Mineral rights are the rights that a property owner has to minerals beneath the surface of the property. Mineral rights are typically granted to the property owner when the land is purchased. The property owner can choose to lease or sell mineral rights separately. Additional laws regulate the mineral rights on state lands, such as the General Mining Law of 1872.
Residential
Residential mineral rights can be sold separately from the rest of the property. The mineral rights cover what is under the land, not anything on top of it. A residential property owner may also mine his land himself, however local ordinances and mining law might restrict the type of mining on residential land.
State Lands
Chapter 7 of Idaho civil code regulates what type of mining and mining claims can be done on state owned land. Title 47 gives potential miners the right to explore any land not already claimed by the state for mineral rights - this is called the right of casual exploration. The General Mining Law of 1872 allows prospectors to stake a mining claim on state lands in order to properly work the property. Notices are posted around the mining area so other people using the state lands will not disturb the site or get injured. Idaho government may also choose to sell lands with mineral deposits directly.
Mineral Leasing
Idaho has a mineral leasing program in place, administered by the State Board of Land Commissioners. This board leases mineral rights from Idaho state lands, and controls more than 3 million acres. Proceeds from mineral leasing are used for Idaho public schools. All state land mineral leasing goes through the board, and the restrictions on a lease are 10 years in length and 640 acres. A miner also pays a percentage of royalties based on the types of minerals mined.
Tags: property owner, mineral leasing, mineral rights, mineral rights, state lands, General Mining, General Mining 1872
Make some crystal word pins for you and your friends.
A customized crystal word pin is a special gift. If you can't find a pre-made pin for sale in the specific word that you want, you can make elegant pins yourself with your friends' names or inspirational words spelled out in crystals on a bent wire base. Purchase small crystal beads in a craft store--you may even be able to find them in a variety of colors.
Instructions
1. Draw the word in cursive on a piece of paper at the exact size that you want the word pin to be. Make the word no larger than 2 1/2 inches wide by 1 inch tall--any larger than this and you may need to glue two pin bases to the back to keep it from tilting to one side. This is the guide you will use as you form the word with wire and crystal beads.
2. Cut an 8-inch piece of 20 gauge beading wire, just to make sure you have enough.
3. String one crystal bead onto the end and wrap the end of the wire around the bead three times to make sure it won't slide off. Crystal beads that are 2 or 3 mm wide are ideal.
4. Trim the excess from the end of the wire and apply a pinhead-sized amount of E6000 glue to the bead to secure it. You can also use super glue. Wait at least 30 minutes for the glue to dry.
5. Form the letters by bending the wire to the shape of the cursive letters. Since you are using 20 gauge wire, you can bend the wire by hand, but you can use a pair of pliers to help you get crisp bends or straight lines. Refer to the guide you made earlier to get the right size and shape for each letter. Add crystal beads to the wire and twist the wire around itself to complete each letter. For example, if you are making an "o," loop the letter into a circle, add the beads as you bend it and coil the wire two or three times to hold the shape of the letter.
6. Stop adding beads when you get to the end of the word. Secure the last bead to the end by wrapping the end of the wire through the hole of the bead three times and dabbing a tiny amount of E6000 glue to the hole. Wait 24 hours for the glue to cure completely.
7. Apply E6000 glue to the front of a pin base, sold in craft stores or the craft aisle, and gently press the center of the back of the word you created onto the glue. Let the glue dry for another 24 hours before wearing your homemade crystal word pin.
There is no official list of natural wonders of the United States. If such a list existed, it would be long because there are so many contenders. Many of the natural wonders are under the guardianship of the National Park Service, whose role is to preserve natural and cultural resources for future generations. Some natural attractions are under the auspices of state parks.
Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska
Denali, first established as Mt. McKinley National Park, contains 6 million acres and only one road. See the sights from concessionaire buses as private vehicles are prohibited.
Denali National Park and Preserve
P.O. Box 9
Denali Park, AK 99755-0009
907-683-2294
nps.gov/dena/index.htm
Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona
Float down the Colorado River and camp overnight on the floor of the canyon, or ride a mule down cliff hanging trails and stay overnight at Phantom Ranch. The best way to experience the canyon is to go down inside it.
Grand Canyon National Park
P.O. Box 129
Grand Canyon, AZ 86023
928-638-7888
nps.gov/grca/index.htm
Death Valley National Park, California, Nevada
Incredible vistas abound among 3 million wilderness acres of the hottest, driest, lowest land in the nation.
Death Valley National Park
P.O. Box 579
Death Valley, CA 92328
760-786-3200
nps.gov/deva/index.htm
Muir Woods National Monument, California
The tallest living things in the world are the coastal redwoods. This small park offers 6 miles of trails through the thick 295-acre forest.
Muir Woods National Monument
Mill Valley, CA 94941-2696
415-388-2595
nps.gov/muwo/index.htm
Yosemite National Park, California
Intriguing Yosemite invites you to explore Yosemite Falls, Mariposa Grove of Giant Sequoias, El Capitan, Half Dome, Cathedral Rocks, Bridalveil Falls and thick flower populated meadows.
Yosemite National Park
P.O. Box 577
Yosemite, CA 95389
209-372-0200
nps.gov/yose/index.htm
Great Sand Dunes National Park, Colorado
Nestled between the plains and Sangre de Cristo Mountains lies an ocean of sand and dunes at an elevation of 8,200 feet. After hiking the dunes, cool off in the refreshing waters of Zapata Falls.
Great Sand Dunes National Park
11999 Hwy. 150
Mosca, CO 81146
719-378-6300
nps.gov/grsa/index.htm
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Hawaii
A short walk through a tree fern forest brings you to Thurston Lava Tube, tall enough to walk through it. The park boasts the two most active volcanoes in the world, Kilauea and Mauna Loa. The best time to see Kilauea's current lava flow is at dusk or after dark.
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park
P.O. Box 52
Hawaii National Park, HI 96718-0052
808-985-6000
nps.gov/havo/index.htm
Mammoth Cave National Park, Mammoth Cave, KY
Mammoth Cave, at 365 miles long, is the longest known cave system in the world. Choose from 15 tours.
Mammoth Cave National Park
1 Mammoth Cave Parkway
Mammoth Cave, KY 42259
270-758-2180
nps.gov/maca/index.htm
Niagara Falls State Park, New York
America's oldest state park is home to one of our most unique natural wonders. Some 100 feet high on the American side, it is not the tallest waterfall in the world, but its beauty is attributed to a combination of height and large flow of water.
