A private Christian college can provide the religious background you seek.
College is an important investment in your future. However, many public colleges have a reputation as places where heavy partying takes place. Classes may teach viewpoints that conflict with your religious values. Public colleges receive state funding and cannot endorse a single religion. However, because private colleges do not receive this funding, they are free to teach and espouse religion. Here are some private Christian colleges that may provide the Christ-centered education and environment you prefer.
Liberty University
Liberty University was founded in 1971 by the late Jerry Falwell and is located in Lynchburg, Va. Liberty claims to be the largest and fastest-growing Evangelical Christian college in the world.
Oral Roberts University
Oral Roberts University was founded by the preacher Oral Roberts and is located in Tulsa, Okla. Oral Roberts University is a charismatic, evangelical college, based on strong Biblical principles.
Texas Christian University
Texas Christian University is located in Fort Worth, Texas, and is affiliated with the Disciples of Christ church. The university is nominally Christian, but is more known for its competitive academics and highly-ranked athletic teams.
Wheaton College
Wheaton College was founded by the Wesleyan church in 1860 in Galesburg, Ill. The liberal arts college continues to uphold Christian values and a commitment to strong academics, and was ranked by Kiplinger's magazine as the 22nd best value in private colleges.
Eastern Mennonite University
Eastern Mennonite University was founded by the Mennonite church in 1917 and is located in Harrisonburg, Va. Eastern Mennonite University provides a liberal arts education and promotes environmental sustainability and commitment to peace.
George Fox University
George Fox University is a top-ranked Christian university located in Newberg, Ore. George Fox was ranked in the top 150 colleges in America in 2010 by Forbes magazine.
Tags: Oral Roberts, Eastern Mennonite, Eastern Mennonite University, Mennonite University, Oral Roberts University
Although overlooking the majestic Grand Canyon from the top is an option, there is no better way to fully grasp this wonder than to raft the Colorado River. Whether your trip lasts a day or more than two weeks, you can slosh through roaring rapids, float down tranquil streams, trek around cliffs and into caves on daily hikes and sleep under the stars, all while being fully surrounded by the rich history of the canyon walls.
Types
Whitewater season is April through September. Numerous types of rafting trips are available to suit every type of schedule.
Outdoors Unlimited offer a five- or six-day trip down the first portion of the river; an eight- or nine-day trip down the second half of the river; or a 13-day trip that covers the entire river. Both portions of the river include hikes into the canyon.
Rafting the Grand Canyon & Utah gives you the choice of a full-force rafting experience in an oar raft, similar to those provided by Outdoors Unlimited, or a calmer ride on a motorized craft. For a one-day exploration, you can rent a kayak. The lengths of the trips depend on the type of craft and the part of the canyon you choose.
O.A.R.S. offers nine different trips, each beginning and ending in a different location and ranging from four to 18 days. They also offer the option of rafting in a blow-up raft, or rafting in a hard-hulled dory that feels the rapids more and moves more slowly.
Itinerary
No matter which company you choose to ride with through the Grand Canyon, the itineraries are all somewhat similar. Beaches and shorelines along the Colorado River provide ideal spots for lunch or dinner. After a full day of rafting, the vessels park for the night on a beach.
Each passenger is allowed a small duffel bag of necessities and clothing, and a sleeping bag. The operator provides waterproof bags, a list of items to bring, and tents if needed. Otherwise, everyone sleeps under the stars. Filtered water, portable toilets, first-aid kits and fresh fruits, vegetables and lunch meats are provided each day.
Daily hikes are available but not mandatory. These hikes explore the hidden caves and rock formations that surround the Colorado River. Depending on the location and timeline that you choose, extra stops include waterfalls, turquoise ponds, Native American ruins and more.
Geography
The Grand Canyon was formed 5 to 6 million years ago, but some of the rock that makes up the canyon walls is as old as 2 billion years. During the trip, you will learn about---and begin to notice on your own---the different types of rock from different geological eras. Along the river and during daily beach stops you will spot naturally formed caves, plateaus, cliffs and fossils, along with lakes, waterfalls and Native American dwellings.
Preparation
For either the 7-mile Kaibab Trail or the 10-mile Bright Angel Trail, you'll want to be sure your health and fitness levels are up to par. In the weeks or months prior to your trip, practice walking up hills or on a treadmill. Raise your endurance with running or high-impact workouts. Stretch daily, and become accustomed to drinking lots of water. In hot temperatures, these hikes can become fatal if you don't stay hydrated. Practice walking with a backpack full of weights, since you will be carrying your belongings with you. Practice yoga or Pilates in order to work your core and strengthen your balance. Read the list of items to pack carefully, so you arrive fully prepared. Let your river guides know ahead of time of any food allergies or health conditions that may affect your experience.
Adaptation
If you don't camp frequently, you'll have a lot of new experiences on your trip. You'll often be relieving yourself and bathing in the numbing cold water of the Colorado River. You will sweat in the sun, and freeze in the water. At campsites, you'll use simple toilet buckets; privacy will consist of a mere sheet or tarp. You'll eat when meals are served, and you will eat what is served. You will sleep under the stars and could possibly see snakes or scorpions. You'll have the option to hike along dangerous cliff ledges and slippery rock formations. Though the lifestyle isn't luxurious, it allows you to let go of your standards and step outside your comfort zone while becoming one with a natural wonder.
Tags: Grand Canyon, Colorado River, under stars, your trip, canyon walls, list items, Native American
Oil geologists locate oil reserves for extraction.
Anyone who has kept even a casual eye toward business news knows that the petroleum industry's profits continue to grow as automobiles become more common around the world. To keep up with this increase in demand, oil companies require geologists to scout for and locate oil reserves and create strategies for the most efficient extraction of the resource as possible.
Average Salary
The average annual salary for geologists who work in the oil and natural gas extraction industries is $127,560 as of May 2008, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics' Occupational Outlook Handbook. A mid-level petroleum geologist with four to six years of experience in the field earns an average annual salary of $103,502 as of January 2011, according to Salary.com, although half of all similarly experienced geologists earn annual salaries between $90,325 and $121,102.
Experience and Salary
Geologists who remain in the petroleum industry for their entire careers may expect their earnings to increase dramatically as they accrue experience. The average salary for a petroleum engineer with less than four years of experience in the industry ranges from $58,440 to $99,441 as of January 2011, according to PayScale. Oil geologists with five to nine years in the industry earn, on the average, between $71,960 and $117,988 each year, while veterans with at least a decade of experience prospecting for petroleum earn between $77,902 and $197,122 annually.
Salaries Around the Nation
Like many positions in extraction industries, salaries for petroleum engineers are highest in industry hotspots. Petroleum geologists who work in Houston receive the highest average annual salary, $161,252 as of January 2011, according to Salary Expert. Those in Dallas also receive salaries that dwarf earnings in most other cities, with average salaries of $128,365. Petroleum geologists who work in Atlanta earn the smallest average salaries, $68,174 each year. Geologists in half the cities surveyed by Salary Expert earned average salaries between $70,948 and $80,976.
Comparison to All Geologist Salaries
Because of the income involved with the oil industry, geologists who work in the petroleum industry earn much higher salaries than their counterparts in other industries. The average salary for all geologists in all industries is $79,160 as of May 2008, according to the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Petroleum engineers earn average salaries that are 161 percent of the average for all geologists.
Tags: average salaries, geologists work, 2011 according, annual salary, average annual
The Jurassic coastline in Dorset, England, is famous for its fossils.
The Jurassic period is a geological time period dating from around 210 million years ago to about 146 million years ago. This was the time when the Earth's original supercontinent, Pangaea, broke up into Laurasia and Gondwana, and the Gulf of Mexico began to open. It was the middle period of the Mesozoic Era, which began with the onset of the Triassic period some 250 million years ago and ended with the close of the Cretaceous about 65 million years ago.
Dinosaurs
Tyrannosaurus rex was a fierce Jurassic predator.
