Chemistry Of Clays

Each type of clay has a different chemical composition.

Geologists define clay as a mineral comprised of alumina silicate with an ultra-fine particle size of four microns of less, unlike silts which have particles greater than four microns in size. Clays are the most abundant of minerals contained in sedimentary rocks. According to Charles Weaver and Lin Pollard, authors of "The Chemistry of Clay Minerals," the three most common types of clay are illite, montmorillonite and kaolinite.

Clay Formation and Structure

According to Nora Foley of the U.S. .Geological Survey, clay minerals form where rocks come into contact with steam, air or water. Weathering rock formations, geothermal fields, riverbeds, sea floors and volcanic deposits are typical environments for clay mineral formation. These types of environments cause clay minerals to form from pre-existing mineral deposits through erosion, weathering or process of chemical transformation called diagenesis. Common to all clays is their layered structure. Each layer or sheet is comprised of horizontally-linked tetrahedral or octahedral units. A tetrahedron is a regular equilateral triangular pyramid and an octahedron is a solid shape made up of eight congruent equilateral triangular faces.

Illite

Illites are comprised of two silica tetragonal sheets pointing inward which sandwich a central octahedral sheet. This type of mineral clay is most commonly found in cool climates. Weathering of silicates such as feldspar in alkaline conditions where high concentrations of aluminum and potassium are present contributes to the formation of illites. The chemical composition of illites is predominantly potassium, aluminum and silicon. The chemical expression for illite is (K,H3O)(Al,Mg,Fe)2(Si,Al)4O10[(OH)2,(H2O)]. Illite clays have been used for centuries throughout for therapeutic purposes and is applied topically as well as taken orally.

Montmorillonite

Montmorillonite belongs to the smectite group of clays which are characterized by their composition of two tetrahedral sheets and a central sheet of alumina octahedrons. This type of clay is usually the product of the weathering of bentonite by volcanic ash, however, the mineral can also form in cave environments. Silicon and aluminum are the main chemical components of this type of clay. The chemical formula for it is (Na,Ca)0,3(Al,Mg)2Si4O10(OH)2•n(H2O). Montmorillonite is widely used in the oil drilling industry as an additive to improve the workability of drought-prone soils and to keep drill bits cool.

Kaolinite

Kaolin is a soft, white mineral also referred to as china clay or white clay. This type of clay is the product of the chemical weathering of rocks containing alumino-silicate minerals in a hot, moist climates -- such as rainforests. The structural composition of kaolin is one tetrahedral sheet condensed by oxygen atoms with an alumina octahedral sheet. Oxygen, silicon and aluminum are the main chemical compounds in kaolin, which has a chemical formula of Al2Si2O5(OH)4 . This type of clay is the main ingredient used in porcelain making and is also widely used in the production of paper, cosmetics, medicine, toothpaste and as a food additive.

Tags: type clay, This type, This type clay, aluminum main, aluminum main chemical, chemical composition, chemical formula

The Late Triassic Period

Increased volcanic activity brought about the end of the Triassic period.

The most massive extinction in Earth's history occurred at the end of the Permian period and the start of the Triassic period, about 251 million years ago. The end of the Permian ushered in frigid temperatures that killed close to 90 percent of marine life and about 70 percent of land vertebrates. As the Triassic began its reign, warmth once again permeated the land and sea. Plant and animal life changed, in conjunction with the transforming climate and geology, during the course of the Triassic. The late Triassic saw the stirrings of a new time -- the age of the dinosaurs.

Geology

By the end of the Triassic, Pangaea had become Gondwana and Laurasia.

By the middle of the Triassic, the supercontinent of Pangaea had already begun breaking apart. At the end of the Triassic, the new land masses included Gondwana -- comprising Africa, Antarctica, Asia, India and South America -- and Laurasia, made up of Asia, Europe and North America. From Alaska south to Chile, mountain ranges started forming. North Africa spread farther from Europe and drifted apart from North America. The Tethys Sea, which remained at a low level, separated the two land masses.

Climate

Because of the breaking up of Pangaea, lava flows formed at the boundaries of the North American and African plates in an area scientists deem the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province. The increased volcanic activity may have led to an increase in carbon released into the atmosphere. Carbon in the atmosphere rose threefold by the end of the Triassic. The significant increase in the amount of carbon in the air contributed to global warming. With the warming temperatures, the oceans began heating, leading to a decline in the amount of oxygen dissolved in ocean water and affecting marine life.

Flora

Evergreens such as pines thrived during the Triassic and Jurassic.

By the end of the Triassic, seed ferns such as Glossopteris, which looked like modern-day ferns, became extinct. With the decline in the seed ferns, gymnosperms such as the conifers, cone-bearing plants and the cycads, or palms, started taking over the landscape. The cycads made up about 20 percent of all plant life during the transition between the Triassic and Jurassic periods. Bennettitales, extinct plants that resembled the cycads, existed during the Triassic and continued into the Jurassic. Ginkgoes also thrived, but only one species of ginkgo has survived to the present. Angiosperms, plants that produce flowers, did not appear until after the Jurassic period.

Dinosaurs

At the beginning of the Triassic, archosaurs, the ancestors of the dinosaurs, roamed the land. The archosaurs had body types similar to amphibians and lizards, with limbs outstretched instead of placed directly underneath the body. The ornithosuchids, archosaurs that possibly represented the direct ancestors of dinosaurs, walked on two legs and tore meat with pointed teeth. True dinosaurs emerged toward the end of the Triassic, walking on two legs and eating only meat. Skeletal changes in the pelvis, legs and neck allowed the dinosaurs to support their bodies and heads. The first dinosaurs diverged into two types: the meat-eating saurischians and the plant-eating ornithischians.

Mammals

The first mammals were tiny creatures that resembled rodents. Like modern-day mammals, primitive specimens possessed a variety of teeth that were replaced once in their lifetimes. The morganucodon, an ancient mammal type, provided many fossil samples dating from the late Triassic. The early mammals continued to develop in the Jurassic, diverging into other forms.

The End of the Triassic

The tail end of the Triassic ushered in a massive extinction event. Some in the scientific community attribute these extinctions to a steep increase in volcanic activity while other scientists blame a gigantic asteroid colliding with Earth. The decline in the number of seed plants caused the ferns to increase in number. Almost all amphibian life became extinct, along with half of all marine life. Dinosaurs and conifers continued virtually untouched into the Jurassic.

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Environmental Careers In Biotechnology

Biological research creates environmental biotechnology career opportunities in the 21st century

The fusion of biology and technology in agricultural production, medical, alternative energy sources and other biological research creates environmental biotechnology career opportunities in the 21st century. Typically, such careers require a PhD, according the U.S. Dept of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics, but commonly, some work in special research and commercial environmental product development allows short-term postdoctoral research positions. Environmental careers in biotechnology underlie the research toward an ecologically healthy global community.

Aquatic Biology

Oceanography investigates the physical features of oceans and the floors of oceans.

Studying biochemical development, taking place in living cells of sea creatures, marine biologists careers focus on microorganisms, plants and animals living in saltwater. Another aquatic biologist, called a limnologists, usually studies fresh water life forms living in lakes, ponds and marshes in the same manner as the marine biologist. A wider field of aquatic biology called oceanography, investigates the physical features of oceans and the floors of oceans.

Chemistry of Life

The work of biochemists bring understanding of the complex chemistry of life.

Biochemist studies bring understanding of the complex chemistry of life. By analyzing chemical groupings and activities in cells or organisms creating energy and fundamental substances needed for vital life processes (metabolism), procreation and growth, the biochemist provides further awareness of life intricacies. This comes through studying how enzymes control life force elements, compounds and chemical reactions.

Cellular Energy

Biophysicists also study how cellular activities connect with chemical processes.

Using the science of matter and energy interaction (physics), biophysicist research focuses on electrical and mechanical energy relationships in living cells and organisms. The research processes biological data at the molecular level using computers, biophysicists, research molecular and cellular nervous systems. Biophysicists also study how cellular activities connect with chemical processes (metabolic) for sustaining life through energy production and release.

Microscopic Organisms

Microbiologists explore uses of microorganisms for bettering the environment.