Niagara Falls State Park
Prospect Street
Niagara Falls, NY 14303
716-278-1796
niagarafallsstatepark.com/
niagarafallsusa.org/
niagara-usa.com/
Badlands National Park, South Dakota
Muted colors stripe the buttes, pinnacles and spires. Bison roam the mixed grass prairie of this scenic park.
Badlands National Park
25216 Ben Reifel Road
Interior, South Dakota 57750
605-433-5361
nps.gov/badl/index.htm
Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho
America's first national park, established in 1872, is home to grizzly bears, elk, bison, wolves, Old Faithful Geyser, Mammoth Hot Springs and Yellowstone Lake.
Yellowstone National Park
P.O. Box 168
Yellowstone National Park, WY 82190-0168
307-344-7381
nps.gov/yell/index.htm
Tags: National Park, National Park, Mammoth Cave, Niagara Falls, Death Valley, Grand Canyon, natural wonders
The Texas Memorial Museum in Austin was built for the 1936 Texas Centennial, and for many years housed a mix of historical, anthropological, paleontological and nature-related exhibits, but after the nearby Bob Bullock Texas History Museum was opened, those in charge of the Texas Memorial Museum decided to shift the museum's focus strictly to natural history and paleontology. Today it's a wonderland for fans of animals and dinosaurs.
Instructions
1. Start your tour at the east entrance of the museum at 2400 Trinity Street. This is a lofty Art Deco building with a statue of a saber-toothed cat out front. From the foyer you'll enter the two-story Great Hall and notice the skeleton of the Texas Pterosaur--a flying dinosaur--swooping down at you, as it were. Off to the left is the security desk, where you can pick up audio guide units. Work your way clockwise around the room and you'll see a beautiful collection of beetles, a variety of minerals and gems--including a 250-lb. amethyst quartz geode--fossils and a display of rudists, which are a type of prehistoric bivalve mollusk.
2. Turn north and go up the steps into the extensive gift shop, which stocks books, toys, games, maps, posters, T-shirts, jewelry and stuffed animals, though you may want to wait until you've finished visiting all the floors before you buy anything. The elevator and the stairs are on the northeast corner, just beyond the gift shop and off a special exhibition gallery. Take note in the elevator of the bronze Art Deco grille work.
3. Go up to the fourth floor--the Hall of Biodiversity. Make a hard right and work your way clockwise. You'll see displays of life in a cave, fishes of the Gulf of Mexico and various specimens of Texas wildlife, including rather impressive skeletons of a rattlesnake and rat snake. On the south side of this passage go into the Explore Evolution room. this currently houses an interactive exhibition on AIDS, viruses and diatoms, displays on whales, finch diversity, bird beak measurement, DNA, chimps, flies and the co-evolution of farming ants, a fungus crop, crop pests and bacteria. A presentation theater is located just to the south of this room.
4. Head northeast and take the elevator down to the third floor, the Hall of Texas Wildlife. Turn right and you'll see a display on all the natural regions of Texas, with mounted specimens of each region's wildlife, including several peccaries, a coyote, black bear, skunk, gray fox, opossum, a rather magnificent Rio Grande Turkey, white-tailed and mule deer and several American bison. Go back into the north-south corridor which is lined with vitrines of Texas wildlife specimens. To the left is the Fishes of Texas room. It's decorated in an aquatic motif, with a wrecked boat in the center of the room and the sounds of the ocean piped in.
5. Walk north back to the elevator and go down to the first floor and the Hall of Geology and Paleontology, which is easily the most popular part of the museum. In the room to the right, work your way around counter-clockwise. Here there are displays on "deep time," meteorites, tektites, Paleozoic fish, big prehistoric sea urchins and other fossils. Step down into the main dinosaur room and work your way around clockwise, past the South Permian, Triassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary eras. Highlights here include an American "Zebra," a Dimetrodon or "Sailback" and Buettneria Perfecta--an amphibian with huge jaws.
6. Return to the elevator, taking note of the mock-up of the first floor lay-out on the wall, make your purchases at the gift shop, then exit on the east side of the building. But you still have more to see. A little pavilion off to the northeast houses the Glen Rose Dinosaur Tracks, while between that and the main building is an outdoor classroom with Native American grinding stones and seats made to look like dinosaur vertebrae. Wander around to the west side of the building for a look at its impressive facade, then follow the walkway down the hill to see "Mustangs," a dynamics sculpture by Alec Phimister Proctor.
Tags: gift shop, Memorial Museum, Texas Memorial, Texas Memorial Museum, elevator down
Gypsum is a common mineral with commercial applications.
Gypsum is a sulfate mineral that is composed of calcium sulfate. Also called celenite, gypsum is a common component in different plasters that is used in the manufacture of wall board panels. Does this Spark an idea?
Gypsum in Nature
Gypsum is found in areas that in the geologic past contained bodies of water or were subject to flooding. When these waters evaporated the gypsum was left behind.
Layered Gypsum in Nature
Each new flood that occurred would deposit a new layer of gypsum. These layers formed into a sedimentary rock composed of layered gypsum. Layered gypsum can be found in areas such as Baja California and the Persian Gulf.
Layered Gypsum in Commercial Applications
Layered gypsum can be used to create plaster wall board panels. In this case gypsum is usually mixed with different polymers to create boards that are strong enough to be used for commercial applications, but that are light enough for practical use.
Mining has always been a dangerous occupation. Even through safety improvements in the industry, workers in underground tunnels are subject to risk; the history of mining disasters demonstrates that mining may never become completely free of periodic catastrophes. Mining regulators tend to increase efforts after a mining disaster, and public attention to each incident sheds light on what companies and governments can do to minimize danger in risky occupations.
Early Incidents
The mining disaster at Scofield, Utah was the worst ever up to that time. 200 miners were killed on May 1, 1900 when an explosion collapsed a Pleasant Valley Coal Company tunnel. Even in the earliest incidents, mining disasters would trigger government investigations; unlike later catastrophes, the Scofield disaster had no subsequent impact on mining safety, since Utah state officials cleared Pleasant Valley of wrongdoing. The company would remain in business until 1923.
A disaster at Fraterville, Tennessee on May 19, 1902, would kill 216 miners, the youngest of whom was just 12 years old. Public officials found that the mine had "inadequate ventilation," causing an accumulation of gas and the subsequent explosion, though mine superintendent George Camp would eventually be acquitted of negligence.
Monongah, West Virginia
At the West Fork River in Monongah, West Virginia, a mining explosion killed 362 on December 6, 1907. Significant for being the worst mining disaster in the U.S. to date, the Monongah incident also finally spurred government action. Congress created a federal regulator, the U.S. Bureau of Mines, though the legislation took three years to craft. Still, mine owners, who were generally wealthy and had political influence, continued to successfully avoid major safety reforms.
