanic-continental and continental-continental often make mountains.
Divergent
Divergent boundaries happen when various portions of the Earth's "puzzle pieces" pull apart. Magma from far beneath the Earth's crust is sent upward causing it to cool and harden. Some plate tectonic theories say the oceans were created this way -- the North American plate and the Eurasian plate diverged to create the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which, not only runs right through Iceland, but has increased the country's land mass, as well. As the Mid-Atlantic Ridge divides it, it is believed that Iceland will eventually pull apart for good, however.
Transform
Transform boundaries occur when two plates simply pass by each other -- neither are subducted or crushed. This activity sometimes causes fault zones. Most commonly found at the bottom of the ocean, transform boundaries are thought to essentially temper the activity generated by other plate boundary activity; divergent or convergent boundaries that create hot springs or volcanoes, for example. The San Andreas fault is a transform boundary that exists between both the North American and Pacific continental plates.
Plate Boundary Zones
Plate boundary zones, also known as conservative boundaries, are generally found along and between ocean and continental pieces often called belts. These types of boundaries have one defining characteristic that makes them different from other kinds of boundaries: they contain two larger plates and a collection of microplates, which are smaller pieces of crust material that do not get subducted or destroyed. The Mediterranean Alpine, North American and African plates, i.e., the areas around Spain, Morocco and Indonesia, are an example of plate boundary zones.
Tags: Earth crust, North American, boundary zones, each other, kinds boundaries
You can turn an apple into a model for the Earth's layers.
Physical science encompasses areas of natural science that deal mostly with non-living matter. Examples of types of physical sciences include astronomy, chemistry and geology. It is sometimes a challenge to find engaging ways to teach these subjects to students. Using edible projects often provides an entertaining education experience.
The Layers of the Earth
This project uses an apple to explain the layers of the Earth. Bring enough apples so that all students can have a slice; figure one small apple for every four students. Quarter the apples lengthwise and pass out the pieces. Explain that the peel represents the Earth's crust, which is thin compared to its other layers. Point out that inside of the apple represents the Earth's largest layer called the mantle. Move on to explain that the Earth has a core, as does the apple. All the layers combine to form the planet Earth, just like the layers of the apple all fit together. Then, have the students eat their apple.
Ice Cream Comets
Comets are chunks of ice and debris that travel through space. You can have your class make their own ice cream while learning about comets. Each group should have two to three each of sandwich and gallon sized resealable bags. In the sandwich bags they should combine a mixture of evaporated milk, whole milk, sugar and vanilla. Add ingredients to the mixture such as cookie crumbs and nut to represent dust and rocks. Squeeze out the air, seal the bag tightly and place it in the gallon bag. In the gallon bag put ten spoons of salt and fill the bag one third full of ice. Seal the gallon bag, removing as much air as possible. Have students shake and roll the bag for about 6 to 10 minutes until the milk and sugar turn into ice cream. Then, open the bags and spoon out the ice cream.
Chemistry With Chocolate
Explain that in chemistry a solution is made when a solute dissolves into a solvent. Give each student three chocolate kisses and explain that these represent the solute and saliva represents the solvent. Students are to record the amount of time it takes for the chocolate to dissolve into the saliva. With the first piece, they should record the time it takes the chocolate to dissolve in their mouths without chewing or moving it. They should move the second piece around with their tongues and chew up the third piece, recording the dissolving time for each piece. Through the project, they will learn that stirring the solute into the solvent decreases dissolving time.
Chocolate Sediment
You can create a sedimentary rock model using white, milk and dark chocolate layers. Take some white chocolate squares and melt them in a bowl with a stick of butter, then add rice crispies. Press this mixture into the bottom of a greased glass pan. Follow the same process with the milk and dark chocolate, adding in cherry halves and cookie pieces respectively. Press down each layer firmly on top of the other. Put the pan in a refrigerator for eight hours. Remove the pan and allow the mixture to soften for 15 minutes. Cut through the layers to form a "fault line" so that the students can see all the layers.
Tags: chocolate dissolve, dark chocolate, dissolving time, Explain that, into solvent
A pan and shovel are all some prospectors need for that big strike.
When James Marshall found a gold nugget in the American River in 1848, he not only sparked the California gold rush and the biggest mass migration in United States history, but he created gold fever, which still holds thousands in its grip today. You can find the "hands and pans" -- a phrase used to tell gold seekers they can only use a gold pan held in their own hands to prospect in certain areas -- of prospectors seeking that lucky strike at the banks of rivers and streams up and down the state. Many popular gold-bearing rivers are close to tent and RV campgrounds, making the search that much more appealing.