Dinosaurs were the dominant form of life on land during the Jurassic period. The precursors of birds, they had an erect posture, were both herbivorous and carnivorous and occurred in thousands of varieties. Dinosaurs ranged in size between 1 foot and 200 feet, and in weight from between 2lbs. to over 120 tons. Some were two-legged, others four-legged. They reproduced by laying eggs. The Tyrannosaurus rex was a 42-foot long, two-legged carnivore. Dinosaur fossils are found all over the world.
Ichthyosaurs
Dolphins are descended from ichthyosaurs.
These were giant marine reptiles that looked like fish but were more related to dolphins. They grew to about 13 feet in length, though some could grow to about 40 feet. They used fins for stabilization and fed on smaller reptiles, shellfish and squid. Like dolphins, ichthyosaurs gave birth to live young. They began to decrease in the Middle Jurassic period and became extinct before the dinosaurs died out.
Cephalopods
Ammonites are popular cephalopod fossils.
These were the precursors of today's mollusks and squids, and had symmetrical shells. The animal inside the shell fed by capturing prey using its tentacles. They had advanced vision and were the predators at the top of their food chain during the Jurassic period. Ammonites and nautiloids are the best known cephalopods of the Jurassic period.
Cycads
Ferns developed from cycads.
These were seed plants with a crown of leaves. The leaves grew out from a cylindrical trunk. Cycads had male and female genders and could live for 1,000 years. Cycads are still extant and grow in tropical and subtropical environments.
Tags: Jurassic period, million years, These were, about feet, about million, about million years
Earthquake models vary from complex to easy to make. If you're working with kids, you can make a fun and easy earthquake model out of gelatin. Best of all, the kids will have fun eating it afterward.
Instructions
1. Pour the water into the pot, and heat it on the stove until it comes to a rolling boil.
2. Pour the boiling water into the baking pan, and stir in the gelatin powder.
3. Put the pan into the refrigerator for several hours, until gelatin is firm.
4. Cut a piece of plastic wrap in half and lay the two halves, touching each other, on a counter.
5. Remove the pan from the refrigerator. Warm the bottom of the pan by holding it aloft over low heat until the gelatin can be removed.
6. Slide the gelatin out of the pan and onto the plastic wrap, putting about half of the gelatin on each side of the wrap.
7. Make a cut in the gelatin that runs along the same area as the cut in the plastic wrap.
8. Slide the two chunks of jello past each other. The chunks of jello act like Earth's plates. When they slide past each other, you will see an earthquake form along the "fault."
Tags: each other, plastic wrap, chunks jello, past each, past each other, until gelatin, water into
Ecosystems can normally cope with most types of disturbance. However, human disturbance often occurs too quickly for the environment to respond, negatively affecting the soils and the plants and animals that depend upon them. Soils are living environments, providing habitat for a host of microorganisms necessary for plant growth. Impacts on soils, therefore, can affect the entire ecosystem.
History
The human invention that probably has had the greatest impact on soils is the John Deere self-scouring steel plow, introduced in 1837. The once impenetrable prairies were plowed and tilled, becoming vast farm lands. Today, only 5 percent of the original native prairie remains in the United States. Similar losses occurred in other habitat types such as wetlands, negatively impacting their water-loving soils and disturbing layers of buried sediment. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, more than 50 percent of the aquatic habitats of the lower 48 states have been drained.
Dust Bowls
The greatest human impact to soils in the 20th century was the 1930s Dust Bowl Drought, which lasted 8 years overall. The drought, along with improper farming practices, created a deadly scenario, resulting in the loss of tons of precious topsoil. Soils whirled around in the air, creating the so-called "black blizzards." Texas, Kansas, Oklahoma and Colorado saw losses of over 30 million hectares of farmlands alone.
Soil Erosion and Urban Development
Agriculture is the primary source of negative human impact on soils. However, the urban landscape is not exempt. Urban environments include vast regions of impervious surfaces which water cannot penetrate. During a severe weather event, water washes over these impenetrable surfaces, eroding stream banks and displacing soils. Depending upon the adjacent land use, these soils may contain toxins which can negatively impact surface water and groundwater resources. Soil erosion feeds upon itself. As stream banks erode, water flow increases during floods, causing more soil erosion in the process.
Pollution
Even human activity not directly associated with soils can affect these natural resources. Air pollution releases contaminants such as sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. This compound combines with moisture present in the air to create acidic precipitation. Soils receiving this acid rain become acidic. Microorganisms die off, impacting the health of the soils. Left unchecked, soils become ecological dead zones, unable to support neither plant nor animal life.
Prevention/Solution
Many human impacts on soils can be prevented. For example, planting grass or other clumping vegetation along stream banks can prevent soil erosion. More stringent pollution control regulations can mitigate the environmental effects by preventing the introduction of toxins into the environment and soils. Finally, individuals can lessen their impact on soils by the proper use of pesticides and fertilizers.
Fossils are dated using knowledge of evolution and the ages of rocks around them
There is no easy way to date a rock or fossil. Scientists use different methods that allow them to make an educated guess as to the age of the rocks and fossils they find. The most common methods are radiometric dating and stratigraphic dating. Radiometric dating uses the known rate of decay of radioactive materials found in rocks and minerals to discover when they were created. Stratigraphic dating uses the Earth's layers, laid down over time, and the known succession of plant and animal life to determine the age of rocks and fossils.
Instructions
Date Rocks And Fossils
1. Determine what kind of rock or mineral you have. Different rocks and minerals contain different radioactive elements. Rates of decay and methods of testing will vary depending on the rock's radioactive elements, so it is important to be certain of the type of rock or mineral you want to date.
2. Find out if the rock or mineral you've found has already been dated. Since many rocks and minerals have already been dated and a geologic picture of the Earth has already been created, it is possible the one you have already has a place in the geologic chronology. Study books about the area where you found your rock or mineral or visit your local university's geology department for help with identification and dating.
3. Determine what kind of fossil you have. Fossils are the imprints left behind by dead plants and animals. Scientists know that plants and animals evolve and change over time and that when one form of a plant or animal dies another one typically (but not always) takes its place. Using this knowledge, combined with the knowledge already gained through radiometric dating of the rocks and minerals in which fossils are found, you can get a good idea of when a fossilized animal lived.
Tags: rock mineral, rocks minerals, already been, already been dated, been dated, dating uses
Petroleum engineers earn some of the highest salaries of all occupations.
The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) is the primary petroleum-engineering school accreditation authority. Among ABET-accredited schools, Texas A&M University has the largest petroleum engineering department in the United States. As of February 1, 2011, the university has 390 students seeking either a master's degree or doctorate degree in petroleum engineering. Since Alaska produces about 20 percent of total U.S. oil production, the University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) also has one of the largest programs.
ABET Accreditation
There are 17 ABET-accredited petroleum engineering colleges in the United States. Two of the largest petroleum engineering schools are at the University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) and Texas A&M University.
Degree and Course Offerings
Students can select one of three petroleum engineering degree options; bachelor, master's, or an interdisciplinary doctorate degree. UAF offers a Bachelor of Science degree. Spring 2011 term petroleum engineering-related classes offered at University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) include one-credit classes in Fundamentals of Drilling Practices and Introduction to Production, and three-credit classes in Reservoir Characterization, Applied Reservoir Characterization, and Water Flooding. Petroleum engineering students will take two field trips including a trip to the Kenai oil field with the American Association of Drilling Engineers and a trip to Prudhoe Bay with the Society of Petroleum Engineers. Course offerings require a minimum of five students to remain open. Other courses are offered at UAF's petroleum engineering program throughout the student's course of study. Among these classes are topics in drilling, formation evaluation, computer simulation, and enhanced oil recovery. Texas A&M University offers master's and doctorate degrees in petroleum engineering. Master of Science degrees require completion of a minimum of 32 semester hours of coursework and preparation of a satisfactory thesis. Doctorate degrees require completion of 96 semester hours of coursework and presentation of a satisfactory dissertation.
Admission Requirements
Entrance requirements for consideration for admission to the graduate petroleum engineering degree program at Texas A&M University include having a combined verbal and quantitative Graduate Record Examination (GRE) score of 1050 or more. Applicants must also have achieved a score of at least 550 on the paper test or at least 213 on the computer-based Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL).