Reforms
If the Monongah disaster at least brought national attention to the dangers of mining, a catastrophe just 5 miles away, in Farmington, West Virginia, would help bring about major reforms. In 1968, an explosion and fire at a mine in Farmington killed 78; U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson's administration would introduce mining safety reform, called the Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act, that would be eventually be signed by President Richard Nixon.
Effects
The Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act helped the mining industry to become less dangerous. Underground mines now had four inspections per year. Miners could actually request federal inspections, and the law granted benefits to miners with black lung, a disease that affects coal miners. In 1977, President Jimmy Carter strengthened the safety standards by adding metal and nonmetal miners to the protections for coal miners. This was in part influenced by the Sunshine Mine fire in Kellogg, Idaho in 1972, a metal mine that caught fire, killing 91.
Future
The Internet Age has brought about promising new technologies to combat mining safety problems. The Mine Emergency Response Interactive Training Simulation, created by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, allows mining company managers to work with government officials in simulated mine disasters, to assess readiness. In addition, the Mining Safety and Health Administration reports that 2008 saw a record low in annual mining fatalities, 53, stressing that regulatory standards help the mining industry prevent accidents.
Tags: mining disaster, West Virginia, Coal Mine, Coal Mine Health, coal miners, Federal Coal, Federal Coal Mine
Some park rangers have degrees in wildlife management.
University programs in wildlife management prepare students to work in a variety of settings, including governmental parks and agencies, nonprofit conservation groups, game preserves and on large rural estates. They train students in wildlife farming, ecotourism and wildlife population control. Wildlife management is an academic subject offered in universities and colleges in various parts of the world.
Delaware State University
Delaware State University (desu.edu/wildlife-management) has a bachelor of science degree program in wildlife management that emphasizes practical experiential learning. Students majoring in wildlife management participate in research and conservation projects through the College of Agriculture. Wildlife management majors learn professional skills and knowledge in the areas of wildlife biology, genetics and zoology, habitat and species protection, water and soil conservation and global economic factors that impact wildlife. The university also offers a specialty option in fisheries. Approximately 15 percent of the university's undergraduate wildlife management students proceed to graduate study.
Texas Tech University
Texas Tech (rw.ttu.edu) has a bachelor of science degree program in wildlife and fisheries management, with a wildlife management track option. Students earn their degree after acquiring a working knowledge of wildlife ecology and biology, and population and habitat management. Completion of the program qualifies a student as a game biologist, or wildlife manager, consultant or biologist with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or the Texas Parks & Wildlife Department.
University of Minnesota
The University of Minnesota's Department of Natural Resources (crk.umn.edu) has a bachelor of science degree program in natural resources with a wildlife management emphasis. Students who elect this emphasis focus their study on terrestrial and wetlands habitats with some emphasis on fisheries management. Graduates are eligible to work within government agencies or in private conservation organizations.
University of Pretoria, South Africa
The University of Pretoria (web.up.ac.za) has trained graduate students in wildlife management since 1965 with more than 550 postgraduate degrees awarded. The University's Center for Wildlife Management is part of the University Department of Animal and Wildlife Science and trains students in wildlife conservation and management. Students with a science degree in biology, agriculture or veterinary sciences are eligible to apply to enroll for degree programs at the center.
Mississippi State University
Mississippi State University (cfr.msstate.edu) offers a wildlife, fisheries and aquaculture major within the College of Forest Resources, with an option in wildlife management. The program can lead to certification as a wildlife biologist by The Wildlife Society. The four-year bachelor of science degree program includes a summer field program between the sophomore and junior year. Mississippi State also offers a master's of science with emphasis in wildlife. Graduate programs require a thesis or dissertation.
University of Aberdeen, Scotland
University of Aberdeen (abdn.ac.uk) offers a four-year single honors program in wildlife management. Aberdeen's program has opportunities for expeditions, voluntary overseas work and study abroad placements. Field courses in land use and in zoology are compulsory, and students arrange a period of work experience.
Yellowstone National Park is one of the most well-known national parks in the United States. In fact, it was the country's first official national park. Today, it is an extremely popular tourist destination, bringing millions of visitors each and every year interested in seeing unmatched wildlife and geological features such as the famous Old Faithful Geyser.
Total Size
Yellowstone has nearly 3,500 square miles of territory. This equals over 2.2 million acres, which is larger than the states of Delaware and Rhode Island combined.
Spanning Three States
The vast majority--96% of Yellowstone--is in Wyoming. A further 3% of the park's territory is in Montana and 1% is in Idaho.
Employees
The park is so large that it employs more than 3,500 people in the peak seasons. This includes everyone from park guides to gas station attendants.
Guest Accommodations
There are over 2,200 rooms, lodges and cabin spaces available throughout Yellowstone National Park. Additionally, there are 12 campsites and 2,000 campgrounds.
Infrastructure
There are over 300 miles of paved roads within Yellowstone National Park. There are nine different museums and visitor centers and a total of more than 2,000 buildings.
Tags: National Park, Yellowstone National, Yellowstone National Park, more than, Size Yellowstone, There over
Teaching your studentsabout volcanoes should be a breeze. They're explosive, massive and colorful, and most kids are bound to find something about them interesting. The variety and availability of resources on volcanoes also makes putting together an informative and captivating lesson pretty easy too.
Instructions
1. Ask your students what they already know about volcanoes. Some might have learned about them in previous classes or on their own, and others might have even seen one in person. This is a good way to get them involved in the lesson from the beginning.
2. Introduce your students to the idea of plate tectonics. You don't need to provide a lot of technical detail, but make sure they understand that the earth's crust is made up of smaller plates that move around on top of the mantle and jostle each other.
3. Explain the difference between magma and lava.
4. Use a diagram or image to illustrate how volcanoes are formed. There are three main processes they should know (plate subduction, oceanic rifts and hot spots), but you can give a clear explanation of each using a photo or model.
5. Tell them about the five different kinds of volcanoes. Cinder cones, spatter cones, shields, strato volcanoes and compound volcanoes are the main classifications that geologists use. Again, show your students pictures of each type and help them understand how each name relates to its shape.
6. Show your students a map of the Pacific Rim and ask them to point out regions they think would have high volcanic activity. This is a subtle way of seeing how well they understand the theory of plate tectonics. Then, point out areas that are really active like Hawaii, Chile, Japan and the Pacific Northwest.
7. Talk about some of the ways geologists measure and predict volcanic activity. This is a good time to cover the different terms geologists use to describe the level of a volcano's activity.