Coloma
A great place to start is the James Marshall Gold Discovery State Historic Park in Coloma, California. This is the spot where Marshall discovered gold, and since 1880, well over one million ounces of gold have been produced here. Gold panning lessons are available daily, and camping is readily available on the banks of the American River at the mile-long Coloma Resort at Sutter's Mill (colomaresort.com). This riverfront resort has 100 sites for both RV and tent camping, featuring full hookups, Wi-Fi access, a clubhouse, pool and convenience store, as well sewer hookups and a dump station.
Yosemite
Hands and pans are regularly seen around and in Yosemite National Park at various spots on the Fresno River and on the Merced River, which flows through the park. Yosemite National Park has 13 campgrounds. Some are appropriate for recreation vehicles; many are tent-only. Those providing tap water have restroom facilities. Only Curry and Housekeeping camps provide showers. Dump stations are located at Upper Pines, Wawona and Tuolumne Meadows. No Yosemite campsites have hookups of any kind. Seven of the campsites are on the park's reservation system. From April to September, reservations are essential. The remainder of sites are first come, first serve, and from May to September, they usually fill up by noon.
Columbia
Many California rivers and streams contain an abundance of gold, but to find it with hands and pans, you first must know use the pan. The trick is to force the heavier gold to settle at the bottom of the pan by vigorously shaking the sediment and water mixture scooped into the pan while at the same time, reducing the amount of sediment by washing it away. A charming place to learn the craft and try your own hand is Columbia State Historic Park. Located in the Sierra Nevada foothills in the heart of the so-called California mother lode, Columbia is a restored and renovated gold-rush town containing the largest collection of authentic gold-rush era structures in the state. There are two campgrounds within walking distance of this charming place: 49er Ranch (49errvpark.com), and the Marble Quarry RV Park (marblequarry.com). The 49er Ranch offers full hookups, Wi-Fi, cable TV, a camp store and complimentary gold-panning lessons. Marble Quarry has 68 sites, 10 tent sites, five cabins, full hookups and a pool.
Southern California
All the gold wasn't discovered up north. Some was discovered just 35 miles northwest of Los Angeles just above a neighboring community called Azusa. Since 1849, 165,000 ounces of gold have been produced. In the nearby but somewhat remote east fork of the San Gabriel range is an old gold camp called Eldoradoville, which is popular with gold hunters today. The Eldoradoville campground is nearby on East Fork Road and California State Road 39 South. This is a primitive campground with few amenities. Nearby, however, is the 300-site Crystal Lake campgrounds (crystallake.name) run by the U.S. Forest Service. Sites offer water, restrooms and fire rings. Barbecue boxes are provided on most sites. Just outside Azusa is Glen Ivy RV Park (glenivyrvpark.com), offering 350 sites for both recreational vehicle and tent camping with full amenities, including a bar, restaurant, general store, teen center and a pool.
Tags: full hookups, 49er Ranch, American River, been produced, California gold, charming place, full hookups Wi-Fi
The Professional Engineer designation consists of two tests about four years apart.
Petroleum engineering jobs are expected to grow slower than average over the next several years, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. However, many petroleum engineers are expected to retire, so graduates of petroleum engineering programs should be able to find a job. If you want to be a petroleum engineer, concentrate on math and science courses in high school, then earn a bachelor's degree. Training for petroleum engineering is rigorous and you will be required to continually upgrade your skills through professional development classes throughout your career.
Instructions
1. Take as many math and science classes as you can while in high school.
2. Attend an accredited college and earn a 4-year bachelor's degree. This is the minimum education required to work as a petroleum engineer. Some schools offer degrees in petroleum engineering. At other schools, you can major in geology, mining, civil engineering or geophysics and take classes in petroleum engineering.
3. Pass the first part of the engineering licensing exam, known as the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam, when you are close to earning your bachelor's degree. This is an 8-hour exam given in April and October of each year. The exam tests basic engineering knowledge learned during college. When you pass the exam, you will be known as an Intern Engineer.
4. Pass the second part of the engineering licensing exam, known as the Professional Engineering (PE) exam, after you have completed four years working in the field. This exam tests more specific knowledge. When you pass this exam, you will be known as a Professional Engineer and can use the letters "PE" after your name.
5. Earn your petroleum engineering certification. The Society of Petroleum Engineers offers this certification to its members who pass a competency exam and agree to complete 16 hours of continuing education each year. This exam may be waived if you have passed your Professional Engineering exam. You must also maintain your membership in The Society of Petroleum Engineers.
6. Take additional classes in petroleum engineering after you earn a bachelor's degree. You can do this through online training programs, through your employer or by attending workshops and conferences sponsored by the various organizations for professional petroleum engineers.
Tilted, eroded rock cliffs allow scientists to observe rock layers.
Orillia, Ontario, sits on a large rock formation known in the science community as the Niagara Escarpment. This rock formation is composed entirely of sedimentary rock, which has formed over the last 400 million years. Shale is found at great depths while dolostone is closest to the surface.