Fees and Tuition
Tuition at the University of Alaska Fairbanks Petroleum Engineering degree program varies depending on the course level of classes that the student is enrolled in. For residents, tuition is currently $147 per credit for 100- and 200-level courses, $170 per credit for 300- and 400-level courses and $338 per credit for classes in level 600 or above. Out-of-state students are charged the same tuition as residents if they are enrolled in four units or less. Out-of-state students enrolled in more than four units are charged an additional surcharge of $353 per credit hour above to the resident tuition rate. Students enrolled in the undergraduate program are considered full-time if they are enrolled in 12 or more units. Graduate students are considered full-time if they are enrolled in nine units or more.
Tags: petroleum engineering, Alaska Fairbanks, Texas University, University Alaska, University Alaska Fairbanks, they enrolled
Course in petroleum engineering can help further your career in the oil industry.
Petroleum engineering can cover different topics, including geology, chemistry and fluid properties. Training courses in petroleum engineering are most relevant for those in the oil industry, especially those involved with the discovery of it. However salespeople, government workers and even those involved with trading commodities may be interested in petroleum engineering courses.
PetroSkills
PetroSkills offers a program on basic petroleum engineering practices. This program is designed for engineers, engineering trainees, technical managers and assistants, geophysicists, chemists, physicists and sales representatives. The course content includes reservoir fluid properties, petroleum geology, reservoir properties and evaluation, unconventional gas, exploration technology, drilling engineering, well completion, well testing and formation damage, production operations, recovery methods and surface processing. Sessions for this program are usually scheduled on Mondays. The tuition fee for the course ranges from $3,335 to $4,490, as of 2011.
Texas A&M's Petroleum Engineering Department
Texas A&M's Petroleum Engineering Department offers both undergraduate engineering degrees and doctorates. This program aims to prepare students to work in the petroleum industry and other fields that require expertise in oil, such as in the financial markets or the public sector. Some of the subjects included in the program's curriculum include physical geology, petroleum drilling systems, reservoir petrophysics, geology of petroleum, reservoir fluids and geostatistics. The tuition fee per course for state resident students is $2,523; for out-of-state students the tuition fee is $3,834 per course, as of 2011.
PEICE
PEICE is an educational institution that provides petroleum industry short courses and seminars. Some of the short courses offered include petroleum engineering for nonengineers, project finance for oil and gas, dehydration of natural gas, well test analysis workshops, fundamentals of reservoir engineering, fundamentals of underbalanced drilling, acid gas compression and injection, geology for nongeologists and new oil production technologies. These programs can last for one to five days. The costs for a class range between $695 and $2,995, as of 2011. Online seminars about petroleum engineering are also offered.
Texas Tech University
Located in Lubbock, Texas, Texas Tech University offers a bachelor's degree in petroleum engineering. Some of the subjects under this curriculum include engineering analysis, petroleum development methods, formation evaluation, reservoir engineering, advance reservoir engineering, well completion and stimulation, advance property evaluation, drilling engineering methods and advance core analysis. Texas Tech University also offers a doctorate degree and a master's degree in petroleum engineering. Tuition fee for Texas residents and out-of-state students are $463 per credit hour and $773 per credit hour, respectively, as of 2011.
Wind erosion can change the contours of Earth's meteor craters.
Like other bodies in the solar system, the Earth bears traces of numerous meteor impacts. Terrestrial meteor craters are mapped on land and under the ocean in areas around the globe. Active geological and meteorological processes, such as tectonic activity, rainfall and wind erosion change the contours of these craters over time or obscure them entirely.
Impact Craters in the Solar System
When a meteor strikes a planet or moon, it creates a crater -- a smooth bowl shape that may or may not contain fragments of the meteor. Impact craters retain their shape on bodies such as Mars, Venus and the Earth's Moon because these bodies lack major geologic or meteorologic processes which can deform their shapes. Craters which retain their smooth walls are called simple craters; if crater walls collapse inward, the crater is called complex.
Terrestrial Impact Craters
Over the course of its planetary life, the Earth has received more meteor impacts than its moon, yet its surface shows relatively few crater formations. This is due to Earth's powerful, active geological processes, which keep its surface and atmosphere in motion and conceals the traces of meteor strikes. Earthquakes, climate changes, and erosion by wind and rain can change the shape of craters or conceal them entirely under bodies of water or vegetation.
Wind Erosion on Craters
On Earth, wind is the major agent of erosion, particularly in desert areas with little surface water and vegetation to hold soil in place. Wind carries sand grains, which are heavy and abrasive enough to cut, polish and pit stone. In addition, strong winds shift sand and soil, resulting in constantly changing shapes, which obscure features on the earth underneath. In this way, crater shapes can be eroded, cut, or partially covered by the effects of wind.
Craters Affected by Wind Erosion
Although craters in wetter areas have been obscured by water or overgrown with vegetation, craters in dry areas such as the Wolfe Creek Crater in Australia and the ancient site at Aurounga in Chad, Africa, show clear effects of wind erosion. The Wolfe Creek Crater has been partially buried under repeated onslaughts of windblown sand and is only partially recognizable as an impact crater. The Aurounga Crater, primarily visible from the air, shows dark valleys across its center, cut by blowing sand for billions of years.
Teach kids about the layers of Earth using only an egg.
Earth's layered structure is a complex point of geological study. Each layer differs greatly in density, mineral composition, and even in how it relates to certain complicated geological processes of our planet. To teach kindergarteners about Earth's layers, however, you don't need to discuss density, minerals or any of the more intricate details. All you really need to help kindergarteners get a basic concept of Earth's layers is an egg.
The Egg Model of Earth
If you do away with the more involved details concerning Earth's inner-workings, you are left with three main points that are simple to teach and equally simple for kids to learn. To illustrate these points, it helps to have them view Earth and its three primary layers---the crust, mantle and core---like an egg. In teaching settings, it may be best to use hard-boiled eggs, as they can be passed around, peeled and used most interactively.
The Crust/Shell
The crust of Earth is like the shell of an egg. They are both the thin, outside layers that ultimately make up only a small portion of their respective spheres. Earth's crust accounts for only 5 percent of the volume of Earth and even includes the ocean floors. Likewise, the shell is the smallest of the egg's "layers" and therefore well-represents Earth's crust. Be sure to let the children know that this is the layer of the planet on which we all live.
The Mantle/Egg-White
Underneath Earth's thin crust lies mantle. Peel away the hard-boiled egg's shell--or have the children do so-- and underneath they will see the egg-white, or albumen. The mantle itself makes up about 80 percent of the volume of Earth, making it the largest of Earth's layers. Likewise, the albumen layer makes up the greatest portion of the egg. It might be a point of interest to let the kids know that earthquakes come from this layer of the Earth.
The Core/Yolk
At the center of Earth, beyond the crust and the mantle, lies the core, which makes up the remaining 15 percent of Earth's volume. By stripping away the egg-whites, and exposing the round, yellow yolk, you can show the children a great representation of Earth's core. An additional fact that might give children an idea about the conditions of Earth's core is the fact that it is about 5,000 to 6,000 degrees C, half as hot as the surface of the sun.
A goldsmith is a specialized jeweler who alters, designs, creates and repairs things like bracelets, rings and necklaces. Goldsmiths set, carve, polish, engrave and cast gold, as well as other metals and precious stones. To become a goldsmith, you'll need a lot of training. Generally, a combination of on-the-job training and formal instruction is necessary to become a goldsmith.
Considerations
Consider getting a diploma in either gemology or goldsmithing. You can find full-time classes, seminars, workshops and even correspondence courses available for both subjects. Also consider taking classes in merchandising, jewelry arts, geology, computer science, physics, chemistry and marketing (especially good if you want to start your own goldsmithing business).
Potential
You can receive trade certification either by accumulating several years of work experience or by completing an apprenticeship program. Trade certification is not always mandatory, but many employers require it, and it can help in securing a good position as a goldsmith.
Identification
Goldsmith training apprenticeship programs consist of on-the-job training and formal classroom instruction. Some people also take pre-apprenticeship courses at community colleges to connect with good businesses. These courses usually last about six months.