Researching development and distinctive aspects of microscopic organisms including bacteria, algae and fungi, microbiologists may incorporate computer technology for understanding cell reproduction and human infections including causes of viruses (virology) and development of biological tools fighting infections (immunology). Other microbiologists explore uses of microorganisms for bettering the environment, agriculture and industrial food production.

Functions of Living Things

Some physiologists research how plant photosynthesis creates energy.

The physiologist researcher creates normal and abnormal conditions for investigating the life force behavior of entire plant and animal forms (including humans) or at the cellular and molecular level focusing on development and reproduction. Some physiologist research centers on how plants change sunlight, water and carbon dioxide into energy (photosynthesis) and how this is a means for creating non-polluting fuels and other energy sources. One specialized physiologist research explores how the human body reacts to motion.

Plant Environments

Among the aspects of plant life of botanist research are fungi.

Ongoing botanist research includes studying plants and their environments. Biotechnological findings provide cures for plant diseases, the geological history of plants and plant identification for scientific classification. Included in the types of plant life research findings are the structure and purpose of the parts of algae, fungi, mosses and flowering plants.

Animals and Wildlife

Environmental biotechnological careers study the origins, behavior, diseases and progression of animals.

Zoologists and wildlife biologists study the origins, behavior, diseases and progression of animals. Research of these two experts may analyze biological data for establishing the effects of current and future land and water use on ecosystems. Using the same research format, mammalogists study mammals while herpetologists research reptiles, and ichthyologists investigate fish.

Environmental Research

The ecologist investigates demographics of life forms in relation to the environment.

Incorporating biotechnology and other branches of scientific knowledge, the ecologist investigates the effects of population size, pollution, altitude, rainfall and temperature on all organisms in relation to their environments. Collecting, studying, and reporting statistics on the quality of existing food sources, soil and water conditions and quality of air provides the ecologist with facts for determining the connections among and between all organisms and their surroundings.

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Environmental Business Careers

Business careers and jobs in the environmental industry are available in both the government and private sectors.

The environmental industry has the same business opportunities as most other industries: directors and managers, marketing and advertising professionals, accountants and bookkeepers, IT and general support staff, etc. What sets the industry apart is its focus on sustainability of the planet. Environmental career opportunities and other green job search sites divide the industry into four core sectors.

Environmental Education

Schools and universities offer two primary categories of environmental teaching: higher education and outdoor ed. The North American Association for Environmental Education posts job openings for instructors on many levels, from summer camp instructors and environmental education interns to environmental education program managers and university professors. In the business sector of environmental education, the organization lists support staff positions, including receptionist and administrative assistant, program coordinator, fundraising database manager, director of media relations, social media and content management staff, admissions director and more. Outdoor education positions are primarily instructor-based, but field-operations support positions are available.

Environmental Science and Engineering

The Partnership for Public Service indicates that that as of May 2010, the U.S. federal government has 17,366 natural resources management jobs, 11,157 forestry science positions, 6,367 soil conservation and science conservation openings, 5,942 environmental protection specialist positions, 4,384 environmental engineering opportunities and 1,263 ecology careers listed. These positions are with the Departments of Agriculture, Interior, Defense, Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, Commerce, Veterans Affairs, Energy and the Environmental Protection Agency. All of these departments fill business support staff positions from administrative to financial, communication to project management.

Environmental Resources and Conservation

Most states have a department of conservation and natural resources. The agency in Montana has nine commissions and committees overseeing five bureaus, including field operations and forestry, which are supported by many business-management divisions including: financial development, procurement and contracting, human resources and information technologies. The Virginia Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation, as another example, hires business support staff in the areas of aquaculture, fisheries management, wildlife management and law enforcement.

Environmental Law, Regulation and Policy

Earth Justice, one of the world's largest nonprofit law firms dedicated to protection of the planet's resources and all living things, has offices in Alaska, California, Florida, Washington, D.C., and Colorado, among other areas. Staff positions include major gifts acquisition, office management, program information analyst, accounting management, web and IT development and maintenance, communications, litigation assistant and more.

Tags: support staff, environmental education, business support, business support staff, Environmental Education

Entry Level Jobs In The Oil Field

The oild field has land or ocean based entry level jobs

Entry level positions in the oil field can be physically challenging and require long hours, but these jobs are also financially rewarding. The only requirements for many of the entry level jobs in the oil field are the ability to read and good health.

Roustabout

A roustabout in the oil field is the employee who does just about everything to assist the rig. Most people who start in the oil field begin as roustabouts. The job entails general labor around the rig which allows the drill crew to concentrate on drilling instead of the cleanup and maintenance duties. Starting as a roustabout will give the entry-level employee time to learn about drilling before having to perform any drilling duties. Roustabouts are expected to dig trenches, move rigs and equipment plus operate various pieces of mechanical equipment.

Roughneck

Roughnecks are the backbone of the oil field. This entry-level employee assembles and tears down the oil rigs. Another responsibility is to transport the rig to its new location. The roughnecks are the ones who connect the pipes used to drill into the ground during the drilling process.

Oil Pipeline Jobs

A pipeliner is the one who performs the general maintenance of the pipeline such as rust removal and painting with anti-corrosive paint. A pipe-fitter is the employee who ensures the pipes are aligned and prepared for welding. A pipeline walker has the duty of driving or walking the pipeline, inspecting, making minor repairs, documenting any leaks and reporting any discrepancies to the front office.

Oil and Gas Seismic Jobs

The oil and gas seismic jobs are responsible for acquiring data for drilling purposes. There are several entry level jobs in this part of the oil industry. The jug helper is one who lays down the cable. His job involves a lot of digging and clearing of brush. A line slasher clears the brush and trees from the seismic lines using a chainsaw or other cutting equipment. The recording crew helper is the one who assists the driller with the hole dug for the explosive charges used to record data in order to find oil prospects. The seismic shooter is the employee who drops the dynamite or explosive charge into the hole.

Tags: level jobs, entry level, entry level jobs, entry-level employee

Calculate The Drainage Area

Drainage basins are at work all around us.

Drainage area is an alternate term for drainage basin. In simplest terms, it is an area of land where water from natural sources, such as melting snow or rain or melting ice, pool and join another existing body of water, such as a river or lake. In the field of hydrology, calculating drainage area is a critical element in many practical applications. In determining the peak runoff of watersheds, the drainage area is needed. Calculating drainage density or calculating storm drainage for secondary roads begins with the drainage area. This concept reaches into many fields of engineering. Does this Spark an idea?

Instructions

Approach I

1. Acquire United States Geological Survey (USGS) topographic maps at 1:24,000 scale that cover the drainage network of interest.

2. Trace the drainage area of interest on the topographic map.

3. Outline the drainage area with a polar planimeter by moving the tracer point along the previously traced area.

4. Record the enclosed area in Vernier units.

5. Convert the Vernier units to the desired area measurement based on scale of map and conversions provided with the planimeter.

Approach II

6. Acquire United States Geological Survey (USGS) topographic maps at 1:24,000 scale that cover the drainage network of interest.

7. Trace the drainage area of interest on the topographic map.

8. Digitize the drainage area into a Geographic Information System (GIS) file using the GIS unit and the add-on digitizer.

9. Compute the drainage area using the accompanying software from USGS.

Approach III

10. Acquire United States Geological Survey (USGS) topographic maps at 1:24,000 scale that cover the drainage network of interest, and trace the drainage area of interest on the topographic map.

11. Place a sheet of 100 dot-per-square-inch transparent overlay on top of the drainage area on the USGS map.

12. Count the total number of dots falling within the drainage area and half of the dots falling on the lines.

13. Find the correct conversion factor, noting map scale. For a 1:24,000 scale, the correct per dot area conversion factor is 0.003889 kilometers (km) squared.

14. Calculate drainage area by multiplying the total number of dots by the conversion factor.

Tags: drainage area, drainage area, Acquire United, Acquire United States, Approach Acquire, Approach Acquire United, area interest

Make Mineral Posters For Students

Make a mineral poster.

One of the best ways to teach students or to reinforce lessons is to give them hands-on follow up activities. This helps them remember key concepts and retain information by giving them more ways to remember it--- through touch and visualization as well as through reading and hearing. Many students also have a lot of fun creating projects, making them more likely to remember the information because they are interested in it.

Geology or science class is a prime place to use these projects. After learning about minerals and their characteristics, help your students make mineral posters. You can hang these posters up in the classroom as a visual reference.