8. Consider having each student do a project or report on a world volcano of his choice. Then, have them share their findings with the rest of the class.
Tags: your students, about them, about volcanoes, activity This, might have, plate tectonics, they understand
Because of its vast array of minerals, Idaho lives up to its original nickname as the Gem State, according to the Idaho Department of Lands. Congress designated the Idaho Territory in 1863, naming it after the Shoshone word for "gem." Today, rockhounds find many gems in Idaho, including rubies, pink garnets, amethyst, opal, fire opals, star garnets, agates and sapphires.
Opal
Opal is an iridescent stone whose color changes when observed from different angles. It is found in a number of areas in Idaho, including in southeastern Idaho at the Spencer Opal Mine. Opened in 1948, the mine is less than a one-hour drive north of Idaho Falls. Spencer Opal Mine is no longer in operation as a commercial mine, but you can still visit it. Pay a small fee to try your hand at digging for opals and keep what you find.
Star Garnet
The star garnet is Idaho's state gem. It is a silicate related to quartz and is called a star garnet because some samples display a reflection like a four- or six- pointed star. Gem-quality garnets are mined commercially in the Little North Fork and North Fork areas. You can try sluicing for star garnets yourself at the Emerald Creek Garnet Area in the Idaho Panhandle National Forest near Clarkia, Idaho. The Forest Service stockpiles gravel that may contain garnets and provides two sluice boxes. You need to buy a permit and can keep up to 5 lbs. of garnets with your daily permit.
Agates
Agates come in many colors. They look iridescent when cut into slabs. Popular spots to look for agates include Succor Creek, Mann Creek, Beacon Hill and Bennett Mountain, according to the Idaho Department of Lands. Check the Idaho Department of Land's website for its rockhound code of ethics and information on rockhounding on state endowment lands and public land. Tips include respecting private property, leaving no garbage behind, filling in excavations and leaving gates as they were found.
Jasper
Jasper is an opaque quartz that can be red, yellow, brown or dark green in color. Jasper is found in the Paris Canyon near Montpelier, along Little Wood River, in Beacon Hill near Weiser and in Bruneau River Canyon south of Bruneau. The Bruneau jaspers are red and green gem-quality stones, according to the Idaho Museum of History's Digital Atlas of Idaho.
Tags: according Idaho, Idaho Department, according Idaho Department, Beacon Hill, Department Lands, Idaho Department Lands, Idaho including
Geothermal activity produces plumes of steam from geysers.
Like all matter, water has multiple phases. Its liquid form fills lakes, rivers and seas. As a solid, it covers a pond in winter or floats in a glass of iced tea. Water vapor is its invisible gaseous state. When water vapor condenses, white steam appears. A sudden temperature or pressure change can cause this condensation. Steam erupts from the ground when hot water vapor meets cooler air.
Geysers
This Yellowstone National Park geyser erupts so predictably that it bears the name Old Faithful.
Geysers occur when ground water seeps down far enough to reach a hot bubble of magma. When the water hits this superheated fluid, it boils away and becomes gaseous vapor. As the plume of water vapor hits the cooler air, it condenses into visible steam. True geysers also require a certain shape; otherwise, the water simply steams away. These reservoirs of water in geothermally active regions erupt periodically, giving rise to famous geysers such as Old Faithful in Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming.
Volcanism
Volcanoes and associated volcanic activity boil the groundwater above them, turning it to steam. While relatively rare geysers require specific "plumbing" and a water reservoir, volcanoes regularly vent live steam from the ground before and during eruptions. Underground springs, lakes and rivers turn to steam as a volcano's magma pushes its way to the surface. As the superheated steam hits the air, it condenses. Volcanic eruptions themselves may consist partially or mainly of steam.
Subterranean Fires
Underground coal fires mimic the boiling action of geothermal and volcanic activity, heating subterranean water until it boils into water vapor and condenses into steam as it hits the surface. Coal fires can burn for decades or centuries. One of the largest burns under Centralia, Pennsylvania; this coal fire has raged since May 1962. The ground near Centralia still steams and smokes as the fire in the mines beneath the town heat the water that seeps into them.
Solar Evaporation
Under certain conditions, the invisible water vapor that solar evaporation draws up condenses as steam. Water vapor becomes visible when a significant temperature differential happens; on very cold days or very hot days, the ground may seem to steam. On cold days, the surrounding air condenses water vapor into mist readily, while on hot days, dark surfaces may steam after a rainfall because the water heats sufficiently to produce a larger amount of vapor.
Artificial Heat Sources
When grates on city streets steam, the cause is almost certainly human agency. New York City's Consolidated Edison Company (ConEd) produces and supplies steam power for heating portions of lower Manhattan. Some steam escapes the steam mains, while other steam comes from water that comes into contact with the heated pipes. Other human activity from laundry to cooking takes place in basements; the heat that these activities produce finds its way to the surface as steam. On cold nights, the warm water from bathtubs and sinks produces steam as it moves through pipes and into the sewer system.
Tags: water vapor, cold days, condenses into, from ground, lakes rivers, National Park
Synthetic diamonds possess the same visual and chemical properties as mined diamonds.
Synthetic diamonds, also known as lab-created or lab-grown diamonds, are real diamonds. Unlike imitations, such as cubic zirconia and moissanite, which merely look like diamonds, synthetic diamonds have all the same physical properties as a diamond - the same hardness, thermal conductivity and chemical composition. While accurate identification of a synthetic diamonds requires expensive and scientific equipment, the average shopper can use a few tricks to detect a synthetic diamond. Does this Spark an idea?
Instructions
1. Observe the color vibrancy. Mined diamonds come in a variety of colors such as blue, yellow, brown, black, pink or red. The most common synthetic diamond colors are yellow or blue. The colors of synthetic diamonds are very bright and vibrant, whereas mined diamond colors are more often pale and muted.
2. Use a jeweler's loop to inspect the stone for inclusions. Inclusions are small imperfections in the stone. Mined diamonds contain inclusions that appear as feathery, crystalline pinpoints or cloudy areas. Synthetic diamonds form in a metallic solution and when not completely transformed, the metal deposits as metallic slivers or globules. Under the 10x magnification of the jewelers loop and a bright light, all inclusions in a synthetic diamond will appear shiny, whereas inclusions in a mined diamond will appear dull.
3. Look for an inscription on the girdle of the stone. The girdle is the outer rim of the top of the stone. Synthetic diamond labs laser inscribe the words "CREATED" and a lab identification number on the stone. Again, use the jeweler's loop to see the inscription. If the stone is in a setting that completely surrounds the stone, take the setting to a jeweler to have it checked. Removing a stone at home may damage the setting, leading to costly repairs.