Time Frame
The length of apprenticeship programs varies depending on your employer and situation, but they generally last around four to five years. Apprenticeships are usually paid, but you'll only get about half of what a starting journeyman in goldsmithing would receive.
Theories/Speculation
Try to secure an apprenticeship with a reputable and well-known company, as this can affect the rest of your career. Though a high school diploma is not required, most employers prefer to hire graduates.
Tags: apprenticeship programs, become goldsmith, on-the-job training, on-the-job training formal, training formal
Many people examine minerals for recreation, but it's also an invaluable industrial skill.
Hematite, graphite and feldspar have each played a role in human history and industry for literally many thousands of years. Because of their numerous applications in history and daily life, it is very helpful to learn identify these minerals by making elementary observations of their physical traits.
Understanding Mineral Properties
Whether in an academic discussion, an industrial forum or among collectors, minerals are described by a set of physical properties that readily identify them. In general, these properties can be easily ascertained in order to avoid the necessity of a complex chemical analysis. Although there are assessments that may be performed in a laboratory setting, most minerals can be identified by judging a sample's overall sheen (luster), its hardness, how much the mineral tends to cleft into smooth planes (cleavage) and the color of the mineral after it has been pulverized (streak).
Hematite Characteristics
The red color of Mars is the result of hematite on its surface.
Hematite is the primary ore from which iron is derived; hence, it is the origin of most steel products. Its chemical formula is Fe2O3, transcribed as iron (III) oxide. Although hematite samples exhibit a significant variety of colors and textures, all hematite streaks form a rust-red powder. In fact, hematite is chemically identical to rust, and the name "hematite" comes from the Greek word for "blood" on account of its color. Hematite has a metallic luster, and in large pure samples this gives it a silver-like appearance. Hematite's relative hardness is 6.5 (similar to pyrite), and it does not exhibit any cleavage.
Graphite Characteristics
Not to be confused with the metal element, pencil lead is made of graphite.
Graphite is the most common form of pure carbon (the other is diamond) and is most commonly associated with its use as pencil lead. This usage gives graphite its name from the Greek word meaning "to write." Graphite has a sub-metallic luster with a dark appearance that produces a black streak. Because of its chemical purity and elegant molecular symmetry, graphite exhibits perfect cleavage. Unlike diamond, its chemical allotrope, graphite, is a very soft mineral with a relative hardness that typically registers 1.5 to 2, which is only slightly harder than a fingernail.
Feldspar Characteristics
Feldspar is not a single mineral but rather a family of minerals with similar molecular formulas. Feldspar is produced by joining one or more metal atoms to an ion of aluminum silicate. The chemical formulas of plagiocase feldspars have sodium and/or calcium whereas alkali feldspars have potassium. Feldspars, in general, have a dull white color that streaks pure white. Their luster is vitreous, meaning that the surface appears glass-like. Feldspars have a relative hardness between 6 and 6.5, and they exhibit perfect cleavage.
Tags: relative hardness, from Greek, from Greek word, Greek word, pencil lead, perfect cleavage
Topography accurately represents the contours of a surface.
Topographic surface maps, also called topo or contour maps, provide a point of reference, accurately depicting features of a surface through contour lines, colors and symbols. Typically, topographic surface maps refer to the accurate representations of hills, valleys, rivers, lakes, streams, trails and wooded areas as well as man-made features, including dams and roads; however, topography also refers to planetary features, such as the moon's craters or the human body. Today's topographic maps utilize advanced sensing equipment to interpret aerial photographs of a region, creating extremely accurate topographic surface maps.
Contour Lines
The imaginary line on a topographic map, called a contour line, represents features the earth's surface. Every part along the contour line is at the same elevation (altitude) above some datum (reference plane); therefore, contour lines never cross. For most topographic maps, the datum is sea level.
Contour lines represent the elevation of the terrain. Lines close together represent steep terrain, while widely spaced or absent contour lines means flatter ground. The elevation difference between contours, called the contour level, shows the general shape of the terrain. A relatively flat expanse may have a contour interval up to 10 feet. Mountainous areas may require contour intervals of 100 feet or more. This information is especially useful when traversing unfamiliar territory.
Colors
Topographic maps not only reveal the contours of the earth's surface, but significant streams, forests, buildings and other points of interest. USGA topographic maps use colors to identify the different features. Brown represents surface contours (elevation). Black symbols represent man-made features, such as roads, buildings and boundaries. The color blue indicates bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers and streams. The color green indicates a region with substantial vegetation, where white represents sparsely vegetated areas. Red indicates the principal highways and boundaries between the public land areas. White with blue indicates permanent snowfields and glaciers. Purple represents the features added to the map since the original survey.
Symbols
A topographical surface map includes symbols representing features, such as streets, buildings, vegetation and rivers. The symbols are continually being refined to improve readability of the map or reduce the cost of production.
Topographic Profile
A topographic profile is a cross section view of an area. If you slice the Earth in half, and view the surface area from the side (profile), you have created a topographical profile. This form of surface map not only helps you understand topographic maps, geologists find it useful in analyzing various geological problems, such as volcanoes.
3-D Surface Topography
Unlike traditional 2-D topography surface maps, 3-D maps realistically represent the natural characteristics of a surface, such as whether deep valleys derive from pits or troughs. 3-D surface topography also provides additional parameters, such as oil volume, debris volume and contact areas---allowing engineers to analyze the functional properties of surfaces.
Tags: surface maps, topographic maps, features such, blue indicates, called contour, contour line
The General Education Development Test (GED) is designed to assess students who did not obtain a high school diploma. Oftentimes, individuals take the GED in order to pursue a higher education or get hired on a job. There exam is broken up into five different subjects.
Language Arts
The language arts portion of the GED lasts for two hours. In part one of the writing section, you are tested on sentence structure, usage, mechanics and organization of an idea. Students answer questions about written passages and are asked to correct incorrect sentences. Other questions address punctuation and where sentences should be placed in a paragraph. The second portion instructs students to write a five paragraph essay on a pre-determined topic set by the test creators.
Social Studies
The social studies part of the exam focuses on five different areas. Students must know American history and world history, along with civics and government, economics and general geography. It lasts for 70 minutes and has 50 questions. Students must read short passages and answer questions or read graphs, political cartoons or charts.
Science
The science portion of the exam lasts for 80 minutes and covers 50 questions. The majority of questions cover life science, while another portion covers earth and space science; physical science is the last part. Questions focus on topics including cell division, magnetism, geology, climate and photosynthesis. Students are given text and graphics along with the questions to interpret.
Reading
The language arts reading section takes 65 minutes and is composed of 40 questions. Passages are included in the exam and students answer questions after analyzing the subjects, characters and overall theme of the passage. Passages come from poems, novels and famous plays.
Mathematics
The mathematics test is 50 questions and takes 90 minutes to complete. The first half of the exam allows students to use a calculator. The areas covered include numbers and operations, measurement and data analysis, algebra and geometry. Grids and coordinate planes are also used. Common questions cover exponents, angles, Pythagorean theorem, decimals, fractions and volume.
Tags: answer questions, along with, five different, language arts, lasts minutes, questions cover
The Grand Canyon is a large-scale gorge eroded from layers of limestone.
Gorges and canyons are an erosional feature of water cutting into soft underlying rock. Limestone gorges often form on plateaus or areas uplifted by the action of plate tectonics. The erosive effects of water on stone has spectacular results, such as the world famous Grand Canyon. There are many large gorges and canyons on the Colorado Plateau, including Dead Horse Canyon and numerous narrow slot canyons. Limestone gorges and canyons appear around the world wherever there are thick limestone formations with rivers running over them.
Limestone
Layers of sedimentary limestone, often interspersed with sandstone and shale, make up the base material of limestone gorges. The rock was formed from sediment falling on the floors of the ancient shallow seas that covered much of the Earth 200 to 300 million years ago. The sediment was deposited over long periods of geological time. Pressure and chemical reactions eventually compressed it into solid rock. Limestone is primarily composed of calcite from the shells of marine animals, including diatoms, mollusks and corals.