Instructions

1. Research your specific mineral or minerals in an information reference like a textbook or a book specifically about minerals. Write down general characteristics like where and how it forms, colors, hardness, molecular shape and where its name derives from.

2. Cut several large rectangles of paper, either in white or several different colors, and write the main information on them. Be concise: write "Colors: Red with gold flecks and black streaks" instead of "The mineral is mostly red and has gold flecks and some black streaks." This saves room.

3. Draw a picture of your mineral on the poster board itself. Use metallic and iridescent paint to match the colors exactly. Glue your fact rectangles around the picture, staggering them or placing them at slight angles for visual interest.

4. Use packing tape to secure a mineral sample to your poster, either over top of your drawing or in its own special square. If you don't have a mineral sample, don't worry; your picture should be enough.

Tags: about minerals, black streaks, gold flecks, mineral poster, mineral sample, them more

Entrylevel Oil Jobs

Oil jobs can be found either on land or offshore.

Entry-level oil jobs can be more than just working on an oil rig or drilling for oil. Jobs that require little or no experience can be found in all the operations of the oil industry. An individual with only a high school diploma can work as a roughneck or roustabout, or in the kitchen as a cook. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, these positions have an average hourly starting wage of $15.58 as of 2010.

Entry-Level Roustabout

A roustabout is an entry-level job that requires little or no experience to begin working in the oil industry. This position is where most oil rig workers begin. The duties and responsibilities of a roustabout vary from oil rig to oil rig, but there are some basic tasks that all roustabouts perform. Roustabouts are basically the general laborers of the drilling crew. They are required to keep the platform or oil drilling deck clean of all tools, dig ditches, assemble components of the rig, tear down and erect rigs at new locations and perform an assortment of other general labor duties. The main purpose of a roustabout is to do everything necessary to allow the drilling crew to concentrate on just drilling.

Entry-Level Pipeline Worker

The oil industry has entry-level jobs on the oil pipeline crews. A pipe-liner worker does general maintenance on the line, such as removing rust, painting the pipeline and cutting brush and overgrowth from around the pipeline. A pipeline walker is an entry-level worker who inspects the line for leaks, makes minor repairs and ensures there are no major pipeline problems. Both of these positions are performed in the field and require the worker to be away from home for long periods of time.

Entry-Level Oil Well Service Operators Helper

An oil well service operator tears down the oil rig and loads it onto a truck so the rig can be moved to new locations. The oil well service operator also mixes cement, assembles pump accessories and helps the well service operator blend chemical solutions that are used during the drilling process. This job requires no previous experience and requires the worker to be away from home for long durations of time. The person who performs this job will also be required to travel extensively.

Tags: service operator, well service operator, away from, away from home, drilling crew

Microscopic Sand Types

Sand on the beach looks very different from sand under a microscope.

"Little drops of water, little grains of sand, Make the mighty ocean, and the pleasant land,"

reads a well-known inspirational poem by Julia Carney. However, drops of water and grains of sand can be a study unto themselves. Seen with the naked eye, individual sand grains are so small as to appear featureless. If these are placed under a microscope, a viewer can evaluate the sand and see much about its history and origins.

Size

Sand is a very specifically defined material and one of the basic types of soil. At a top particle size of 4.75 millimeters and a lower size of 75 microns (0.075 millimeters) in diameter, it's finer than gravel but coarser than silt or clay. For a sample to be classified as sand, more than 50 percent of its particles must fall in that size range. A metric ruler slid into the edge of the viewing field allows such small measurement.

Composition

Studying sand under a microscope can reveal its composition. In general, sand is composed of quartz crystals. In some beach and shoreline sands, calcium carbonate from crushed coral and broken shells may dominate, or the source may be volcanic basalt from lava flows. The bright white dunes of White Sands, New Mexico are composed mainly of gypsum. Some sands may be the result of wind-worn sandstone, which means the sand has been released from its chemical binding and returned to its original state before it was compressed into stone.

Texture

The microscope will reveal the texture of individual grains of sand. They may be jagged or smooth. The more they rub against each other or against something else, the more rounded they become. Sand blown about by the wind or moved by water will smooth the grains. The grains of beach sand are polished by the tumbling action of the waves, and even shell fragments will wear down under this constant friction. Very fine or "sugar" sand found on the beaches of Padre Island, Texas, squeaks when walked on and tends to cling to the human body and accumulate in skin folds. Coarser coral sand from a tropical strand such as Shoiaba Beach near Jeddah on the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia, crunches underfoot and drops cleanly off the skin after drying with a casual shake.

Color

Under the microscope, sand that appears one color en mass can show many colors. The color of sand is determined by minerals in its source. Beige, tan or light brown sand commonly originates from granite. White sand owes its color to clear quartz crystals or coral fragments. Volcanic rocks can produce many colors of sand, including red (Kaihalulu, Hawaii) and green (Papakolea, Hawaii). Black sand is found in volcanic areas of Alaska, California, Hawaii and Iceland. Pink sand is not uncommon on tropical beaches, including the islands of the Caribbean and South Pacific, but also occurs at Zion National Park's wind-deposited Coral Pink Sand Dunes.

Tags: grains sand, drops water, many colors, quartz crystals, sand found, sand under, sand under microscope

Create A Map

Maps are extremely useful tools for travel and construction planning, both globally and even in your back yard. According to the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), maps have been used for thousands of years to help people get from one place to another. Even with contemporary, digital adaptations such as Google Maps and Geographic Information System (GIS) technology, traditional mapping remains important for many individuals. If you need to create an accurate map, the process can be fairly simple with a few basic steps.

Instructions

1. Obtain a large piece of paper---the bigger the better. While a larger map may be more time consuming to create, it will be more accurate. George Mason University's History Matters website indicates that scale can "distort features on a map. When extensive areas are shown (a small scale map) the potential for distortion is great." A larger map will accommodate a larger scale rather than cramming detailed items into a small space with a smaller scale.

2. Determine an easily represented verbal scale. A verbal scale is the distance on the map that is equal to the distance on the ground. According to Mark McNaught, associate professor of geology at Mount Union College, a verbal scale is "the simplest form of map scale," written in a "1 inch = X" format. Use the largest scale that your paper will accommodate: for example, a "1 inch = 3 feet" scale is larger than a "1 inch = 5 feet" scale because the mapped items do not have to be shrunk as much to fit the 1 inch = 3 feet scale.

3. Create an easy-to-follow map key. Cover all possible bases in your key. Don't expect someone reading your map to know that the blue-shaded area represents water or that a green dot stands for a tree; you must indicate such important details in your key. The colors and graphical representations you use are entirely up to you, but everything must be recorded in a key for easier map readability.

4. Lightly draw a grid on your paper with a pencil and ruler. A grid will provide more accurate mapping. If you know that each inch represents a certain distance, creating a grid in inches lets you better visualize the scale and map accordingly. If you don't want a permanent grid, you can erase it when you're done.

5. Convert your real-world measurements to the appropriate scale, and draw the objects on your paper. Conversion with a verbal scale is relatively simple using some basic math. Let's say you're using a "1 inch = X feet" scale. If you measure something and determine it to be "Y" feet long, you can figure out its scaled length in inches by dividing "Y" by "X." For a "1 inch = 3 feet" scale, you'd determine the scaled length of a 4.5-foot object by dividing 4.5 by 3---the resulting number tells you that the object should be 1.5 inches long on your scaled map.

Tags: feet scale, inch feet, inch feet scale, verbal scale, your paper, know that, more accurate

Create A Timeline With Photos

Photo timelines bring facts and events to life.

Whether you are looking to make a historical timeline or a personal timeline, photos always bring your timelines to life. Timelines help you grasp the main ideas because they give fast facts about people or events. Dipity and Tiki Toki are free websites that people can use to collaborate and create timelines. The idea is to make an interactive timeline that integrates photos, videos and sounds as well as external links to other pages on the Internet. Mural timelines are homemade timelines that you can use in education to teach children facts, help them learn about the order or historical events or to document familial events.

Instructions

Dipity

1. Go to the Dipity website to create a free interactive multimedia timeline.

2. Click on "Create a Timeline." A window will pop up that invites you to enter your login and password. If it is your first time on Dipity, click on the green button that says "Join Dipity." Fill in your information and click "Join."