Orillia, Ontario
The City of Orillia is directly north of Toronto. It sits on Lake Simcoe and Lake Couchiching and is proud for being directly in the middle of Ontario's lake country. Tourist attractions in Orillia include the city's downtown district, accessible lake beaches and nearby Stephen Leacock Museum. Lake users can take advantage of Orillia's plentiful boat launches. Many visitors to Orillia also stroll through the city using its 9.5-kilometer paved trail.
Niagara Escarpment
The Niagara Escarpment is prominent in the Orillia area and, in fact, covers nearly all of southern Ontario. Scientists discovered this rock formation from areas where it tilted and shifted to the surface. Steady, gradual erosion then exposed each layer, allowing them to understand the rocks in the area without having to dig. The reason for massive erosion in this area remains unknown, but there is speculation that is could have been caused by slow weathering or by a catastrophic local event. Geologists found that the layer closest to the surface was primarily composed of dolostone. Underneath the dolostone is a thick layer of shale.
Dolostone
Dolostone is naturally occurring rock people commonly use in driveways or walkways as gravel. It is also frequently mixed with concrete and asphalt for roadways. Dolostones are light gray rocks primarily composed of the mineral dolomite. It should not be confused with limestone, which looks similar. Geologists can differentiate between limestone and dolostone using vinegar. When vinegar contacts limestone, it bubbles. When it contacts dolostone, it is stagnant. Dolostone was formed from the fossils of ancient animals that inhabited a vast sea that covered North America over 400 million years ago.
Shale
Shale, like dolostone, is a sedimentary rock, meaning it forms from the accumulation of ground sediments. If properly pressurized, silt and clay, commonly known as mud, can form shale. Therefore, shale is classified into a group of sedimentary rock known as mudstones. Shale can be easily recognized by two distinct features. It is fissile, which means it easily breaks. Shale is also laminated, meaning that each layer of shale is extremely thin. Shale and its products have significant industrial importance. Throughout history, the organic materials in black shale have broken down and formed large deposits of natural gas and oil. Certain shales can also be mixed with water to form a variety of useful clays.
Tags: Niagara Escarpment, Orillia Ontario, rock formation, sedimentary rock, closest surface
As global warming melts the polar ice caps, pushing sea levels to record levels and disrupting currents and ecosystems, experts on protecting and managing natural water systems are more important than ever. In fact, employment of oceanographers, geoscientists who study the world's oceans and coastal waters, is projected to grow more than 20 percent from 2006 to 2016, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Another indicator of the importance of oceanographers is the salary the position demands: the highest paid geoscientists bring home upward of $135,000 each year.
Salaries
As of May 2006, the middle 50 percent of U.S. geoscientists brought home between $51,860 and $100,650 annually, according to BLS. The median annual earnings were $72,660 with the lowest 10 percent of geoscientists earning less than $39,740 and the highest 10 percent making annual salaries of more than $135,950. The U.S. government paid oceanographers an average annual salary of $93,461.
Education and Work Experience
Among the many factors that can impact the salary of a geoscientist is education. According to the U.S. Office of Naval Research, oceanographers with a bachelor's degree earn, on average, $32,828 annual salaries at their first job. Annual entry-level salaries increase to $47,981 with a master's degree and $61,050 with a doctorate degree. Salaries are also commensurate with work experience. Payscale.com places the average annually salary of geoscientists with between one and four years of working experience between $40,000 and $95,000. The median salary range increases to $56,600 through $145,500 for geoscientists with between 10 and 19 years experience.
Employment Growth
As concern about environmental protection and responsible water management increases, so too will the demand for oceanographers. Overall, the employment outlook for geoscientists is promising. BLS estimates that employment of geoscientists is expected to grow at a rate of 22 percent through 2016, which is much faster than the national average for all professions. That means that by 2016, there will be 38,000 geologist jobs available in the U.S., which is 6,800 more than were available in 2006.
Employment Opportunities
Job candidates with a master's degree in the geosciences have excellent job opportunities, according to BLS. There are very little job opportunities in the field of oceanography for recent graduates who hold only a bachelor's degree, according to BLS. However graduates with a geoscience undergraduate degree may have a competitive edge when applying for related jobs, such as a science educator or technician.
Job Locations
While oceanography jobs can be found in nearly every part of the U.S., most are near large bodies of water on the east and west coasts, the Great Lakes and Gulf of Mexico, according to the U.S. Office of Naval Research. The state and federal governments and institutions of higher learning employ the vast majority of oceanographers.
Tags: more than, annual salaries, average annual, bachelor degree, geoscientists with, geoscientists with between, master degree
Stay safe when connected to the Internet by hiding your IP address.
Internet Protocol addresses, or IP addresses, are numbers assigned to computers on a network. The IP address assigned to a computer is based on several factors, including your geographic location. Internet web pages can request and receive your IP address, and from that number discern your rough location in the world. You can use proxy servers, though, to act as a mask between your IP address and the Internet, protecting your location and other information.