Acidic Erosion
Limestone is made up of the alkaline mineral calcite, called calcium carbonate. Calcite, with its basic pH, reacts chemically with the slightly acidic water flowing over it. Acidic water percolating into the stone's crevasses and cracks makes it crumbly and susceptible to erosion. The softened stone then erodes more easily, facilitating the formation of gorges and canyons over periods of geological time. The actions of the wind and water erode the stone into small abrasive particles that further accelerate the weathering process.
River Erosion
Gorges are often found on uplifted plateaus of limestone where the water flows downhill. The running water cuts into the stone aided by the river's load of sediment, sand and small rocks. A gorge will start to form as a waterfall retreats upstream, eating away at the limestone base as it goes. The falls move backwards, in the opposite direction of the water's flow. Steep gorge wall formation is aided by the freezing and thawing of water to loosen large sections of limestone that tumble to the bottom.
Karst Gorges
Gorges alternatively are formed by the collapse of cave ceilings in areas of limestone karst topography. Karsts are areas with large above-ground limestone outcroppings and underground caves. The caverns are carved by the action of rainwater draining through cracks and joints in the permeable limestone layers. The weak acid of the water makes the limestone soluble and more likely to collapse. Once the cave implodes, the actions of running water enlarge and define the gorge.
Tags: geological time, gorges canyons, Grand Canyon, into stone, Limestone gorges, periods geological, periods geological time
Forestry career choices help determine your best graduate degree program.
Your career choice will help determine what forestry graduate degree best suits your needs. While most jobs in the field just require an undergraduate forestry degree and two-thirds of foresters work for the federal government, a graduate degree can make a candidate attractive for a management position. Some programs incorporate years of job-related experience into the degree requirements. A forestry graduate degree may also be required for research and teaching positions.
Master of Forestry
The master of forestry (MF) is a professional degree that prepares students for state licensing and certification by the Society of American Foresters. Some programs, such as the one at the Stephen F. Austin State University in Texas, tailor this non-thesis program for working professionals with at least five years of experience who want to pursue a management position. Others, like the program at North Carolina State University (NC State), provide an opportunity for those who majored in something else as an undergraduate to position themselves for a forestry career. NC State's MF program can be completed more quickly by students who have completed a semester of chemistry and ecology as well as a semester of either anatomy, physiology or plant biology. Also needed are two semesters of math or statistics.
Master of Forestry Science
The master of forestry science (MFS) degree requires a thesis and a minor at NC State, where students can prepare for a career in scientific inquiry as well as in applied management. The MFS can be the first step toward a Ph.D., or it can position graduates for jobs with public or private environmental agencies. At the department of forest and wildlife ecology at the University of Wisconsin --- Madison, for example, the MFS degree introduces students to doctoral-level research and requires a final oral examination to defend the original research of the thesis. At NC State, the MFS degree can also work as a terminal degree for students wanting to join the workforce. NC State's interdisciplinary program with the department of biology and the college of veterinary medicine trains students in a variety of specializations.
Joint Master of International Relations and Forestry Science
Students wanting to take an international approach to forestry science can pursue a joint master of international relations and forestry science. The program, offered at Yale University, allows graduate students to match a master of arts degree in international relations with a MF or MFS degree, as well as with either a master of environmental management or science degree. Students must also demonstrate proficiency in a modern language that complements their research interests. The Yale program keeps enrollment low so students will receive the kind of mentoring they need to tailor individual interdisciplinary programs. Candidates must apply to Yale's schools of international relations and forestry and environmental studies.
Ph.D. in Forestry
A Ph.D. in forestry, with its required coursework, qualifying examination, dissertation and final oral examination, prepares students for teaching and critical analysis of academic research in biological fields such as functional genomics. At Michigan Tech, for example, students can pursue forest molecular genetics and biotechnology research in their massive laboratory and greenhouse space. Michigan Tech also boasts an 100 percent job placement rate. Like Michigan Tech, NC State offers Ph.D. programs specializing in biotechnology as well as those in urban forestry or forest management and economics.
Tags: graduate degree, international relations, Michigan Tech, degree also, final oral, final oral examination, forestry graduate
Electrons are deflected by magnetic fields. This is because magnetic fields act upon any particles that carry an electric charge. The extent to which any charged particle is deflected by magnet depends on the strength of the field and the size of the particle's charge. An electron carries a minute electrical charge and therefore has movement in a magnetic field.
Magnetic Field Strength Definition
Magnetic fields have analogous characteristics to electrical and gravitational fields. The strength of an electrical field is defined force experienced by a particle per unit charge, and gravitational field strength is the force per unit of mass. The concept of magnetic field strength is slightly more complicated and defined as the force acting on a conductor per unit of conductor length per unit current. This means that magnetic fields are generated by the movement of charged electrical particles. The movement of electrical charge is more usually called an electrical current.
Magnetic field strength is also called flux density or magnetic induction. The international unit of flux density is called the Tesla, named after the 19th Century Serbian scientist Nikola Tesla.
Electron Behavior in Magnetic Fields
Magnetic flux density is a vector quantity, meaning that it has both magnitude and direction. The direction of the magnetic force felt on a charged body depends on whether it is positively or negatively charged. An electron and a proton will experience the same size of force in a magnetic field; however, as an electron is negatively charged and a proton is positively charged, these forces will be in opposite directions.
Directions of Magnetic Fields
Magnetic fields cannot exist without the presence of a moving electrical charge. A magnetic field is generated at a right angle to an electrical field; the magnetic force on a charged particle, such as an electron, acts at a right angle to both the electric field and the magnetic field. Fleming's left-hand rule shows the direction of the force, the electric and magnetic currents. When each are held at right angles, the thumb shows the direction of the force or thrust; the first finger shows the direction of the field and the second finger shows the direction of the current.
Earth's Magnetic Field
The earth has a very strong magnetic field. The field is generated by the rotation of the planet's large, molten iron core. The sun generates high energy, electrically charged particles, including electrons, that would be lethal to living beings; however, the earth's magnetic field successfully deflects these dangerous particles.
As with all magnets, the flux density of the earth's field is strongest at its poles and this is where charged solar particles are most deflected. The Aurora Borealis (Northern Lights) and Aurora Australis are the result of this deflection.
The presence of the magnetic field has aided in the emergence and evolution of life. Geological data suggests that the field fluctuates in strength and, every few hundred thousand years spontaneously changes its polarity. If this were to happen, then all of the compasses that currently point north would point south.
Weathering is a process that shapes the Earth's landscapes.
Weathering can be a mechanical, chemical or biological process. Whatever the agent, weathering involves the breaking down and erosion of stone. This is a beneficial and essential process of nature and without it, Earth would not sustain life as it does. Geologists can use weathering to determine facts about a region's past. Stone masons deal with weathering in a negative way, racing against the clock to preserve stone monuments and buildings.
Sediment
As weathering breaks down rock, it is ground and broken into smaller and smaller pieces. Some of these pieces turn into sediment, which forms sedimentary rock like limestone and sandstone. People use sedimentary stone for building and carving. The pieces of weathered rock are deposited, usually by a river. As more and more deposits build on top of older ones, the layers slowly compact beneath the pressure. After eons, the bits of sediment and the chemical solutions that surround it turn into sedimentary rock.
Soil
As bits of weathered rock break down, some of them become so small they can actually be eaten by plants. Without weathering, there would be no minerals in the soil and therefore no nutrients for the plants to grow. The particles of mineral become dissolved into water; this is referred to as a solution. According to Physical Geography.net, it is because of rock weathering that the ocean waters are saline.
Dating
As rock weathers, it can become weak and break away in large slabs. Sometimes weathering will expose geologic features previously unseen, giving scientists the opportunity to learn about the Earth's history. Weathering can also be used to relatively date land features; heavy weathering on stone in a desert suggests an ancient climate that had frequent rains. Gaps in a geologic record tell geologists that a region experienced a time of weather erosion as opposed to a time of deposition.