4. Consider where you are purchasing the diamond. All jewelry stores must indicate if a diamond is mined or lab-grown. In addition, jewelry stores purchase their product from known manufactures. However, if you are in a pawn shop or antique store, the source of the stone may be grandma's attic or an estate sale. An inexperienced or dishonest shop owner may list a synthetic diamond as a mined diamond.
5. Consider the age of the stone. Synthetic diamonds were first created in the 1950's. If the item is older than 1950, the diamond is mined.
If you're panning for gems in riverbeds and creeks, you might put hours or even days only to find nothing. On the other hand, you could pull up the big one in a matter of minutes. The key to finding riverbed gemstones is knowledge of the geologic processes which create and transport them. It is not legal to wander into the wilderness and begin dredging or panning for streambed gems. Check with local authorities before heading out.
Process
All gems form by slow cooling and crystallization in the earth's crust. As the crystallized rock is exposed due to processes of weathering, pieces will break off. These pieces get carried down the mountains by streams and rivers. Eventually when the stream's current is no longer strong enough to carry these gems, they get deposited on the beds of streams. Days, weeks or hundreds of years later, you can find these underwater treasures lying beneath shallow waters.
Stream Bed Panning
When panning riverbeds, you are as likely to come across a golden nugget or historical artifact as you are gemstones. For the best chance to find gems, find a place that is located downstream from a gemstone mine or a location already known to be a productive place to pan. Gem hot spots emerge in riverbeds when the stream becomes too weak to carry the heavy items. Mounds of sediment and stones are signs that a river has a history of depositing material there. Common places for a river to deposit heavy items such as gold and gemstones include the lowest points of a river and where the river takes a bend.
Common Gems
The type of gems you find will depend on where you are. Different gems form over thousands of years due to specific geologic conditions such as pressure and heat. Idaho, the "Gem State," is the nation's second largest producer of garnet, and these gems are often found when river panning. Opals and rubies are other gems often found in Idaho. North Carolina is another of the nation's hot spots for gem hunting. In addition to garnets and rubies, the riverbeds of North Carolina have been known to divulge sapphires and emeralds.
Any mineral or gemstone that forms as a result of geologic processes can be found in stream beds. Quartz is the most common crystal on earth and is often found in streams. It's not uncommon to find amethyst, jasper, topaz and beryl in stream beds.
Considerations
Panning riverbeds and alluvial deposits for gems can severely damage a stream's ecosystem. Panning involves using a suction cup to remove sediment and small rock deposits from the beds of streams. If you remove too much, the banks of the stream could collapse and the soil around it could become too loose to support life. Always contact a local geologic organization to find out where it is legal to hunt for riverbed gems. The Idaho Department of Lands, for example, oversees the pit mines and public gem mines of the state, as well as all of Idaho's riverbeds and lakes. Strict regulations are in place concerning dredging and surface mining of these areas.
Tags: often found, beds streams, earth crust, gems find, gems form
If you're in Colorado, keep your eyes peeled. You might find some jasper, quartz or aquamarine.
Colorado's Rocky Mountains aren't the only rocks the state is well known for. Diamonds and semiprecious gems can be found in nearly every part of the state. Experts and amateurs alike hunt for gemstones in the hills of Colorado and some of the largest diamonds in the world have been mined there. Colorado is also a rich source of many types of minerals and hosts many gold and coal mines.
Diamonds
The most valuable gemstone found in Colorado is the diamond and the most famous Colorado diamond is the enormous 45.5 carat Hope Diamond, now installed in the National Museum of Natural History. It was not originally mined in Colorado, but was purchased by Colorado's leading diamond miner, Thomas Walsh. However, the largest diamond mined in North America, which was 28.18 carats, was mined in Colorado. Kelsey Lake, Estes Park, Front Range, Cripple Creek and Green Mountain are some of the places in Colorado where diamonds are mined.
Aquamarine
The state gemstone for Colorado is aquamarine, a crystal naturally occurring in a wide spectrum of shades of blue. Mines at Mount Antero and Mount White are some of the leading producers of aquamarine in the world.
Quartz
Quartz is a crystal that is common not only in Colorado, but all over the world. Colorado is famous for the variety called smoky quartz, which is very dark and can grow to be several feet tall, though many other varieties of quartz also occur in the state. Quartz can be found in many colors ranging from white to purple to black.
Jasper
Jasper is a stone that is frequently used in jewelry, sculptures and carvings. It can be found in Colorado in Park County and Mineral County in abundance. This stone occurs in reds, browns and yellows and, as it is easy to find, is a favorite for amateur rock collectors and polishers to gather, display and carve.
Fairburns Agate
Agates are another gem found fairly commonly in the Colorado landscape, though there are numerous types of agate and some are rarer than others. New Raymer, Colo., boasts one of the rarest types of agate, the Fairburns agate, which is unusual because not only is it grown in a variety of colors, but it grows with many different colors blended in the same specimen. The Yampa River area in northwest Colorado also has proven to produce some Fairburns agates.
Crystals provide a basis for many fun science fair projects.
The growth of crystals has been a source of fascination to adults and children for thousands of years. Crystals are interesting, beautiful formations that come in all kinds of shapes and sizes. The growth and development of crystals comprise a science topic that lends itself to many project ideas. Not only can you make your own crystals but you can also conduct experiments on how various conditions affect their growth and development.
Rock Candy
Making rock candy is a fun, edible science fair project. Start by heating two cups of water in a saucepan. Once it is boiling, add four cups of sugar in small amounts, stirring continuously until it is all dissolved and becomes a clear syrup. Add food coloring to the syrup if desired and pour the syrup into a clean, empty glass jar. Next, tie a piece of string to the middle of a pencil or stick that is long enough to sit across the opening of the jar without falling in. Tie the opposite end of the string to a Popsicle stick and lay the pencil across the mouth of the jar so that the Popsicle stick is hanging in the syrup. Allow the jar to sit at room temperature undisturbed. Check the progress of your experiment daily and, after roughly seven days, your rock candy crystal will have formed. Experiment with variables such as environment; compare the growth of rock candy in the cold, such as in the fridge as opposed to room temperature.
Crystal Garden
Grow your own crystal garden for your school's science fair. Start by arranging several dry, clean sponges in the bottom of a cake pan or aluminum pie plate, cutting them if necessary. Mix 1/4 cup of table salt, 1/4 cup of water, two tablespoons of ammonia and 1/4 cup of laundry bluing together in a bowl and pour it evenly over the sponges. Finish the experiment by sprinkling drops of food coloring, such as green and blue, over the sponges. Allow your crystal garden to sit undisturbed and watch as it grows. Supplement this science fair project by recording and analyzing the growth process or examining pieces of the crystals under a microscope.