Instructions
1. Select a free, web-based proxy server (see Resources). Record its web address and the server's port number, if it is listed on the web page.
2. Open the "Options" or "Settings" menu of your web browser and choose "Internet Options."
3. Click on the "LAN Settings" button. Enable the "Use a Proxy Server" option under the "Proxy" section. Into the appropriate text fields type the port and web address of your proxy server. Click "OK" to save the change and exit the window.
4. Close any open browser pages and restart the browser. Notice the bar above the bottom of the window. "Resolving Proxy" appears when the proxy is successfully in place.
Tags: address Internet, proxy server, your address, your address Internet
The oil and natural gas sector is rapidly expanding worldwide as demand for energy grows. Oil and gas supply most of our energy and provide raw materials for manufacturing. Jobs in the sector involve the location, development, extraction and delivery of petroleum and natural gas from underground deposits.
Instructions
1. Identify the types of job opportunities in the sector. Oil and gas jobs include a variety of positions on offshore drilling platforms, called rigs, or on pipelines and in refineries. Many who start in the oil and gas industry begin as laborers and work their way up to drill operators and other positions of higher pay and responsibility.
2. Prepare for the job you want. A laborer on an oil or gas rig requires little or no experience. Laborers, known as roustabouts, clean, haul and do maintenance work. Other jobs can require formal or on-the-job training. These include drill operators, specialized petroleum technicians or engineers and geologists with four-year degrees. You can also obtain a job through an apprenticeship.
3. Write a resume and cover letter. Written job search materials should be tailored to the specific type of job you are considering. Your resume should include career objectives, education and formal training and work history, including the name of each employer, job location and duties performed. Keep your resume as a reference when filling out online applications.
4. Apply for job openings at oil and gas companies. Most exploration and extraction of oil and natural gas is done by mining contractors, and jobs can be applied for online. Review a list of the largest companies around the world at PetroStrategies.org. Find these and additional oil and gas mining companies at the SubSea Oil and Gas Directory.
5. Look for openings on Internet job boards, including EnergyCentralJobs.com, EnergyCareers.com and WorldWideWorker.com. In-demand fields in the sector include electronic engineering technicians, industrial machinery mechanics, electrical engineers, environmental scientists, sales representatives and managers.
6. Seek out opportunities for professional development. Professionals can join associations such as the Society of Petroleum Engineers; participate in discussion forums and seek out mentoring, outreach and continuing-education opportunities to move up to higher-paying positions.
Find Cheap Hotels in Dushanbe, Tajikistan. Dushanbe, the capitol city of Tajikistan, rewards tourists with beautiful city parks, fascinating geological formations and delicious cuisine. While it can be a difficult place to visit, once here you should find plenty of interesting sites to explore in a city of just over one million residents.
Instructions
Prepare for Your Trip to Dushanbe, Tajikistan
1. Obtain a visa before entering Tajikistan. You can apply for your visa at the Dushanbe Airport or via the Tajikistan Embassy. See the U.S. Department of State Web site for details.
2. Obtain a Tajikistani sponsor before leaving the U.S. You will need a sponsoring citizen or Tajikistani organization sponsor to invite you to the country before you will be allowed to enter.
Organize Transportation in Dushanbe, Tajikistan
3. Plan to land at either the Dushanbe Airport or the airport in Almaty, Kazakhstan. Airport choice is usually dictated by your city of origin.
4. Consider renting a car to drive to your accommodations. Public transportation in Dushanbe--and in Tajikistan as a whole--is unreliable and spotty. You might also have your sponsor drive you around during your stay.
Choose Your Lodging in Dushanbe, Tajikistan
5. To book accommodations, contact United Friends Tourism Company at 011 (+998) 71 3670419 or visit their Web site (see Resources, below). You can opt for a "Soviet-style" hotel if you're looking for cheap accommodations. These older establishments tend to be bare-bones in terms of both aesthetics and amenities.
6. Consider checking with your Tajikistani sponsor to make sure he or she is familiar with your cheap lodging choice. Be sure it's known as a reputable establishment.
7. Use your accommodations in Dushanbe as a home base as you explore the culture of the Tajikistani people. Dushanbe is the cultural capital of the country.
8. Bring enough cash to cover all of your accommodations expenses while visiting the city. Cash is necessary for everything because Tajikistan has a cash-only economy.
Become Familiar with Local Information
9. Learn to speak the local language of Tajik. Russian is the second most common language used in this area.
10. Snap a photo of the world's tallest dam, located an hour from Dushanbe. It stands a whopping 984 feet above the Vakhsh River.
Paint a scientific depiction of a plant species for an integrated lesson.