Decay
A consequence of weathering is experienced in items built with stone. Monuments, gravestones, mausoleums, statues and even houses that are made of stone will erode due to mechanical weathering over time. A good example of this type of decay is seen on the sphinx of the Giza plateau in Egypt. The nose of the sphinx was lost long ago due to rock weathering and the monuments continue to wear away despite scientists' efforts to preserve them.
Tags: rock weathering, sedimentary rock, turn into, weathered rock
There were signs in the spring of 1980 that Mount St. Helen's could erupt.
Mount St. Helens is an active volcano located in southern Washington state. Its most famous eruption on May 18, 1980, killed 57 people, destroyed 250 homes, and caused billions of dollars worth of damage. It was the most destructive volcanic event in American history. Fortunately, however, there was a great deal of activity in the months before the eruption. Nearby communities, as well as the rest of the nation, had plenty of warning that a major eruption was coming.
Early Concerns
In the area of the Cascade Range, a small continental plate, the Juan de Fuca Plate, pushes underneath the edge of the North American Plate. As a result, this area of the coast has experienced earthquakes and volcanic activity for thousands of years. Mount St. Helens had been visibly active as late as 1857, when the lava dome known as Goat Rocks was created on the north side. By the 1950s, as the area's geology came to be better understood, scientists realized that something was likely brewing beneath the surface. Studies published in 1975 and 1978 strongly suggested the volcano might erupt before the end of the century.
First Stirrings
Beginning about March 16, 1980, a series of small earthquakes occurred in the Cascades. Other than geologists, few people noticed. However, on the afternoon of March 20, 1980, a magnitude 4.2 earthquake rocked the state. Earthquake activity increased over the next few days, along with a continuous shaking called "volcano tremor." Geologists see this as a sign of magma moving underneath the volcano. Eventually, a large explosion was seen at the summit. This created a new crater, and it blew ash over a wide area. The mountain ejected steam and other material until about April 21.
Short Reprieve
The eruptions largely stopped between April 21 and May 16. During this time, however, the earthquakes continued; and, most dramatically, the northern face of the mountain began to swell visibly. This "bulge" grew rapidly for several weeks. By mid-May, parts of the north face were 450 feet higher than before the activity began. At one point, the bulge grew at the rate of 5 feet per day. The enormous pressure of the magma within the mountain was literally tearing it apart. The heat melted ice off the mountain in streams, and groundwater boiled away in some places. By this time, most of the country was aware that a major eruption could be near, and many people monitored the situation on national news programs.
Catastrophe
At 7 a.m. on May 18, a geologist radioed in a set of laser measurements of the north face. Nothing appeared to have changed. At 8:32 a.m., however, a magnitude 5.1 earthquake a mile below the mountain caused the unstable bulge to collapse. Within seconds, the entire northern side of the volcano fell away in a massive landslide, exposing the magma at its core and releasing the pressure. Mount St. Helens burst forth with an enormous explosion of rock and ash that expanded at nearly the speed of sound. In all, the eruption devastated over 200 square miles and dropped ash over much of the northwestern United States.
Tags: Mount Helens, bulge grew, magnitude earthquake, major eruption, March 1980
ArcView can create clean and precise maps using data uploaded by NOAA.
ArcView 8.3 is a Global Information Systems (GIS) software solution published by ESRI software. The software is primarily a mapping-information solution and is used by a variety of professionals, including geologists, marine scientists and engineers. ArcView allows users to create maps that combine a variety of location-specific data while providing tools that allow for careful and precise analysis of the data that is presented. The ArcView software package is part of the ArcGIS Desktop suite, which includes sister applications such as ArcReader, ArcInfo and ArcEditor.
Instructions
1. Open ArcView 8.3.
2. Download any relevant shape files you wish to use for your new map project. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association has an archive of free shape files, which are essentially geographical data stored in the form of points, lines and polygon fields (a link to the archive is provided in the Resources section).
3. Click on "File" and then "New" from the top pull-down menu to create a new map project. Map projects can be thought of as containers in which the user should upload various shape files. These shape files can then be combined and presented as a composited map, selecting specific display components using the tools provided in the ArcView software.
4. Click "View" and then "New" from the top pull-down menu to create a new map view. This is equivalent to a drawing area in which you can place information onto your drawing space that is derived from your shape files.
5. Click the "Add Theme" button on the top toolbar to load a Shape file into your project. Alternatively, you can click "Theme", "Add Theme" from the top pull-down menu. A new dialog box will pop up in which you can browse for a shape file to insert into your project. Select your shape file and double-click it to import it into your project. Your imported shape file will now produce a legend in your View window that you created in Step 4.
6. Click on the check boxes next to each legend item you wish to display in your map view. When a check box is filled in, the element will appear on your view screen. Unchecking the box will hide the element from your drawing. Combine a number of shape files to create a combination of legend elements to be displayed in your composite map drawing.
7. Print your map by clicking "File" and then "Print" from the top pull-down menu. You can specify whether to print your View (the map drawing) or the Table of Contents (the map legend). Select the option you prefer and click the "Print" button to print the map.
8. Save your project file by clicking "File" and then "Save" from the top pull-down menu. Name your project file and click "Save" to save the changes to your project.
Tags: your project, shape files, from pull-down, from pull-down menu, pull-down menu, File then, into your
Atlases and maps of the world are one way to learn about geography or social studies.
Learning to find your way in the world can begin with a basic understanding of maps. Most maps have a compass rose to show direction, a key and legend, plus latitude and longitude. Once you orient to what kind of information is on the map, you can try to find particular the features. Maps vary from street maps to topographical and weather maps, so start with one that is suitable.
Instructions
1. Find the compass rose and determine the main directions of north, east, south, west and northeast, southwest, northwest and southeast. These help you to orient to the map. Read the sides and top of the map for the latitude and longitude information. Look for where you live on the map.
2. Locate the map key or legend. Some have one or the other and some have both. Look at all the various symbols for lakes, rivers, mountains, and parks. If you have a large-scale map, which shows more detail, you will have an easier time finding what you are looking for. Smaller-scale maps show more area in a smaller space, so they have less detail. Find the scale for your map.
3. Locate the various bodies of water. Look for oceans and major lakes and rivers first. These are often in blue to help associate them with water. On a map of the United States, find the Mississippi, Colorado and Columbia Rivers -- these are large and easy to locate. Follow the course of each river and name the states through which it runs. Look for where the Columbia River enters the Pacific Ocean or the Mississippi River enters the Gulf of Mexico. Find the names of each of the Great Lakes.
4. Look for major mountain ranges such as the Rocky Mountains and list what states they cover. Find the Appalachian Mountains then look for the Smokey Mountans. California has the Sierra Nevadas, but see if you can find what other states those mountains touch.
5. Study the major highways that connect the states. Look for how many different mountain ranges or rivers a road, such as Interstate 40, might cross.
6. Find the National or State Parks. The borders are often shown on maps. See if you can find the rivers and mountain ranges within each park. Find parks that might be close together -- for example, what national park is just south of Yellowstone? Count how many parks are located within one state, like Utah, which has a number of National Monuments and parks. Notice how near or far the parks are from major cities nearby. Determine how you would reach one particular park if you wanted to travel there.
7. Get a map that is of a smaller area, like a city map. Find the legend and compare it to the larger map. Notice any differences and determine why it is important for each map to use the different or similar symbols. Trace the path of a river. Look for elevations of tall mountains.
Tags: mountain ranges, compass rose, lakes rivers, latitude longitude, Look where
More than 50 cubic kilometers of magma was ejected in the eruptions.
Tambora is a volcano that lies east of Bali and Lombok. It was once more than 4,000 meters high and had been silent for more than 5,000 years before it experienced the greatest volcanic explosion of the last 10,000 years. The effects of the eruption led to the largest death toll of any volcanic eruption in recorded history.