Temperature
Another interesting science fair project is examining how water temperature impacts the growth of crystals. Conduct your experiment using three different temperatures, hot, room temperature and cold. Begin growing the crystals in one container using hot water, and then keep it warm with a heating pad or similar device. In another container, use room-temperature water and keep it on the counter or the desk in your room. Begin growing crystals in another container using cold water and retain that temperature by placing it in the refrigerator. Keep notes on how fast the crystals are growing and anything else that is of interest. Consider conducting this experiment using different materials such as salt, sugar and potash alum.
Stalagmites and Stalactites
Create your own stalagmites and stalactites by hanging a weighted strip of cotton, or wool string, between two jars of water mixed with sodium carbonate or magnesium sulfate. The jars should be 3/4 full with as much of the chemical added as can be dissolved in the water. The strip will begin to drip and, after being left undisturbed for approximately a week, stalagmite and stalactite crystals will begin to form. This experiment is great for demonstrating how crystals form in caves, because the salt water evaporating from the strip mimics the natural process.
Tags: rock candy, room temperature, science fair, science fair project, another container, Begin growing, Begin growing crystals
While we can clearly see impact craters on the moon, on Earth they are largely hidden.
Earth is subjected to a number of localized forces, including those that are geological, meteorological and volcanic in nature. However, our planet is also affected by external forces, which---at times---can disturb and otherwise interact with terrestrial conditions. The relationship between Earth and the space surrounding it is a complex one. Some space and Earth-science student activities include simulating impact craters, making a magnetometer and imitating the slingshot effect.
Simulating Impact Craters
Impact craters are deep, gigantic holes---sometimes miles in diameter---that are caused by meteorites and comets crashing into a planet's crust. While we can clearly see impact craters on the moon, on Earth they are largely hidden, due to weathering, shifting tectonic plates and other destructive terrestrial processes. According to usc.edu, you can recreate the formation of impact craters by dropping projectiles (such as rocks) into containers filled with sand. Carefully measure the diameter and weight of each projectile you drop, as well as the precise height from which you drop it. Also, make sure you level off the sand after each drop, and add a bit more if necessary to keep the depth consistent. How did the heights, weights and diameters of your makeshift meteorites affect the depth and diameter of the resulting craters? (Note: you may want to videotape or photograph each drop and crater for comparison).
Make Your Own Magnetometer
A magnetometer is an instrument used for measuring changes in Earth's magnetic field or magnetosphere, which is an invisible field made up of electric charges surrounding the planet. The magnetosphere absorbs and protects us from the sun's harmful radiation; however, sometimes this radiation---in the form of solar flares---can be so strong that it causes the magnetosphere to move. According to usc.edu, you can measure this movement using a magnetometer made primarily from household materials. To construct, first attach a magnet to one side of an index card and a small mirror to the other. Suspend the card from a string inside an empty 2-liter soda bottle and seal. Shine a laser pointer onto the mirror so that its beam reflects on to an adjacent wall, and mount the laser so it remains fixed in that position. Tape up a ruler horizontally to the wall so that the beam hits, and track the movement of the beam over the course of several hours. During periods of high solar flare activity, you should notice corresponding changes. (See Resource 1 for a live solar flare feed.)
Imitate the Slingshot Effect
NASA uses the slingshot effect in order to shoot spacecraft out into deep space, while minimizing fuel consumption. They do this by positioning the spacecrafts into Earth's orbit, and using the natural gravitational forces to carry them around and around until finally they are released. According to cool-science-projects.com, you can imitate the slingshot effect by securing a rock or stone to the end of a rope or string and then swinging it around in a circle. If you let the string go in midswing you will notice that your rock will not continue in its orbit, but will be shot outward.
Tags: slingshot effect, clearly impact, clearly impact craters, craters moon, craters moon Earth, each drop, Earth they
Geotechnical engineers use soil samples to evaluate the subsurface.
Soil and groundwater investigations reveal vast information about the subsurface. Scientists use a variety of investigative techniques to evaluate soil and groundwater properties and the presence or absence of contamination. These techniques range from simple sample collection to sophisticated underground imaging.
Soil Boring Installation and Sample Collection Methods
Geologists and geotechnical engineers use soil boring and soil sample collection to evaluate the subsurface. You can use hand augers, direct push rigs and drill rigs to collect soil samples. These samples may provide you with information concerning the type of soil present, the physical properties of the soil and a determination concerning the presence or absence of contamination. Soil scientists use auger buckets, split-spoons, Shelby tubes, large bore, macro-core and dual tube sampling devices to collect soil samples for testing.
Groundwater Monitoring Well Installation and Sample Collection Methods
Hydrogeologists use groundwater data to evaluate the subsurface. Laboratory data from the groundwater can provide information concerning the quality of the water, while water table elevation information can determine the amount of water available in the aquifer. You can use direct push rigs and drill rigs to install temporary and permanent water wells and that will provide water samples. Direct push rigs can install shallow, temporary points that you can sample immediately using a peristaltic pump before you abandon the borehole. These rigs can also install permanent, prepacked small diameter wells that you can sample multiple times. Drill rigs may install permanent monitoring wells with varying depths and diameters. Field geologists collect water samples and depth to water table information from the monitoring wells using bailers, submersible pumps and electronic water level indicators to test the quality and quantity of water.
Geophysical Investigations
Geophysicists use techniques to evaluate the subsurface both over land and in boreholes. These studies can evaluate the soil and rock and identify subsurface structures and the presence of natural resources such as water and oil. Common geophysical methods include ground-penetrating radar, electromagnetic methods, electrical resistivity, metal detection, seismic methods and magnetometers. Ground penetrating radar and electromagnet methods are useful for locating underground structures, changes in soil types, water and free phase products. Magnetometers and metal detectors are useful at underground tank sites to locate the buried tanks and lines. Electrical resistivity is a popular method to evaluate soil and rock characteristics and changes and to locate oil and water-filled zones. Seismic methods are popular for evaluating the types of soil and rock strata below ground, the fracture patterns within the rock and the location of liquids in the subsurface.
Soil Vapor Survey
Soil vapor, or soil gas, surveys are a relatively inexpensive method of obtaining information about the presence or absence of volatile contaminants in the subsurface soil. Active and passive soil gas sampling devices will collect data concerning the presence of a variety of constituents. Chemicals vary in their volatility, which makes soil vapor surveys better for certain constituents. Soil vapor surveys are often a tool in an initial subsurface investigation that will guide scientists to locations that require further evaluation using other methods.