Integration of arts and sciences involves a type of administering education that is beneficial in many ways. Making connections across subject boundaries helps students to understand ideas in new ways. Whether you want to integrate visual arts with botany, biology and music or astronomy and sculpture you will find a way to do this through some simple techniques, as described by Julia Marshall, Professor of Art Education at San Francisco State University.
Instructions
1. Grow a class garden to integrate art and science through mimicry. Mimicry is a great tool for the educator. This process involves getting the students to mimic projects or activities that professionals would undergo in the real world. Students learn about ecology, agriculture, botany and biology. Additionally, students can create art that is functional in the garden such as row signs, trellises, germinators and watering instruments. Upon harvesting, students learn how their scientific effort goes into producing an artful meal.
2. Show students how master artists, such as Botticelli and Da Vinci, proportioned their pieces of art to depict something on a scientifically real level. Depiction is the simplest and most straight forward strategy for art and science integration. Art of all ages involves depicting something in the natural world. Proportional depictions are important in virtually any architecture, manufacturing and engineering business. Learning to depict something to scale involves geometry and algebra along with artistic skill.
3. Take a subject out of its original context and put it into a new format to encourage new ways of understanding it. Julia Marshall writes that this type of education could involve "charting one's emotional world as a geologic map or arranging characters from popular culture like specimens in a natural history exhibit." Because this idea is somewhat advanced, it is advised to undergo these projects with students of middle school level and above.
4. Introduce the artistic understanding of metaphor by using it to depict a scientific idea. Using metaphor at all is considered an art and by asking students to describe or depict scientific processes metaphorically you are integrating these subjects. Interpretive dance is one way of accomplishing this idea. Tell students to depict a scientific process such as growing a crop from seed, mapping the stars or solving an algebraic equation through dance. Another way is to draw a metaphorical image of a scientific scene, such as David Wojnarowicz painting of a man looking into a microscope as his body is filled with planets and stars.
Tags: depict scientific, botany biology, depict something, Julia Marshall, this idea
Topographical maps show the height and size of land formations.
Looking at geologic structures on a map is much different from seeing it as we do in regular maps. Maps are limited in the amount of detail that can be conveyed, but are quite useful once you are used to reading topography. In order to recognize a geologic structure as it is indicated on a map, you must first know exactly what structure you are looking for, its approximate size, and its location in relation to surrounding land forms.
Instructions
1. Identify the structures you are looking for by name. This is the easiest way to recognize a structure when all you have is a map. The ability to determine that you are standing in front of a large stream, rather than a river can be quite helpful.
2. Look for thin black lines with small numbers running next to them. These lines, known as contour lines, indicate altitude at any given point on the map. Areas with quickly escalating numbers and with contour lines close together are steep inclines and declines that may indicate the slopes of a mountain.
3. Utilize the map's color key and symbols to the best of your ability. Blue almost always indicates a body of water, while brown could mean desert, prairie or a field. Measure the size of the structures using the map's scale for an idea as to what you are looking at. A small pond may turn out to be a large lake if you have been misreading the scale.
Larger-than-life concepts such as prehistoric time, half-life properties and decay functions can be wrestled down to understandable portions using lesson plans provided by educational and state agencies for free online. Engaging middle school students in hands-on activities makes learning fun, increasing retention rates and the ability to integrate radiometric dating concepts with larger scientific and mathematical concepts later on.
The Radioactive Dating Game
The University of Colorado hosts an interactive Radioactive Dating Game that teaches students about carbon and other radiometric dating types, as well as half-life and decay functions. Students must match the age of items with the percentage of dating elements remaining to win the game. This game can be downloaded for play on computers in classrooms, or it can be played online. This game is also translated into dozens of languages ranging from Arabic to Vietnamese. Related teaching materials and games are also linked on the website.
Bison Bones and Prehistoric Kill Sites
Montana's Office of Public Education offers a lesson plan which teaches students about radiometric dating using information provided online about American Indian bison bones and prehistoric kill sites. The plan guides students through the radiometric analysis of prehistoric evidence, radiometric terminology and half-lives of carbon 14. Instructions for in-classroom half-life graphing games are also included.
Radiometric Dating Games Using Colored Beads and Dice
Use colored beads to simulate rocks and fossils in a radiometric dating game.
Carleton College's Education Department's website has instructions for a hands-on radiometric dating activity. The activity calls for students to simulate half-life properties of isotopes using bags of beads as "rocks and fossils." Appropriate for grades 5 to 8, the activity assigns parent isotopes to different color beads and asks students to solve problems such as arranging the "fossils" in age from youngest to oldest and finding the two "fossils" which are closest in age. The college also offers a game that simulates radioactive decay using dice. Students create a standard decay curve for a fictional element then use the graph information to date "rocks" with the element in them.