3. Write the name of your timeline and its description. Choose a category. Choose your time zone, upload a "Topic Thumbnail" and click "OK." Choose if you want your timeline to be private or public. Click on the button at the bottom of the page that says "Contribute to Events."

4. Click on "Add Event" in the left menu of the page called "Add events to (your timeline's name)." Add "Title," "Date," "Description" and a picture. You can add a "Link," a "Location" or "URL" to your event. Click the yellow button "Add Event" at the bottom of the page. When you are done adding new events, click "Continue."

5. Decide what "Zoom Levels" you prefer, where you want your comments to be located and the layout of your timeline. When you are done, click on the green button at the bottom of the page that says "Save and View your Timeline."

Wall Chart Timeline

6. Cut strips from poster board 5-inches wide and 1- to 2-feet long. Use as much poster board as you want; you might want to have enough to fill a wall, to make a timeline on your whole wall. Cut as many strips as you need. If you are studying history, choose one color of poster board for all the B.C. dated events and another colors for all the A.D. events.

7. Stick your strips on the wall one on top of the other, in a pyramid fashion or facing each other if you have two centuries. Use sticky tack or double-sided tape. Leave at least 5 inches of space between each strip. Write the dates on the timeline in order.

8. Write all the events you want to figure on your timeline on the blank cards. Stick one side of the Velcro on the back of each card and photos and stick the other part of the Velcro on the wall along the poster board trips, according to the place on the timeline the events happened.

Tiki Toki

9. Go to the Tiki Toki website to create your timeline. Sign up. Choose the version you would like to use: free, Edu or Bronze account. Click "Continue."

10. Enter your title, the date your timeline starts and the date your timeline ends. Choose a background image and click "Save."

11. Click on "Create New Timeline." Give it a name, write the dates the timeline starts and ends, write information about the timeline, choose the colors on your timeline, upload layout pictures and click "Save."

12. Click on "Create New Story" to add a new event. Enter the "Title," the "Date" and the "Text." Add a "category" and "Link" and click "Save." Add more entries.

13. Click on the "Story Media" tab and click "Add Media" to add photos. Click on "Media Source" to find a photo on Flickr, write the "Caption" and click on "Save."

Tags: your timeline, click Save, poster board, bottom page, Click Create

Engineering Properties Of Soils & Rocks

The engineering properties of both rocks and soils depend on their specific type and texture.

When designing any building or other structure on land, engineers must take into consideration the structural properties of the ground that supports their project. Both soil and rock have highly varied engineering properties, depending on the specific type of soil or rock. For this reason, the analysis of geologists and soil scientists is very useful information to engineers. Does this Spark an idea?

Critical Slope

The critical slope, also known as the angle of repose, is the most extreme angle at which rock or soil can remain stable. For example, when digging out a trench, you may find that digging excessively steep walls causes the surrounding earth to cave in. At the beach, where the soil is very sandy, the sand will begin to cave in at a far gentler angle. By contrast, in dense, claylike soil, you can dig on the vertical without triggeromg a landslide. Critical slope, then, is a property both of soil and rock, which varies among different types, textures and stages of each. For example, granite changes its critical slope as it weathers; the smaller stones of highly-weathered granite can eventually behave more like soils than boulders formed from the same type of rock.

Bulk Density

You can determine the bulk density of either soil or rock, a measurement that reflects a material's density, taking into consideration the presence of pores within the material, as in the case of soils or gravelly rocks. Bulk density is usually measured in grams over cubic centimeters, taking the weight of oven-dried soil and dividing it by the volume it occupies under no added pressure. Bulk density of a material not only affects its suitability for engineering applications, it also influences the movement of water through or around the medium as well as plants' ability to root in soil or rock.

Elasticity

Engineers figure soils' and rocks' elasticities based on the shear modulus, also known as the modulus of rigidity. This is a coefficient that describes the elastic behavior of a material when a shearing force is applied. For example, when an earthquake causes intense pressure perpendicular to the face of the material, different soils and rocks will have different abilities to stretch before breaking. The shear modulus corresponds to this capacity. You measure shear modulus in terms of shear stress over the material's linear displacement. If you know the shear wave velocity, the speed at which seismic waves travel through a material, and you also know the material's bulk density, you can determine the shear modulus, as all three properties are interconnected.

Tags: soil rock, shear modulus, also known, Bulk density, bulk density, engineering properties, example when

Rock Collection Projects

Rock collections can provide insight into how the earth was formed.

Rock collection projects provide a hand-on means of teaching geology to students. In addition to learning about different types of rocks, students can use scientific classification and identification practices in labeling and maintaining their collections. Projects using rock collections can be completed in or out of the classroom.

Rock Classification

Students can begin a rock collection with rocks found near their homes, at beaches or construction sites. Instruct students to collect 12 different rocks and label them. A small spot of nail polish on the bottom of a rock provides a means for the student to number the rock. Numbers should correspond with note cards that describe the rock's type, color, site location and date found. An empty egg carton makes an inexpensive collection case for the rocks, which can be grouped in the case by similarities.

Geodes

Geodes are a great addition to any rock collection. The intrigue of these crystallized rock formations is the drastic difference between how they look on the outside and on the inside. Begin the project by sharing a collection of geodes, including some that are cracked open and some that are still intact. Students can study the collection and compile data about the similarities in volume, mass and texture among the different geode types. Each student then receives his own geode to predict the inside appearance based on his research. Predictions should specify whether the geode will have large or small crystals and whether it will be hollow or filled. Crack the geodes open to compare the actual structure to the hypothesized results.

Fossils

Fossils are animal or plant remains preserved in rocks, and a few fossils can add new life to an existing rock collection. As part of a class rock collection project, instruct students to make fossils from leaves and plaster. The fossils can be created from leaf imprints to demonstrate how the fossil is formed. Share a collection of real fossils with the class and allow each student to choose one. Students can draw what they think the plant or animal looked like while it was alive. If practical, plan a field trip to a location to search for fossils as a class.

Tags: rock collection, some that

What Is The Job Description For A Seismologist

A seismologist studies earthquakes.

A seismologist is most known for studying earthquakes. An earthquake is a shaking or trembling of the earth. But seismologists study more than just earthquakes. They study all seismic waves and movements in the earth. They try to predict what is causing these waves and movements, predict when and where they will occur and prevent them. They do this by assessing data both in the field and a laboratory.

Function

A seismologist is an earth scientist who studies the genesis and the propagation of seismic waves in geological materials. Basically, a seismologist studies movements in the earth, most notably, earthquakes. Seismologists research and interpret the geological composition and structures of the Earth. In the case of earthquakes, seismologists evaluate the potential dangers and seek to minimize their impact through the improvement of construction standards. A seismologist uses a seismograph to collect and assess data. Seismographs are the key tool of seismologists because they make it possible to collect and to record the vibrations of the Earth

Work Environment

Seismologists spend a large part of their time working in the field, identifying and examining geological formation, studying data, conducting geological surveys and constructing field maps. While in the field, a seismologist can be exposed to a variety of weather elements and must stand the majority of his day. Physical fitness and the ability to walk, hike or climb rough terrain is required in the field. When not in the field, a seismologist works in a laboratory, where he examines the chemical and physical properties of specimens and input and assess data in a computer. While in the lab, they both stand and sit equally in a climate controlled facility.

A seismologist often works long and irregular hours, especially while in the field. Their work weeks are usually longer than 40 hours, and weekend and evening work is usually required.

Education

A seismologist must have at least a four-year college degree in geology, geophysics, physics or applied math. A master's degree is the preferred educational requirement for most positions in private industry, federal agencies and state geological surveys, according to the Bureau of Labor statistics.

Interests

As is the case with many scientists, a seismologist must be curious and have a thirst for knowledge. Interest in computer science, earth science and problem-solving is imperative. A seismologist is interested in the outdoors, enjoys being outdoors and enjoys taking part in outdoor activities. A seismologist must not mind working alone, but must also be able to work as part of a team to solve problems and compare and analyze data.

Wages

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median annual wages of geoscientists, or scientists who are involved in studying the earth, such as a seismologist, were $79,160 in 2008. The petroleum, mineral, and mining industries offer higher salaries, a media annual wage of $127,560 in 2008, but less job security than other industries, because economic downturns sometimes cause layoffs.