Basic training for Marine Corps officers, known as Officer Candidate School (OCS) can be completed in two six-week sessions (known as Platoon Leader Course, or PLC) or one 10-week course (Officer Candidate Course, or OCC). While in training, candidates are evaluated in physical fitness, academics and leadership, the latter of which being the most critical to success at OCS and to your chances of receiving your commission as a Marine Officer.
Knowledge
Ultimately, there is no good way to prepare for the stress you will endure at OCS. As a candidate, expect to sleep between three and four hours per night and to be yelled at and criticized on a regular basis. With that said, the most important step you can take to prepare for OCS is learning basic Marine Corps knowledge. First, make sure that you know the rank structure and uniform insignias for both officers and enlisted members of the Corps, as you will need to address every Marine with a greeting of the day as you encounter them in the squad bay, chow hall, parade deck and other places. Also, because the Marine Corps is part of the Department of the Navy, you are expected to be familiar with the Naval rank structures as well. Another beneficial thing you can do prior to attending OCS is learning wear your Woodland camouflage uniform, including wear your cover, roll your sleeves properly and blouse your boots. Having your uniform squared away will save you time and, more importantly, great amounts of aggravation from the Sergeant instructors while you are at OCS. Finally, before you become a candidate, memorize the 14 leadership traits: justice, judgment, decisiveness, integrity, dependability, tact, initiative, enthusiasm, bearing, unselfishness, courage (mental and physical), knowledge, loyalty and endurance.
Physical Fitness
Physically, OCS is demanding but not impossible if you arrive in shape. A few days after you arrive, you will take the Initial Physical Fitness Test, for which you must perform a minimum of eight pull-ups (not timed) and 75 sit-ups in two minutes before completing a three-mile run in less than 24 minutes. During OCS, Physical Training (PT) is conducted approximately twice per week and takes the form of trail running, obstacle courses, or cross training. It is highly advisable that in the weeks prior to your training, you run three to four times per week, running approximately three miles each time, as you will never run more than five miles at a time during OCS. Pull-ups are a point of pride in the Marine Corps, and practicing them will definitely help you at OCS. The best way to improve is to use the Armstrong Pull-up Program, which is linked to this article. Finally, it would be wise to do push-ups and sit-ups daily in the weeks leading up to OCS, as both exercises play a big role in PT.
Tags: Marine Corps, Marine Officer, Officer Candidate, three four, wear your
Gemology degrees lead to work in research, jewelry arts and appraisal.
Degrees and diplomas in gemology, a geoscience dealing with natural and artificial gems and gemstones, are offered by a number of institutions worldwide in both traditional classroom formats and online. Gemology study can focus on the classification and identification of precious stones, or on jewelry-making and jewelry appraisal, or a combination of these two tracks
Gemological Institute of America
The Gemological Institute of America offers distance learning, full time on-campus programs and short-term lab classes at 12 campuses around the world. With programs dedicated to training research gemologists as well as professionals in the jewelry industry, the GIA also provides job-placement assistance and a career fair. Information and application materials are available from the Institute's website.
Santiago Canyon College
California's Santiago Canyon College offers an Associate Degree in Gemology as well as certificate courses in a residency program focusing on the theory and practice of diamonds and colored stones. With support from a complete gemological laboratory, Santiago Canyon College prepares students for careers in the jewelry trade, auction houses and jewelry appraisal. Applications and information can be downloaded from the College website.
California Institute of Jewelry Training
In partnership with the Canadian Gemological Association, the California Institute of Jewelry Training offers the Canadian Professional Gemology Course, which leads to an internationally recognized diploma in gemology and fellowship in the CGA. The Institute's program is conducted on campus in Carmichael and Sacramento, Ca., and replicates a traditional jeweler's setting. Students are expected to have completed university coursework in geology, mineralogy, chemistry or physics. The Institute's website provides application and registration information.
The International School of Gemology
The International School of Gemology offers a diploma as a registered gemologist in a completely online program. Studies include tracks for gemologist and gemologist appraiser (jewelry insurance appraisal) programs, and course content is delivered via video and downloadable materials. The Society also offers gemological equipment and resources. Information and course materials are available from the Society's website.
Tags: Canyon College, Santiago Canyon, Santiago Canyon College, available from, California Institute, California Institute Jewelry, Gemological Institute
The African plate contains the continent of Africa as well as large parts of ocean floor.
The African plate is a large tectonic plate, one of the many that cover the surface of the Earth. Tectonic plates float on top of the hot liquid magma of the Earth's mantle like chunks of ice on a lake. The African plate makes up a large part of the Earth's crust, and includes not only the continent of Africa, but also large amounts of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
Divergent Boundaries
Africa was once the center of Pangaea, the supercontinent that existed before the continents drifted apart. Since then South Africa, India and Antarctica have split away from Africa. As a result, Africa has three divergent boundaries. At a divergent boundary the continents shift away, and hot magma from the earth's interior seeps up from the resulting gap, creating new seafloor.
Splitting
The African plate itself seems to be splitting apart. The East African Rift valley runs from Ethiopia southward, creating some of Africa's largest lakes, such as Lake Tanganyika. This rift is a result of the eastern area of Africa diverging from the western area. Geologists debate whether this means that Africa is in fact composed of two plates, or if the African plate itself is splitting into two pieces.
Sicily
While people generally consider the island of Sicily, just off the coast of the Italian Peninsula, to be European, it is in fact a part of the African plate. The African plate itself contains large pieces of the Mediterranean Sea as well as the Atlantic Ocean, and Sicily forms the boundary of Africa's Mediterranean sea plate.
Arabian Peninsula
Many parts of the world were once a part of the African plate but have since split off. The Arabian Peninsula split from Africa, creating the Red Sea in the process. Spain also was once a part of the African plate but joined the European plate after splitting from Africa. At one time, Madagascar was a separate plate, although plate dynamics have shifted and Madagascar has since attached itself to the African plate.
Tags: African plate, African plate, African plate itself, from Africa, part African, part African plate
Next to accounting students, business administration degree holders stand atop the job applicant world.
A bachelor of science in business administration can open up a number of career opportunities. In a June 6, 2010, article published by Eric Gorski of the Associated Press, job applicants with a degree in business administration were second only to applicants with an accounting degree in terms of popularity with potential employers. Some degree programs allow students to experience the best of both worlds, receiving the B.S. in business administration with a concentration or minor in accounting.