Fossil and Rock Strata Cards
The University of California's Museum of Paleontology offers a lesson plan for radiometric dating, which includes sequencing activities and card games. Students are taught the concepts of prehistoric time and radiometric dating using fossil cards and rock strata cards that can be printed from pdf files. The cards must be arranged in proper sequences. After grasping time concepts, students move on to integrate the fossils and rock layers to establish their age. An instructional video explaining radiometric dating is available on the Teachers' Domain site. The video segment comes with follow-up discussion questions and printable essays for the classroom.
Tags: radiometric dating, Dating Game, dating using, decay functions, games also, half-life properties
A diamond weighing in at over 40 carats was found at Crater of Diamonds State Park.
Crater of Diamonds State Park in Murfreesboro, Arkansas, is a very unique state park. Located on over 37 acres of field, this is the only diamond deposit site in the world where guests are invited to dig for diamonds and other precious stones and are allowed to keep their treasures. The Strawn-Wagner Diamond, the most flawless gem the American Gem Society has ever certified, was found in 1990 at the park. And the Uncle Sam Diamond was discovered by W.O. Basham in 1924--the diamond weighed in at over 40 carats. If you've decided that you'd like to take a shot at finding your own diamond or precious gem, you'll need just a few things to begin a potential successful dig.
Instructions
1. Dig for the diamonds and precious stones. Use your shovel to dig through the first foot of soil. Use a small cultivator or hand shovel to simply lift up the soil and allowing it to fall back down to the earth. While the soil is falling, keep a good eye on the soil looking for diamonds or gems. Using a sift screen may help you find the stones as well. Dig up a few hand shovelfuls of soil, pouring the soil into the sifting screen. Slowly, raise the screen into the air. The tiny pieces of dirt, gravel and soil will fall through the screen leaving larger objects--large pieces of gravel, possible diamonds or gems--inside the screen.
2. Surface search the grounds. According to the Crater of Diamonds State Park website, this may be one of the best ways to find diamonds and precious stones. Simply walk up and down the continuous rows of soil--the field is plowed making the soil form into "rows." Get low to the ground so you can see any stones lying on the dirt. This is the best way to find the precious stones after the area has had a large rainfall. This is because the rain will wash a lot of soil away, exposing the diamonds and precious gems on the surface.
3. Search for the diamonds and gems like a pro. This method requires a lot of patience and hard work. Use a shovel to dig deep holes into the soil. Remove some of the soil and wash it thoroughly through several different sifting screens. Separate, by hand, the different gravels that are left in the screens. Wash each gravel by hand to determine if any are small diamonds. This method is used best by someone with prior knowledge of diamond hunting.
4. Understand what it is that you are looking for. When diamonds are found in soil they tend to be smooth with an oily film covering them. They are also rounded in shape. And although it would fantastic to find a carated diamond, the average size is that of a match head. The common diamond colors found at Crater of Diamonds State Park are white, yellow and brown.
In addition to diamonds, over 40 different gems and rocks can be found--lamproite, amethyst, banded agate, jasper, peridot, garnet, quartz and barite, to name a few.
Tags: Crater Diamonds, Crater Diamonds State, Diamonds State, Diamonds State Park, precious stones, State Park, diamonds precious
A Multispectral Scanner and Data System refers to a remote-sensing instrument used in earth resources survey programs. Modern multispectral scanners are more advanced with features enabling real-time high resolution imaging systems. These advanced scanners record images of earth resources at high spatial resolution. The advanced features of a MSDS scanner make it suitable for tasks such as strategic intelligence, geologic mapping, oil spill detection, forest inventory, water chlorophyll studies and fire mapping.
Collecting Information on Earth Terrain
A multispectral scanner collects spectral and spatial information on earth terrain scanned above the surface. Multispectral scanners are usually mounted on survey aircraft to record earth resources. Features inherent in a multispectral scanner enable viewing of many wavelengths simultaneously. Spectral bands are recorded by detector arrays in a focal plane of grating spectrometers. The radiometrically calibrated bands using field-filling sources can be viewed during the inactive period of a scan cycle.
Geologic Mapping
MSDS scanners are useful in geologic mapping. By use of specialized scanner software aboard survey aircraft they measure and geocode each image pixel to map coordinates. These help in producing imagery compatible with geographical information sensing. When survey aircrafts touch down, corrected imagery is produced while raw data is recorded.
Strategic Intelligence
In addition to geologic mapping, MSDS scanners are useful alongside intelligence equipment in providing real-time satellite imagery links to a designated workstation. Information produced through such links is then superimposed over a standard base map to decipher useful intelligence information. Strategic intelligence functions facilitated by MSDS scanners cut across a variety of uses.
Natural Resource Inventory
MSDS scanners are useful tools in keeping track of global forest inventory. They are useful in forest inventory by providing real-time imagery on forest degradation, forest cover distribution and real-time environmental studies. These include water pollution, chlorophyll conditions and waste settling in water resources. These can be easily monitored using the built-in remote sensing technology in MSDS scanners.