Tags: seismologist must, assess data, Bureau Labor, field seismologist, geological surveys, movements earth, outdoors enjoys

Geotechnical Engineering Degrees

Some institutions do offer degrees in geotechnical engineering, but more often, the coursework is presented as an area of emphasis or specialty through the civil engineering department of a four-year college or university. In the latter case, a student might pursue either a bachelor's degree in civil engineering with an emphasis in geotechnical engineering, or a bachelor's degree in civil, geological or environmental engineering followed by a master's degree in geotechnical engineering.

Geotechnical Engineer

A geotechnical engineer determines the stability of the ground beneath proposed bridges.

A geotechnical engineer, or soil engineer, is a type of civil engineer who determines whether a specific plot of earth -- soil, rocks and, occasionally, water -- can support a proposed structure. They work with other engineers and architects in the planning of buildings, bridges, tunnels, land-retaining walls, dams and other structures. Applying engineering principles to nature, they analyze soil properties, gauge the stability of land, and help ensure planned foundations and support structures can withstand soil erosion, earthquakes, mudslides and similar events. Often geotechnical engineers are called in after land destabilizing events to handle any resulting structural problems.

Colleges

Many four-year colleges and universities offer civil engineering degrees, but not all offer the geotechnical emphasis or master's degree. Some that do include the Texas A&M University, University of Illinois at Urbana -- Champaign, Purdue University, University of Missouri -- Columbia, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, University of Akron, George Washington University, Northwestern University, Cornell University, University of Michigan -- Ann Arbor, Illinois Institute of Technology -- Chicago, Northeastern University, University of Alaska -- Anchorage, University of Southern California, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Undergraduate Coursework

A four-year program that can sometimes take five years to complete, the required undergraduate engineering curriculum includes classes in English, social studies and the humanities, along with more advanced study in mathematics and science. Students pursuing the specialized area of geotechnical engineering will also study geology, mineralogy and computer-aided design (CAD).

Graduate Degree

Usually a master's degree program entails one to two years of study beyond the four-year bachelor's degree. Coursework would cover subjects like foundations engineering, ground modification, earth pressure, earth retaining structures, advanced engineering and mathematics, and the mechanics, properties and analysis of soil. Graduate programs might also require each student to complete a research project or thesis.

License

To be eligible for a "professional engineer" (PE) license -- that final, official stamp of approval on any engineer's training -- a candidate must attain a degree from an accredited college engineering program, acquire at least four years of professional engineering experience and, in most cases, pass a state exam. Requirements vary from state to state, but the PE license serves as a guarantee that the engineer is qualified to provide reliable engineering services directly to the general public. Law requires many construction plans to be signed by a licensed professional engineer, who would then be held legally liable for the quality of his work. Unlicensed engineers often work under the oversight -- and seal -- of a licensed engineer.

Tags: University University, geotechnical engineering, bachelor degree, civil engineering, master degree, bachelor degree civil

Use A Dual Inclinometer

A dual inclinometer is a device that measures range of motion. One of the main factors contributing to loss of range of motion is a back injury. In 2009, the Bureau of Labor Statistics reported 195,150 cases involving injuries to the back. Some of the common causes are heavy lifting; twisting while lifting, reaching and lifting; and sitting too long. To get an accurate reading when measuring range of motion, medical practitioners use a dual inclinometer. Styles of the inclinometer vary, but the method of measurement remains the same.

Instructions

1. Have the person with the injury stand at zero degrees -- upright with arms straight at the sides while standing on a flat surface.

2. Press and hold the "Zero" button on the inclinometer until the display shows all zeros. The inclinometer comes in two pieces, the reader and the base. The reader has a display for reading the measurements.

3. Place the reader on top or at the base of the injured person's head with one hand and hold it in place. If the reader comes with a band, use the band to hold the reader in place.

4. Place the base centered close to the top of the spine using your free hand. Hold it in place unless the device comes with a band.

5. Press the "Start" button with the hand located on the top device and have the injured person lean forward toward his toes, without bending at the knee, as far as he can.

6. Record the reading on the display. If your inclinometer has a "Hold" button, press and hold the button down to capture the number instead of using pen and paper.

7. Zero the device out again and have the injured person return to the upright neutral position.

8. Repeat Steps 3 to 7 for backward motion, side motion and twisting motion.

Tags: injured person, range motion, comes with, comes with band, dual inclinometer, have injured

Interesting Places In Kentucky

The state of Kentucky has varied cultural facets--from bluegrass music to thoroughbred racing--and a rich history that includes Daniel Boone, Abraham Lincoln and Nobel prize winner Phillip A. Sharp. Kentucky also has a wealth of outdoor splendor--waterfalls, gorges, lakes and mountains. The Kentucky Department of Travel divides the state into regions for the convenience of visitors: the Appalachians; Daniel Boone Country; Southern Lakes & Rivers; Bluegrass; Northern Kentucky River Region; Caves, Lakes and Corvettes; the Derby Region; Bluegrass, Blues & Barbecue; Western Waterlands.

Bourbon

Kentucky bourbon is famous, a whiskey-making tradition made new by distilling corn, a New World native food. This new whiskey aged during shipping in oak barrels from Bourbon County, Kentucky, thus becoming known as bourbon. You can visit Kentucky's distilleries by traveling what is called Kentucky's Bourbon Trail, which includes the distilleries Buffalo Trace, Four Roses, Jim Beam, Maker's Mark, Woodford Reserve, Wild Turkey, 1792 Ridgemont Reserve, Tom Moore and Heaven Hill Distilleries.

Horses

The Kentucky Horse Park is a 1,200-acre horse farm in Lexington in the Bluegrass region of the state with 50 breeds of horses and many activities to help you celebrate and get close to the animals, including a horseback riding tour that even first-time riders can take. The International Museum of the Horse is housed at the Kentucky Horse Park, with more than 38,000 square feet dedicated to exploring the role of the horse in human history. In Louisville, you can visit the Kentucky Derby Museum at Churchill Downs, where the Kentucky Derby is run every year.

Water

Kentucky boasts more miles of natural running water than any state except Alaska. Consequently, you can white water raft, fish, canoe and swim all over the state. One of the most dramatic water destinations in Kentucky is Cumberland Falls, over six stories tall and 125 feet wide. The falls create moonbows, a rare phenomenon that occurs when the light of the moon creates what would be a rainbow if it happened during the day with the sun's help. The waterfall is in the Southern Lakes & Rivers region of Kentucky.

Caves

In south-central Kentucky's Caves, Lakes & Corvettes region lies Mammoth Cave National Park, the world's longest explored cave system with over 367 miles of mapped cave. Ancient visitors to Mammoth Caves came for minerals. Some left behind evidence of their visits, which is still there, preserved in the conditions of the cave. There are many cave tours available, including a four-mile, four-and-a-half-hour Grand Avenue Tour. There are different camping experiences available at the park, including backcountry camping and camping for horseback riders.

Trails

With such an abundance of outdoor locales to explore, Kentucky has hiking and walking trails throughout the state for a variety of fitness levels. Other trails--the Bourbon Trail, for instance--have been designated for driving. You can follow some of the trails to travel the state, including the Lincoln Heritage Trail, which includes Lincoln's boyhood home; the Central Kentucky Civil War Heritage Trail; the Kentucky Artisan Heritage Trail; and the Kentucky Music Trail, which goes through the eastern part of the state where nine country music stars were born. The Country Music Highway, part of the National Scenic Byways system, also runs through eastern Kentucky, home to many country music stars like the Judds, Loretta Lynn and Dwight Yoakam.

Forests and Parks

The Daniel Boone National Forest is over 707,000 wild acres of abundant wildlife, lakes and mountains. Among its attractions is the Red River Gorge, which has natural stone arches, odd rock formations and sandstone cliffs, with Red River being a National Wild and Scenic River. 37,000 acres are designated as a National Archaeological District. Kentucky has 52 state parks dotting the state: 17 resort parks, which have lodges for overnight stays, 11 historic sites and 24 recreation parks. Blue Licks sits on a Revolutionary War battle site. The Trail of Tears Commemorative Park is a historical park with documented sites from the Trail of Tears. There is an annual PowWow at the park on the first weekend after Labor Day. The Breaks Interstate Park is one of only two interstate parks in the United States--parks that straddle two states. Breaks is 4,500 acres containing a quarter-mile-deep, five-mile-long gorge. The park includes rapids, an amphitheater and a geological trail. Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area is an inland peninsula that sits between Kentucky Lake and Lake Barkley. LBL has a bison herd, is repopulating elk, eagles and falcons in the area, has a nature station and the Golden Pond Planetarium.