The Eruption
The Tambora eruption was caused by ocean water penetrating cracks and fissures in the mountain. When it reacted with magma deep inside the volcano, massive pressure built up, causing the mountain to blow itself apart. In 1812, the mountain began to emit small amounts of ash and steam. Significant earth tremors accompanied this activity which continued until April 5, 1815, when a volcanic column measuring more than 80,000 feet high was generated by the first of the great eruptions. Five days later, more gigantic explosions occurred, with columns of volcanic material being forced up to 13,000 feet into the sky. The collapsing columns formed pyroclastic flows, massive, enveloping clouds of hot ash pumice and rock, which instantly killed everything in their path.
Casualties
The volcanic flows killed almost the entire population of Tambora province. This totaled more than 10,000 human casualties. When the flows reached the sea, tsunamis occurred, spreading the devastation into neighboring areas. The lighter volcanic material, including ash and dust, prevented light from reaching the Earth in a large area around Tambora. Falling ash then blanketed the ground, killing off all vegetation and causing up to 80,000 human deaths from famine and disease in surrounding islands. The total number of people killed as a direct result of the Tambora eruption was more than 90,000.
Climate
Volcanic eruptions with the power to significantly alter the global climate for many years occur vary rarely but can affect the ozone, greenhouse and haze effects. The Tambora eruption was one of these. The time that followed the eruption became known as the year without a summer. There is a direct correlation between historic volcanic eruptions and years of cold climate conditions. The effects of global cooling in the aftermath of the Tambora eruption were an extremely cold spring and summer in 1816.
Global Effects
Areas that were hit particularly hard by the effects of the Tambora eruption were New England and Europe. Frosts and snow in June, July and August destroyed almost all crops and farmers were forced to slaughter animals due to the lack of corn crops. The widespread crop failures in Europe occurred just as it was beginning to recover from the effects of the Napoleonic Wars and Ireland experienced its first great famine. India's monsoon season was interrupted and China also felt the effects through devastating floods.
Frankenstein
Due to the bad weather near Lake Geneva that the explosion caused, the poets Byron and Shelley spent time indoors with friends, proposing each person write and present a ghost story. Shelley's wife, Mary came up with Frankenstein, a famous work of literature that was created as an indirect result of the Tambora eruption.
Tags: more than, Tambora eruption, effects Tambora, eruption were, first great, result Tambora, result Tambora eruption
The amethyst, pronounced "am-ǝ-thist," one of the most popular of crystals, dates back thousands of years. This member of the quartz family is prized for its beautiful shades of purple.
Characteristics
Amethyst is a member of the quartz minerals. It ranges in color from pale to deep purple. Sometimes found in large crystal points, amethyst also occurs inside volcanic rock pockets.
History
Amethyst comes from the Greek word "amethystos," which means "not drunk." It is thought the color of the stone resembled the color of wine. Amethyst gems have been used in jewelry and as a protective amulet, even by the ancient Egyptians. It has even been found in Aztec burial sites.
Sources of Amethyst
Although amethysts can be found in many parts of the world, the majority of stones come from Brazil and Uruguay. Africa, Russia, Mexico, Canada and the United States also are sources of amethyst crystals.
Varieties of Amethyst
Brazilian amethysts are mostly light-colored or pale purple. Those found in Madagascar are more violet and reddish-purple. Amethysts from Uruguay have the deepest purple coloring.
Fun Facts
Amethyst is the birthstone of February and those born under the zodiac sign of Aquarius. In 1993, a nine-foot cavern was found in Maine containing more than a ton of amethyst crystals. Amethyst gems have been used as healing stones for centuries. It is a calming stone, said to bring peaceful sleep, ease headaches and reduce stress.
Tags: amethyst crystals, Amethyst gems, Amethyst gems have, been used, gems have
Gold was first found in Montgomery County, Maryland in 1849. Throughout the Appalachian region, gem hunters find gold embedded in quarts veins. Quartz is made when certain minerals reach a liquid state through heating, then re-form into crystals. Gold is a byproduct of quartz creation. Although the largest gold-in-quartz deposits in Maryland are typically not accessible to a novice, placer deposits can yield small quantities of gold and are easier to find. Placer deposits form as erosion occurs; quartz and gold are washed down into streams where they can be found.
Instructions
1. Learn to recognize the appearance of quartz. Quartz crystals can vary greatly in appearance, but are generally hexagonal prisms that are nearly or completely translucent.
2. Choose a location where gold finds have been reported by searching online or speaking to an expert. While most gold mines are no longer in production, you are more likely to find gold if you search in a location where hunters previously found gold in quartz. Reports of gold exist in the counties of Montgomery, Frederick, Carroll, Howard, Baltimore. Great Falls, Maryland and its surrounding area has the highest reported gold yield in the state.
3. Visit a site at the bottom of a hill or mountain that contains an outcropping of quartz. An example of a good location is one that has slow-moving water due to sandbars or large rocks. Gold that has eroded from the mountain above will wash downhill and settle into the bottom of the stream. Small streams such as Rock Run near Great Falls in Montgomery County are ideal locations for finding gold in quartz in a creek bed.
4. Pan for small pieces of gold attached to disintegrating pieces of quartz by using established panning techniques as taught by an expert or learned through research. You may also search the bed of the river and the surrounding ground for larger quartz rocks that have broken free from the mountain or hill. Break the quartz with a hammer to ascertain if it contains gold.
Tags: find gold, from mountain, Great Falls, location where, Montgomery County, pieces quartz
Writing history essays educates both you and your readers.
American writer Pearl Buck once said, "If you want to understand today, you have to search yesterday." Whether you search yesterday for your family's genealogy or the origin of board games, you are looking to the past to find answers. As you research history essay topics, guide your discussion by considering questions that you want answered or explained.
War
Wars have significantly shaped society since the beginning of humankind. In some wars, opposing sides fight over religion, others fight for freedom and others fight against terrorism. Examples of wars that you may want to write about include the American Revolution, World Wars I and II, the Vietnam War and any contemporary wars such as the war on terrorism in the Middle East. Aside from general discussions of events that occurred during specific wars, you may want to discuss the evolution of weapons, the financial burden of wars and famous leaders during wartime.
Technology
Technology provides a wide list of topics for history essays, especially when considering the functionality and feats of modern technology. Choose any technology that most interests you such as television, cellular phones, computers, radios, medical equipment or automobiles. Most likely, whatever piece of technology you choose once had a prototype that eventually became what now sits in your living room, driveway, kitchen or the palm of your hand. Additionally, you may want to write a discussion on the history of the Internet and how its availability has shaped the way we work, shop and play.
Environmental Disasters
The environment plays a critical role in the way we live every day because we depend on it to survive. Consider natural and human-made disasters that have occurred and what communities or countries have done to reconstruct their lives in the aftermath and to prevent the severity of future impact. Examples of natural disasters that you can write about include Hurricane Katrina, the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and the 1918 influenza outbreak. In addition to natural disasters, discuss human-made disasters such as the 2010 Gulf Coast oil spill or the world's worst nuclear disaster at Chernobyl, Ukraine in 1986.
Health and Medicine
Advances in medicine have increased life expectancy and improved the overall quality of life over the course of human history. In 1950, the average American lived 68 years compared to 78 years in 2007, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Although the reasons for longevity vary, improved medicines help to extend lives. You may want to write about the discovery of penicillin, the polio vaccination and the advancement of treatments for cancer, AIDS, organ transplants, heart attacks and paralysis. You may also want to write your essay on the advancement of prosthetic limbs for athletes, the history of service dogs or the development of high-tech motorized wheelchairs.
Tags: want write, write about, about include, disasters that, history essays, human-made disasters
Is There an Underground Volcano Near Cape Hatteras, North Carolina?
There are no underground volcanoes in Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. The New England seaboard is free of igneous volcanic activity. However, there may be mud volcanoes in the Cape Hatteras area.
Types of Volcanoes
The igneous volcano--what most people think of when they hear the word "volcano"--is a vent in the earth's crust from which magma, ash, and gases explode. The "mud volcano" is different: methane gas forms a slurry of water and mud, and its eruption is generally much less violent and at a much lower temperature than that of an igneous volcano.
Geography
The majority of North American igneous volcanoes are located along the Pacific coast, in the Pacific Ring of Fire. The Ring of Fire traces the western edge of the North American tectonic plate. North Carolina is located well away from the edge of this plate, and has no igneous volcanoes.