Pilferage Detections
MSDS scanners are used to detect oil and gas pilferage. A configured multispectral scanner when mounted on a distribution pipeline helps in leak detection during transmission and distribution. This is a significant step in curbing losses arising from fuel pilferage as well as facilitating better fuel management systems. The built-in sensors and optical instruments help in providing real-time images of pilferage points.
Powerful, mysterious and unpredictable, volcanoes have always been a source of awe and fear for man. The same is true today as many people want to learn more about them. Learning about how they form, whether you might live near one, and what different types of volcanoes look like is very exciting. Fortunately, finding information about volcanoes and the processes that form them is easy to do. If you're lucky, you might even be able to visit a volcano near you.
Instructions
1. Visit your local library. Talk with the librarian or use one of the computers to search the library catalog. A keyword search would probably yield the most results. Try keywords such as volcanoes, stratovolcanoes, hot spots, magma, lava, eruption, ring of fire or subduction zones.
Searching for the names of famous volcanologists (scientists who study volcanoes) can also be helpful. Rosaly Lopes and Stanley Williams are two well-known volcanologists. Much has also been written about David Johnston, a volcanologist killed in the 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens.
2. Contact the geology department of your local college or university. They often have entire collections dedicated for use by local public and private schools. It's not uncommon for them to allow an interested individual access to their materials. At the very least, they can direct you to excellent sources of information.
3. Search for reports or studies in journals, magazines and newspapers about famous or recent eruptions. Here are some well-known volcanoes, with their locations and the dates of their most well-known eruptions:
Vesuvius, Italy, 79 AD;
Krakatau/Krakatoa, Indonesia, 1669;
Mt. Tambora, Indonesia, 1815;
Mt. St. Helens, U.S., 1980;
Pinatubo, Philippines,1991;
Etna, Italy, 2000-2001.
4. Visit your local bookstore and browse some books about volcanoes. These are usually found in the natural science section, but some bookstores might have sections dedicated to Earth science. Flipping through a few materials might help focus your search.
Tags: your local, about volcanoes, Visit your, Visit your local
All Earth's myriad rocks form by means of three main processes. Depending on the parameters, material may form into igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary rocks, which each in turn have their subcategories. This does not mean they will always remain in these forms. Rocks are in fact part of a vast cycle in which any formation of rock can be reformed into one of the other two given the right circumstances.
Igneous Rock
Granite is a common igneous rock.
Igneous rock forms from cooled magma or lava. If it forms in underground pockets, then it cools to form intrusive igneous rock, such as granite. If it forms above ground after a volcanic eruption, it becomes extrusive igneous rock, such as obsidian.
Sedimentary Rock
Coal forms from animal remains compressed into rock over thousands of years.
Erosion from water and weather carries material and deposits it downstream. These deposits form layers and as the pressure accumulates over thousands of years, the lower levels are pressed into sedimentary rock. There are three main types, depending on the type of debris form which they formed. Clastic sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone, are formed from inorganic debris. Organic sedimentary rocks, like limestone or coal, are formed from plant or animal remains. And chemical sedimentary rock, such as rock salt, is formed when dissolved materials come out of solution.
Metamorphic Rock
The surface of marble shows the irregular pattern of this metamorphic rock.
Metamorphic rocks form when other types of rocks undergo extreme heat, pressure and chemical processes deep in Earth's crust. Foliated metamorphic rocks, such as slate, form with visible layers or banded striations from pressure. Non-foliated metamorphic rocks are more irregular, such as marble.
The Rock Cycle
Each form of rock can turn into the other under the right circumstances, thereby continuing the ever-shifting rock cycle. Igneous and sedimentary rock become metamorphic rock through high pressure and heat. Sedimentary and metamorphic rock become igneous rock by melting back into magma to be cooled. And igneous and metamorphic rock become sedimentary rock through erosion.
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A desert is a region with less than 10 inches of annual rainfall or precipitation. One-fifth of the earth's surface is covered by deserts. They are found on every continent. Contrary to popular belief, deserts aren't just hot regions, like the Sahara. There are cold deserts, too, such as Antarctica. Their size makes a few deserts the greatest in the world.
Antarctica
Any rain that falls in Antarctica builds up into huge ice sheets.
Antarctica is the largest desert in the world at just under 5.4 million square miles. That is 1.4 times bigger than the United States. It is a polar desert that holds the record for the coldest, windiest and the highest altitude. The Antarctica desert has on average 2 inches of precipitation a year. Any rain that falls doesn't evaporate because of the cold temperature. The result is thick sheets of ice developed over hundreds of thousands of years. Animals that inhabit Antarctica depend on the sea for food. These include penguins, seals, whales and squid. The desert is too cold and harsh for any person to live there permanently.