Museums

Kentucky is the birthplace of bluegrass music and houses the International Bluegrass Music Museum in Owensboro, Kentucky. Quilting is part of the state's cultural heritage, celebrated at Kentucky's Museum of the American Quilter's Society in Paducah, which is the largest quilt museum in the world. The National Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, Kentucky welcomes sports car fans from all over the world. The only Corvette plant in the world is in Bowling Green. At the Louisville Slugger Museum you can tour the factory where the official bats of Major League baseball are made.

Tags: Daniel Boone, Heritage Trail, Trail which, bluegrass music, Bourbon Trail

Be A Coal Miner

Coal mining isn't what it used to be. Once a job for underpaid, uneducated and unskilled manual laborers, the job now is only for the well trained. The technological advances in coal mining have been dramatic. Today, miners must be highly skilled in the use of such equipment and, in many cases, need to be degreed.

Instructions

1. Find out if this is truly the occupation for you. Research the average wage, benefits and working conditions. Regardless of technological advances, this is still a highly dangerous occupation in grueling working conditions. It is a large investment in money, time and training for this career only to find that you are not cut out for it.

2. Visit a mining town and talk to miners' families. Interview miners themselves. Find out why they do it. Learn what is so rewarding about such a thankless occupation that they continue to do it.

3. Contact the National Mining Association. Find out where the need will be in the near future when you are ready to enter the workforce as a miner. Learn about the latest trends, technology and economic outlook of the profession. This association is a good resource to to learn where to get your education and training.

4. Enroll in a 4-year university if you are interested in any entry-level mining and geological engineering position. A bachelor's degree is required. The degree focus might be coal or gold or other mineral mining specialties; mine design; mine safety or environmental safety specialties.

5. Consider other types of occupations within the coal mining industry. If you find that you do not have the stomach for the dangers of actually working down in the mines, there are other opportunities within the industry. A large percentage of people employed in the mining industry are actually in a consultancy role offering differing types of support for the mines.

6. Contact mining companies, express interest and submit your resume. Once you have completed your educational requirements, it is time to start pushing your resume. If you have completed the suggested research before entering school, you will have an impressive network already started in the industry and have quite a head start on the competition graduating with you.

Tags: coal mining, find that, have completed, mining industry, technological advances, working conditions

Colorado Mined Land Reclamation Act

Modern Colorado mines must file reclamation plans.

Colorado has a long history of mining gold, silver, lead and other precious metals. Early miners used often harsh techniques to mine and process the ore, using toxic chemicals, including arsenic and mercury. Environmental damage from mining remains in many parts of the state today. The Mined Land Reclamation Act seeks to regulate new and existing mines to ensure reclamation and restoration of mined lands.

Early Days

In 1965, Colorado instituted a voluntary reclamation program for mines, which relied on mines to act on their own to restore mined land. In 1969, the state enacted the Colorado Open Cut Land Reclamation Act. But this act never received funding and no provisions existed for enforcing it. Finally, the Open Mining Land Reclamation Act of 1973 required mines to submit reclamation plans, purchase bonds to guarantee those plans and set reclamation timelines. But this act applied only to coal, sand and gravel pits. Hard rock gold, silver and other mines were not regulated under this act.

Next Stages

By 1976, Colorado created the Mined Land Reclamation Division to oversee non-coal mining concerns. This established the Mined Land Reclamation Board. In 1979, following the U.S. government's passage of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act for coal mines, Colorado passed the Colorado Surface Coal Mining Control and Reclamation Act. In 1992, the Mined Land Reclamation Division merged with other state departments to form the Division of Minerals and Geology to oversee both coal and other types of mines.

Mined Land Reclamation Board

Seven people serve on the Mined Land Reclamation Board. The governor of Colorado appoints five of them. At least two of these people must have experience in the mining industry, two must have experience in conservation and the environment, and one must have experience in agriculture. The remaining two members of the board are the executive director of the state Department of Natural Resources and a representative from the State Soil Conservation Board. Each member serves a four-year term, and members' terms are staggered. The board presides over the regulatory business of the Coal and Minerals Program. It also approves the budget for and oversees other activities of the Colorado Division of Minerals and Geology.

Mining and Reclamation

Anyone who wants to prospect for minerals to mine in Colorado must first obtain a permit from the Division of Minerals and Geology. With the permit application, they must submit plans for reclamation and bonding. If the prospector finds minerals, he must obtain additional permits in order to mine. The DMG must sign off on the reclamation activities once mining has ceased.

Tags: Land Reclamation, Mined Land, Mined Land Reclamation, Division Minerals, Division Minerals Geology, have experience, Land Reclamation Board

Natural Disasters In The 1860s

The Arica Earthquake of 1864 resulted in over 25,000 deaths.

The 1860s was an important decade in the annals of history; the American Civil War changed the political landscape of America, eventually leading to the abolishment of slavery; the industrial revolution led to important improvements in agriculture, manufacturing and technology; and Europe started on the path that would eventually lead to World War I. The 1860s were also a time of upheaval in the natural world, as cyclones, earthquakes, erratic weather and floods wreaked havoc on populations throughout the world.

Calcutta Cyclone (1864)

"The water, however, carried us sideways into our old hut in its fall over the road embankment, and to three old hut poles and to two coconut trees that were near, we clung for dear life...for two long hours or more."

This is an account from Mr. J. P. Grant, a survivor of one of the deadliest cyclones ever recorded, which devastated the city of Calcutta, India in 1864. Over 40,000 straw huts were destroyed, and 90 percent of the ships in the Calcutta harbor were destroyed. In the ensuing weeks, the loss of life due to famine and diseases, such as cholera, would almost equal the initial death toll, resulting in as many as 60,000 total fatalities.

Great Sheffield Flood (1864)

Construction of the Dale Dyke Dam, near Sheffield, England, commenced in 1859 and continued for nearly four years. By March 1864, the finishing touches were being made and the reservoir was in the process of being filled. However, on March 11, 1864, a local man on his way home from work noticed a small crack on the embankment of the dam "only about wide enough to admit a penknife" according to Samuel Harrison, who published an account of the disaster later that year. Contractors and engineers working on the dam were called investigate, and while they were doing so, a large section of the dam collapsed, unleashing over 650 million gallons of water on the town of Sheffield and the surrounding villages. As many as 270 people perished in the flood, and over 500 buildings and 20 bridges were destroyed. The dam was eventually repaired and is still in use to this day.

Finnish Famine (1866-1868)

The famine that ravaged Finland in the late 1860s was the result of a number of years of poor harvests and colder than normal weather in the years preceding the famine. Heavy rains in Finland led to a smaller crop than usual in 1866, and food was scarce over the winter. Spring came late in Finland in 1867; the lakes and rivers in Finland were still frozen over in late May, and seeds were not sown in the fields until mid-June. That summer was unusually cold, and the frost that came in late August killed most of the crops; as a result, many went hungry. In some areas as much as 15 percent of the local population succumbed to hunger, which led to mass migration to other countries including the United States. In total, more than 150,000 succumbed during the famine, and the effects of the famine were felt for many years, as a recent investigation has found that the average life expectancy in Finland dropped considerably for those who were born during the famine.

Arica Earthquake and Tsunami (1868)

On August 13, 1868, the town of Arica, on the southern coast of Peru (now part of Chile), was struck by a massive earthquake with a magnitude of 9.0. Many people perished due to the initial earthquakes and subsequent aftershocks; however, the real damage was caused by the ensuing tsunamis. There were 25,000 reported casualties in Arica and surrounding areas on the Peruvian coast; three American warships anchored in Arica were swept hundreds of feet inland. The effects of the earthquake were felt as far away as New Zealand, Hawaii and Japan, where buildings suffered damage due to the high waves.

Tags: were destroyed, Arica Earthquake, came late, during famine, March 1864

How Much Money Does A Gemologist Make

Gemologists may accompany buyers to precious stone auctions.