Speculation
Mud volcanoes can develop wherever there there is sediment containing gas hydrates, especially methane. As the eastern coast of North America has many areas of such sediment, it is possible that mud volcanoes may appear in the vicinity of Cape Hatteras.
Tags: Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, Cape Hatteras North, Hatteras North, Hatteras North Carolina, igneous volcanoes, Near Cape
Mining is critical for gathering fossil fuels such as coal.
Mining is the process of extracting minerals from the underground environment. It can be a dangerous profession, but is critical in gathering fossil fuels such as coal, which is used to produce energy. Mining engineering degrees consist of learning everything from mine design to health and safety preparation for miners. Several companies, colleges and organizations offer scholarships in this field.
Alpha Natural Resources
Alpha Natural Resources has mines throughout the United States.
Alpha Natural Resources claims to be America's No. 1 coal supplier. The company has plants and mines throughout the United States in places like West Virginia, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Wyoming and Kentucky. Alpha Natural Resources supports continuing education of mining engineering programs by offering scholarships to students who attend or plan to attend West Virginia University, Southwest Virginia Community College, University of Virginia at Wise, University of Kentucky and Virginia Technical Institute. Since 2005, Alpha Natural Resources has given hundreds of thousands of dollars in scholarship money to these schools to distribute to qualifying students.
Alpha Natural Resources
One Alpha Place, P.O. Box 2345
Abingdon, VA 24212
276-619-4410
alphanr.com
Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration
The group is, in part, dedicated to advancing mining careers.
The Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration is a group dedicated to networking, expanding professional development and discovering new technologies in the mineral industries. The organization is divided into seven sections, one of those sections being coal and mining. The goal of this section is, in part, to promote coal as a major source of energy and encourage students to pursue mining careers. Every year, the group awards up to 25 scholarships to students that show academic excellence in the field. Students must be members of the organization.
Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration
8307 Shaffer Pkwy.
Littleton, Colorado 80127-4102
1-800-763-3132
smenet.org
West Virginia University
West Virginia is known for it's mining heritage.
Coal was first discovered in the United States in West Virginia back in 1742. Since then, the mining industry has become a critical part of the state's economy. The coal industry provides nearly 30,000 jobs each year in West Virginia.
West Virginia University offers the College of Engineering and Mineral Resources with degrees in mining engineering. More than 37 scholarships in mining engineering are listed on the college's website. Many of these scholarships are offered directly through the university. Others are in conjunction with companies or organizations.
West Virginia University Mining Engineering Program
365 Mineral Resources Building
P.O. Box 6070
Morgantown, WV 26506-6070
304-293-7680
wvu.com
Tags: West Virginia, Alpha Natural, Alpha Natural Resources, Natural Resources, Virginia University
Wind rose graphs are positioned as if on a compass face.
A wind rose is a bar graph composed of a number of concentric circles with bars of varying colors and thicknesses radiating from the middle. The graph depicts wind statistics gathered over time. Statistics measured include wind speed, direction and frequency. Each wind rose pertains to one specific location. A wind rose may also depict statistics only for a certain time of year. Meteorologists and those who are interested in wind conditions, such as firefighters in forested areas, use these meters to study and predict wind conditions in their area.
Instructions
1. Determine what location the wind rose represents by reading the legend carefully. A wind rose will indicate statistics for only one location or region.
2. Note the time period represented by the wind rose. Determine if the graph presents an entire year's worth of data, one particular month over a period of years, or some other time period. This information is contained in the legend.
3. Understand that the typical orientation of a wind rose is with due North at the top. The bars on the wind rose point in radiating directions. If superimposed on the face of a compass, the bars usually pertain to winds coming out of the direction the bar points.
4. Relate the colors and thicknesses of the bars to the legend. The bars represent wind speed. Speed can be noted using meters per second, knots or miles per hour.
5. Notice that the labels on the concentric circles are percentages. A bar representing a wind speed of 15 miles per hour that reaches a circle with a label of 30 percent, for example, indicates that this wind speed happened 30 percent of the time represented by the graph. A shorter bar representing 20 miles per hour indicates that this wind speed occurred less than 30 percent of the time.
6. Identify the size of the empty circle in the middle of the diagram from which the bars radiate. This empty circle generally indicates periods of calm.
Tags: wind rose, wind speed, miles hour, colors thicknesses, concentric circles, empty circle, indicates that
Small pebbles are easily moved by the force of water.
Water is an erosive force that can create small, rounded stones and pebbles in mountain streams. Over time these stones are carried to the sea, where they can be deposited along with large amounts of sand. Does this Spark an idea?
Size
Although any size stone can be shaped by the force of flowing water, in general, the smaller the stone the more likely it is to be pushed towards the sea by the downhill flow of water. Therefore the stones and pebbles that get deposited in a river delta tend to be rather small. On a side note, if the delta area is located near large mountains, then the mouth of the river will receive many more rocks and stones than those places that lie at the edge of a large coastal plain.
Conglomerate
Over long periods of time, a sedimentary rock called conglomerate is formed, when small pebbles and stones of the of the river and seabed are glued together with the naturally occurring compounds of iron oxide, calcium carbonate or silica. The rock that forms looks like a mass of small stones stuck together. The most common piece of mineral in the mixture is usually quartz.
Practical Uses
Conglomerate does not have many practical uses except as a gift item. Still, the rock is actively collected and even mined in a few places like Australia, the United States and Ireland.
Greece is surrounded by the Mediterranean, Ionian and Aegean Seas on three sides and bordered by the countries of Albania, Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north. The nation offers a free college education to both citizens of the country and foreign students at its public universities. As of 2007, Greece hosted more than 21,000 foreign students in its institutions of higher learning, according to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
With 88,000 undergraduates students and 8,000 students in graduate programs, Aristotle University of Thessalonki is the largest university in Greece. The university is 503 km north of the capital city of Athens in the northeastern region of Greece along the Aegean Sea. The majority of the courses taught at Aristotle Univesity of Thessaloniki are taught in Greek and use textbooks written in the Greek alphabet. Some departments do offer courses for English-speaking students in foreign languages, law, communications, journalism and economics. For those fluent in Greek, programs of study include theology, philosophy, science, law, economics, political science, agriculture, forestry, veterinary medicine, dentistry, engineering, fine arts, education, pharmacy, physical education and sports science, and journalism.
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
541 24 Thessaloniki
Greece
011 (+30) 231 09 96 000
auth.gr
The University of Athens
Founded on May 3, 1837, the University of Athens is the oldest continuously operating university in Greece. The university is located in the capital city of Athens and is home to 8,000 undergraduate students and 1,500 graduate students. With the exception of foreign language classes and courses for students at partnering universities throughout the world who are attending a special program offered through the university's European and International Relations Department, all of the courses at the University of Athens are taught in Greek. For Greek-speaking students, the school grants degrees in Byzantine theology, law, economics, political science, public administration, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, nursing, philosophy, psychology, archaeology, foreign languages like English and French, music, theater, Turkish and modern Asian studies, physics, chemistry, mathematics, biology, geology and telecommunications.
The University of Athens
30, Panepistimiou St
10679 Athens
Greece
011 (+30) 210 36 89 726
uoa.gr
The American University of Athens
The American University of Athens is a private university with full accreditation from the United States. The school is small, with only 1,164 students, and every course is offered in English. Bachelor's programs include 14 majors in business administration including finance and marketing, 20 majors in engineering and scientific fields including biology and chemistry, 12 majors in the humanities and social sciences including classics and psychology, and eight majors in the arts including graphic design and photography. Because the school is a private institution, the American University of Athens charges tuition to its students. For international students, the cost for one year's tuition was €9,260 ($13,314) or €4,630 ($6,657) per year as of July 2009, according to the university's Web site.
The American University of Athens
Kifisias & Sochou 4
Neo Psichiko
Athens 115 25
Greece
011 (+30) 210 72 59 301
southeastern.edu.gr
Tags: University Athens, American University, American University Athens, Aristotle University, Aristotle University Thessaloniki, Athens Greece