Sahara
Reptiles, amphibians and mammals live in the Sahara desert.
The greatest subtropical desert in the world is the Sahara. Located in northern Africa, it covers just under 3.5 million square miles. The world's second largest desert, the Sahara has a variety of physical features, including sand sheets, dunes, oasis depressions, shallow basins, mountains and plateaus. The highest point is the summit of Mt. Koussi in northern Chad. North Sahara has two rainy seasons, hot summers and cold winters. South Sahara has a dry, tropical climate of mild winters and hot, dry summers. Nomads inhabit the desert, moving from region to region looking for ideal living areas.
Arabian Desert
Nomads use camels in the Arabian Desert for transportation.
The second largest subtropical desert is the Arabian Desert. It covers 900,000 square miles, almost the entire Arabian Peninsula. Parts of the desert lie in Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Qatar, Kuwait, Iraq and the United Arab Emirates. Plateaus are a large part of the desert's geography. Other elements are highlands, broad plains and basins. Temperatures can reach as high as 129 degrees Fahrenheit. Annual rainfall on average is less than 4 inches. Despite this, the greatest natural resource of the Arabian Desert is an underground water supply. There also are reserves of petroleum and natural gas.
Arctic
The Arctic polar bear is the largest mammal in the cold desert.
Another great polar desert is the Arctic. Measuring 62,300 square miles, the Arctic Desert is the northernmost part of the world and includes parts of Alaska, Greenland, Iceland, Russia and Canada. Temperatures can drop as low as minus 22 degrees Fahrenheit in winter and reach 33 degrees in summer. The landscape is a mixture of wide plains and dome glaciers. Large bird colonies inhabit the Arctic. The birds nest on the sides of high cliffs. Species include the arctic tern, snow bunting and ivory gulls. Large mammals also survive in the cold arctic temperatures. The polar bear, arctic fox and walrus are examples of these.
Gobi
Another great desert is the Gobi. It covers most of south Mongolia and stretches 500,000 square miles. The Gobi has a gravel and rocky terrain. The change in temperature from each season can be extreme. It can reach minus 40 degrees Fahrenheit in winter and 104 degrees Fahrenheit in summer. Average rainfall is less than 4 inches per year, and some areas of the Gobi get rain every two or three years. The desert is home to the only remaining Bacterian camels in the wild as well as a small population of Gobi bears. Where vegetation does grow, herders raise animals that survive in the changing climate -- cashmere goats, for example.
Tags: square miles, Arabian Desert, degrees Fahrenheit, less than, less than inches
Apollo 11 was the first manned landing on the moon.
The first moon landing may refer to two different events. The first spacecraft to reach the surface of the Moon was the unmanned Soviet Union craft Luna 2, which was launched in 1959. The USA's Apollo 11 was the first craft to land people on the Moon in 1969. Both missions resulted in valuable scientific discoveries and data accumulation.
Luna 2 Discoveries
The Soviet Luna 2 was the first unmanned craft to reach the Moon, following the failed attempt of Luna 1. The craft was fitted with instrumentation such as scintillation- and geiger-counters, a magnetometer and micrometeorite detectors, according to NASA. The mission confirmed the existence of solar winds and concluded that the Moon had no appreciable magnetic field or radiation belts.
The Apollo 11 Flight
Apollo 11 was the first manned moon landing, touching down on July 20, 1969. The mission was able to gather physical samples of lunar rocks and soil for analysis back on Earth. The astronauts also took photographs and conducted experiments on the Moon's surface.
Photography
Photographs were taken both aerially on the approach and after landing on the Moon's surface. Some were used to help identify landing sites for future Apollo missions. Others helped to develop a better understanding of the Moon's topography. Astronaut Edwin "Buzz" Adrin took a photograph of his own footprint to permit later study of the lunar surface bearing strength.
Physical Samples
Apollo 11 carried the first geologic samples from the Moon back to Earth. These included rocks, fine soil and two core tubes containing material from up to 13 centimeters below the Moon's surface. No water or evidence of living organisms was found in the samples. Some of the rocks were basalts, which are formed from solidified magma. Those found at the Apollo 11 landing site range in age from 3.6 to 3.9 billion years and were formed from at least two chemically different magma sources, according to the Lunar and Planetary Institute. Other rocks found were breccias.
Experiments on the Moon
An aluminum foil sheet was deployed on a pole facing the sun to collect solar wind particles. This allowed the chemical composition of the solar wind to be determined. A seismometer was deployed to allow monitoring of lunar "moonquakes." Along with seismometers left on subsequent missions, this helped provide information about the Moon's internal structure. A Laser Ranging Retroreflector was deployed to accurately measure the Moon's distance from Earth. This improved knowledge of the Moon's orbit and the rate at which the Moon is receding from Earth, which is 3.8 centimeters per year, according to the Lunar and Planetary Institute.
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