For a career of sparkle and lustre -- or, at least, of judging them -- an individual may consider a livelihood as a gemologist. Gemologists appraise precious stones, using expert knowledge to determine the origin, cut and worth of diamonds, emeralds, rubies and other collectible gems. They use specialized mechanical and computerized machinery to grade stones and make reports certifying their authenticity.

Average Pay

For the purposes of its survey of national employment trends carried out in May 2010, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics categorized gemologists alongside other precious stone and metal workers such as diamond graders, polishers, appraisers and jewelers. It concluded that the mean annual salary across this professional grouping was $38,520, equivalent to an hourly pay rate of $18.52. Practitioners within the top 10 percent of earners received more than $61,380 a year, while those in the corresponding bottom bracket achieved salaries of less than $19,460. At the time of publication, the Indeed website put the average yearly wage within gemology at $33,000.

Pay by Industry

The largest number of gemologists and other precious stone workers are employed, according to the bureau's figures, within jewelry, luggage and leather goods stores. The bureau listed the mean yearly wage within this sector of the industry as $41,590. Within other miscellaneous manufacturing, the rate was $35,150, while individuals employed within specialized design services earned a mean of $32,440. Among the highest-paying sectors of the industry were professional, scientific and technical services -- for instance, a gemologist working as a consultant -- in which the mean salary was $60,650; and coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities, which was listed at $46,220.

Pay by Location

Location can also influence the contents of a gemologist's pay packet. The bureau listed Connecticut as the state in which a gemologist, as well as other precious stone workers, was likely to receive the highest wages, with a mean of $53,860. Minnesota and New Jersey were also listed as lucrative locales, with respective means of $48,490 and $45,660. Rhode Island and Florida had similar pay rates -- $37,340 and $36,760 -- while New Mexico was amongst the lowest-paying states, with a mean of just $28,660.

Outlook

The Bureau of Labor Statistics expects to see a rise of around 5 percent in employment opportunities for precious stone workers of all kinds, including gemologists, over the decade from 2008 to 2018. This compares with a growth rate of between 7 and 13 percent posted for the country as a whole across all occupations. As such, gemologists should see wage levels for their profession remain steady over the coming years, particularly as there should be a decent number of vacancies given the large number of practitioners expected to retire through 2018.

Tags: precious stone, other precious, other precious stone, precious stone workers, stone workers

What Is The Hardest Known Mineral

A penny is sometimes used as a hardness test standard.

The concept of hardness is difficult to define readily when discussing rocks and minerals. This is because minerals are complex chemical compounds and may exhibit different characteristics in response to different forces, such as scratching, bending or hammering. Geologists have decided to base hardness on resistance to scratching, which is a measure of the relative strength of atom-to-atom bonds within a mineral. By this definition, one mineral is considered harder than all others.

Concept of Hardness

In geology, the hardness of a substance is defined very specifically as how hard that material is to scratch. A mineral that is resistant to scratching is therefore considered "hard," even though it may be weak in other ways --- for example, it may shatter when hit or break easily when stressed. The advantage of using scratch resistance as a test is that it does give a good measure of how soft a material is and is also quick and easy to perform, especially in the field.

Mohs Scale

The test used for hardness is that developed by the German scientist Friedrich Mohs more than a hundred years ago and is hence known as the Mohs test. The basis of the test is simple: If one mineral can produce a visible scratch mark on another, then that first mineral is harder and has a higher place on the scale. The Mohs scale places minerals in their relative rankings in order of hardess, but it is not a linear scale.

Testing for Hardness

The Mohs test is quite basic. You simply attempt to scratch one mineral with another. If that mineral can be scratched, it has a rank on the Mohs scale below the mineral that you used to test it. If it is not scratched, it is higher on the Mohs scale than the test mineral. The scale also allows for the use of several common scratch test items that are convenient and readily accessible most of the time. The are: the fingernail (hardness value of 2.5), a penny (3.5), steel knife blade (4.5), glass (5.5) and quartz (7).

The Rank of Minerals

The minerals identified by Mohs as corresponding to hardness values of 1 through 10 on this scale are as follows.

1. Talc

2. Gypsum

3. Calcite

4. Fluorite

5. Apatite

6. Orthoclase

7. Quartz

8. Topaz

9. Corundum

10. Diamond

By this ranking, then, the hardest known mineral is diamond. It is worth noting that since this scaling is not linear, diamond is actually much harder in comparison to the other minerals than it appears from its ranking of 10. In fact, diamond is about 40 times harder than talc, the softest mineral on the scale.

Tags: harder than, mineral scale, mineral that, Mohs scale, Mohs test, scratch mineral

Definition Of Spheroidal Weathering

Spheroidal weathering is a chemical process that occurs in large blocks of rock. Onion-like layers form as the joints of the rock wear away. The result is jagged layers of rock, rounded edges and a concentric-like weathering.

Causes

In large blocks of rock, the joints erode first. This allows water to penetrate the rock from all angles. The fragments left will be weathered along the edges, inside and outside, forming the onion-like erosion.

Process

Spheroidal erosion takes longer to occur than other types of erosion. At lower temperatures the process takes longer which is why granite mountain tops are jagged and not rounded.

Alabama Hills

Spheroidal weathering can be found here in the large 90 million year old granite rocks. Because the joints were eroded vertically, many of these rocks stand in rounded shapes.

Yosemite Park

The half dome in Yosemite Park is a large monolith said to be created by spheroidal weathering.

Exfoliation

Exfoliation has similar features to spheroidal weathering, but occur son a much larger scale. Spheroidal weathering is caused by a chemical process while exfoliation is caused by a mechanical process.

Tags: blocks rock, chemical process, large blocks, large blocks rock, Spheroidal weathering, takes longer, Yosemite Park

Types Of Magnetic Compasses

Magnetic compasses range from simple and inexpensive to complex and costly.

A magnetic compass is a navigational tool used by hikers. This kind of compass works through a magnetized needle or card that orients itself with the Earth's magnetic field. Four basic types of magnetic compasses exist: fixed dial, floating dial, orienteering and cruiser. All four types determine direction but each has special features that are specific for particular uses.

Fixed-Dial Compass

A fixed-dial compass is the least expensive compass type.

A fixed-dial compass is one of the more common of the four types of compasses. Usually, it resembles a pocket watch with a cover that protects the glass. Under the glass is a magnetized needle and a card typically showing only the four major directions. This type of compass is little better than a magnetized needle in a cork type of magnet because it does little more than point north. Problems with this type of compass include a lack of a sighting device or direction-of-travel arrow, the needle action is slow and erratic, and the compass materials are of poor quality and typically cause the needle to be inaccurate.

Floating-Dial Compass

A lensatic compass is a mid-range magnetic compass.

A floating-dial compass has a needle and direction card attached to each other, floating freely in a liquid. This is a type you will see on the dashboard of a car. A line on the compass housing is oriented in the direction the car is going and is called the lubber line. The direction indicated on the floating needle/card with the lubber line indicates the direction your vehicle is traveling.

A second type of a floating-dial compass is a lensatic compass. It has a wire sight feature that allows the user to visually align his compass with a distant object to determine the degree reading relative to the user's position. While this is a useful compass if you have a steady hand, other compass types are better suited for hiking.

Orienteering Compass

An orienteering compass is the preferred compass used by hikers.

An orienteering compass has a needle that moves independently of the direction card and has a direction-of-travel arrow stamped in the base of the compass. The compass housing has a rotating ring that can be oriented with the direction-of-travel arrow to determine the degrees relative to magnetic north. Aside from the rotating degree ring, another feature that makes this a useful compass for hiking is that the needle is suspended in a damping liquid that keeps the needle relatively steady while walking and sighting with the compass at the same time.

To use this type of compass you point the direction-of-travel arrow at your objective, turn the degree ring until the north needle points to the 0 degree mark, and then walk in the direction indicated by the direction-of-travel arrow while maintaining the north pointing needle at the 0 degree mark.

Cruiser Compass

A cruiser compass is a high-end magnetic compass.

Cruiser compasses are professional types used by surveyors and geologists. It is the most accurate and the most expensive of the four types. Because the needle is a high quality, sensitive component, this compass type has a needle lock feature when the cover is closed to prevent the needle from wearing out when the compass is not being used. The cruiser compass typically possesses several features, such as an adjustment for magnetic declinations and bubble levels and scales for determining incline, elevation, and horizontal or vertical angles. The cruiser compass is considered to be too heavy and too complex for hiking use.

Tags: direction-of-travel arrow, cruiser compass, four types, magnetic compass, magnetized needle

Job Information On Offshore Oildrilling Jobs

Offshore oil rigs are massive structures that drill for oil lying underneath the ocean floor.

Offshore drilling platforms are some of the largest man-made structures on earth. To extract large deposits of petroleum lying deep within the ocean floor, drillers, engineers, geologists and project managers must work together to accurately locate and funnel crude oil to the ocean's surface. The rigorous demands of off-shore drilling jobs and the seven-day-a-week schedule often require workers to live on oil rigs for weeks at a time.

Function

Offshore oil rigs are involved in the extraction and processing of petroleum or crude oil. Specialized crews comprised of geologists and engineers use sophisticated computer technology and extensive research to pinpoint large deposits of oil and gas. Project managers are assigned to supervise the platform's activities, while drillers run pipe in and out of wellheads to ensure the flow of oil from the ocean floor to the water's surface. Offshore oil rig employees are also responsible for running, maintaining and repairing machinery aboard the ship or platform.

Skills

Among the skills needed for offshore oil drilling jobs are good manual dexterity and basic math, reading and writing abilities. Drilling crew workers must be alert and have quick reflexes, since they work with powerful machinery that drills holes hundreds or even thousands of feet underwater. Engineers and project managers should be highly analytical and able to communicate complex instructions to different roles within their companies. For example, some engineers are responsible for putting together plans that forecast potential issues, as well as ensuring the accuracy of drilling operations. Geologists must be able to interpret seismic data and core samples to identify sites that hold sizable petroleum deposits.

Work Environment

Because the majority of their duties are conducted outside, offshore oil rig workers are sometimes exposed to extreme and unfavorable weather conditions. Long hours are common, as some rigs operate seven days a week, 24 hours a day. In addition to working on-site and working up to 12-hour shifts, offshore oil drilling workers are subject to a myriad of dangers, including toxic gases, hot liquid, smoke and heavy equipment. Other potential hazards include fires and explosions on the platform.

Average Salary

According to a December 2010 PayScale report, the average salary for a drilling rig project engineer was $72,867 per year. Oil well drillers made an average salary of $126,700 annually. The report also states that test hole drillers earned an annual wage of $47,166. Petroleum engineers reported an average salary of $78,250 per year.

Potential

Based on the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) "Career Guide to Industries, 2010-11 Edition," mining jobs, including oil rig positions, will decline 14 percent through 2018. In addition to a volatile market for buying and selling raw materials, growing economies such as China will likely keep prices high during the 2008 to 2018 decade. Also, offshore development is expected to be limited due to environmental concerns over drilling and increased regulations governing the oil industry.

Tags: ocean floor, average salary, drilling jobs, large deposits, offshore drilling, Offshore rigs

Natural Red Stones Identification

Rubies, garnets, jaspers, bixbites and tourmaline are examples of precious and semi-precious red gemstones. Other natural red stones that can be valuable when properly identified, polished and cut include red agate and red labradorite. Treasure hunting for raw gems can be both back-breaking while exhilarating, especially when the searching leads to a valuable find.

Digging for natural gemstones can be rewarding.

Red Agates

Red agates also are used to make jewelry just as rubies and other fine gems. Red agates are usually translucent and sometimes opaque. Red banded agate is distinctive with alternating bands of a type of quartz called cryptocrystalline. They often are hollow. Therefore, true natural red agates are not as heavy as synthetic stones. Lace agates found in Mexico, as their name implies, feature delicate designs.

Red Labradorite

Red labradorite or Oregon sunstones are the official gemstone of the state of Oregon, the only place the rare red stones can be found. Red labradorite belongs to the feldspar group of rock-forming minerals, according to the Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries. While labradorites come in various colors, blood red is very rare and the most valuable. Red labradorite changes color from red to green depending on lighting conditions. Red labradorites are found in lava flows and are usually encased in basalt.

Red Jasper

Red jasper is reddish-brown rather than brilliant red in color. One way to determine if a stone is red jasper or a look-alike is to use a knife. A knife will leave scratch marks on a fake, but not on a authentic red jasper. Under a magnifying glass red jasper also will reveal black streaks of hematite or other color variations.

Red Garnets

There are three basic species of red garnets: pyrope, almandine and spessartite. The most common pyrope garnets are a mixture of pyrope and almandine and are dark red in color. Chrome pyrope garnets, which are found in the state of Arizona, are very dark red in color, resembling rubies. Some spessartite garnets are light orange while others are mixed with almandine, making them red or red-brown in color. In the rough, a garnet has a glassy luster.

Red Beryl

Beryl is the mineral classification in which emeralds belong, however, other colors of beryl are also used as gemstones, including red beryl, sometimes referred to as red emerald or bixbite. Gem-quality red beryl can only be found in the Wah Wah Mountains in Utah and is more valuable than gold, according to the Utah Geological Survey. In rough form, red beryl is found as hexagonal crystals ranging in color from red-orange to red-purple or raspberry-red.

Rubies

A ruby, also known as red corundum, is usually medium to dark red. Other colors of corundums are classified as sapphires; for example if a stone is light red, it is often considered a pink sapphire rather than a ruby. A ruby has a hardness of nine on the Mohs Scale of Mineral Hardness. An instrument called a dichroscope can be used to distinguish a red gemstone such as a ruby from glass but is not useful in determining if the stone is natural or synthetic, according to the book "Gem Identification Made Easy" by gem experts Antoinette Matlins and A.C. Bonanno.

Tags: also used, color from, dark color, pyrope almandine, pyrope garnets, rather than

Biodiversity Grants

Biodiversity grants help to sustain the environment.

Biodiversity grants are awarded to independent researchers and research institutes to support a variety of projects and initiatives that address and aim to promote a sustainable ecological environment. Issues such as sustainable land use, energy preservation or projects for developing biofuels are some examples of initiatives that receive biodiversity funding. Prospective applicants should follow specific eligibility criteria and guidelines provided by each funding organization.

MacArthur Foundation

Based in Chicago, the MacArthur Foundation is an independent and privately-owned organization. The foundation provides grants for projects that examine the threats of climate change towards biodiversity. The objective of the funding is to solicit proposals for initiatives that evaluate the potential damages of climate change and approaches for mitigating this threat to animals and wildlife. In particular, the grant seeks proposals that examine the impact of climate change on species that are located in the most diverse ecosystems around the world. The geographic regions specified for this grant will be tropical ecosystems that are home to the world’s most diverse plant and animal life such as Madagascar, Eastern Himalayas, the Caribbean and South Andes. Grant recipients for the MacArthur Foundation’s Climate Change Threat Fund include the University of California Berkeley, the World Conservation Union (WCU), and the Secretariat of the American Geophysical Union.

MacArthur Foundation

Office of Grants Management

140 S. Dearborn Street

Chicago, IL 60603-5285

312-726-8000

macfound.org

New York State Museum

Through its Biodiversity Grants Program, the Biodiversity Research Institute at New York State Museum provides funding to state agencies, non-governmental organizations, universities and private consultants. The institute is based in Albany and solicits proposals and contributions that address a variety of themes related to biodiversity in northeastern United States. Theme highlights include bird conservation, Hudson River Estuary Watershed Planning, and northeastern amphibian and reptile conservation. In addition, the institute also promotes educational initiatives that inform the general public on issues of biodiversity. The Northeast Natural History Conference is sponsored by the research institute; the conference theme focuses on a variety of topics that relate to natural history in northeastern United States with an emphasis on anthropology, biology and geology.

New York State Museum

Cultural Education Center

Albany, New York 12230

518-474-5812

nysm.nysed.gov

Small Grants Programme--SGP

Small Grants Programme partners with various communities around the world to provide technical support around vital issues to help sustain the environment. By supporting community-based and non-governmental organizations worldwide, the organization helps to endorse key issues such as climate change, adaptation, biodiversity, international waters, persistent organic pollutants and land degradation. SGP accepts proposals from around the world; grants are made directly to community based organizations or non-governmental organizations.

Small Grants Programme--SGP

304 East 45th Street, FF-956

New York, NY, 10017

212-906-6028

sgp.undp.org

Tags: initiatives that, York State Museum, around world, climate change, MacArthur Foundation