Financial Controller
According to PayScale.com, one of the top professions for someone holding the B.S. in Business Administration degree is that of a financial controller or manager. As of June 2010, the average salary range for financial managers in the United States was $70,198-$104,413. Many financial controllers have a master's degree or higher, but as the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics points out, some positions, like that of a bank manager, may require experience over and above advanced education. Financial managers are responsible for overseeing the major financial operations of a business. They are responsible for setting both the short- and long-term financial goals of an organization. An applicant with a bachelor's degree in the business administration field may beat out others with higher degrees because they may enter the job on the lower end of the payscale or simply because they have more experience.
Human Resource Generalist
Human resources is one of the faster growing fields for those holding the B.S. in Business Administration. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics projections indicated that the job market for human resource managers will grow at a 22 percent rate through 2018, a rate far above the average rate for all other professions. Payscale.com indicates that the salary range as of 2010 for human resource managers nationwide was $48,511-$71,233. These professionals are responsible for hiring and training new workers. In the area of labor relations, they also serve as the liaisons between upper-level management and workers. Some business administration degree programs offer concentrations in human resources. Education requirements vary among employers; a bachelor's degree is sufficient in many industries.
Financial Analyst
A third career for business administration degree holders is that of a financial analyst. This field, similar to that of the financial controller or manager, is closely tied to the investment sector. Financial analysts provide information and assistance to those responsible for making the ultimate financial decisions in companies and corporations. The job outlook for financial analysts is expected to remain strong through 2018, with a 20 percent increase in the number of jobs available. This projection provided by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics is reflective of the expectation that the increased complexity of the global market will continue to increase the need for workers in this field. The average salary of financial analysts nationwide for 2010 was $46,375-$57,352.
Tags: business administration, Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor Statistics, business administration degree, Labor Statistics, that financial, administration degree
The word biosphere means "life ball" and refers to the part of our Earth that contains all living things, and things that were previously alive but have not decomposed. Earth scientists categorize our planet into four interdependent parts: the biosphere, the atmosphere (containing all of Earth's air), hydrosphere (containing all forms of Earth's water) and the lithosphere (containing the Earth's core and the layers of solid and liquid rock that make up the Earth). These parts all affect one another or interact. Students can make their own biospheres and observe a living system that goes through cycles and changes over time.
Mini-biosphere
A jar of pond water containing algae, water plants, tiny creatures, bacteria and fungi make up a simple biosphere. For this activity, each student will need a clean pint or quart glass jar with a screw-on lid, hand lens or microscope, nail, small candle, notebook, pencil, crayons or colored pencils and supervised access to a pond. An adult or older student will need a hammer and a match or lighter.
Make a hole in the lid using the nail and hammer. Light the candle and drip wax into the hole in the lid. This acts as a pressure relief valve if too much gas builds up inside the jar. An adult can help younger students with the above steps. Under adult supervision, each student should collect a ½-inch to 1 ½-inch base of pond mud containing small insects and animals, such as snails, in the jar. Add algae and small water plants. Add water from the pond to fill the jar three-quarters full. Observe the various elements of the mini-biosphere with the hand lens or microscope. Record, illustrate and date observations in the notebook. Younger students can draw a picture of the mini-biosphere in their notebook. Allow the mini-biosphere to sit untouched for a week in a brightly lit room but out of direct sunlight. Each week, observe the mini-biosphere and record any changes. A small amount of water may be taken out each week to examine with the hand lens or microscope.
Simulated Environmental Changes
Older students can perform experiments that simulate the impact of various environmental changes on a biosphere. Allow the students to compile a list of variables they would like to test on the biosphere. Some ideas might include comparing no light, 12 hours of light and 24 hours of light; cold and warm temperatures; small amounts of salt or fertilizer added to simulate salt or fertilizer runoff, or blocking certain parts of the light spectrum by covering the jar with various colors of cellophane. Students should make enough mini-biospheres to conduct their experiments plus one for a control. Record the results of the experiments and observations in a notebook.
"Lunar" Biosphere
Older students can design a self-sustaining, balanced biosphere that might be used on the moon where the conditions for life are not favorable. Two weeks before starting this activity, sprout mung bean, radish, tomato and peanut seeds in trays containing soilless seed-starting mixture. Coordinate the collection of various soils such as cinder, clay, fertilizer, gravel, loam, potting soil, sand, silt and vermiculite. For this activity, each student needs a 2-liter plastic soda bottle with a black base, pan of hot water, craft knife, duct tape, clear plastic tape, notebook, pencil, colored pencils or crayons.
Remove the soda bottle label. Soak the bottle with the black base down in the hot water. When the glue softens, pull the base off the bottle. Cut off the spout end of the bottle. Plug holes in the black base with strips of duct tape on the inside of the base. Design possible sets of variables such as type of soil or soil mixture, amount of water added, type of lighting (lamp, sunlight grow light, etc.), type of seedlings and types of small animals and insects. Assign each student a different set of variables. Collect the small animals and insects such as beetles, ants, spiders, snails, slugs and sow bugs. Add the soil, plants and water to the black base. Add the small animals and insects. Turn the clear part of the soda bottle upside down and insert into the black base. Tape the two pieces together where they join and do not reopen the container. Label the "lunar" biosphere with the date, the student's name and the variables contained in the biosphere. Record observations and illustrations in the notebook. Observe weekly for several months. Determine which variables produced the best results. Consider the conditions of the moon such as the lack of atmosphere, water and topsoil, the length of lunar days and nights and how you might overcome these challenges.
Biosphere Research
Advanced students can research the Biosphere 2 project in Arizona and present a report.
Tags: black base, each student, animals insects, hand lens, hand lens microscope, lens microscope
Sandstone and carbonates are the primary rocks of reservoirs.
When determining the feasibility and performance of a reservoir system, two economic factors matter most: rate and amount of hydrocarbons recovered. According to Dan Hartmann, Edward Beaumont and Edward Coalson, research scientists and authors of "Treatise of Petroleum Geology Handbook," in geologic terms, pore type and pore-fluid interaction are the most important elements in determining how reservoir systems will perform in controlled and variable situations. Sandstone and carbonates are the most commonly found rock types in reservoirs and, although they share similarities in some physical characteristics, others such as composition, porosity, and permeability differ significantly.
Instructions
1. Recognize the components. Porosity and permeability of sandstone rely on several factors, some of which include cementation, compaction and pressure. The interrelationship between reservoir porosity, permeability, thickness and lateral distribution determine reservoir quality.
2. Identify the formula. Dykstra-Parsons coefficient of permeability variation demonstrates reservoir uniformity through the analysis of permeability values and is computed as permeability variance (V) equals permeability mean (M) minus permeability mean (M) plus standard deviation (?) divided by permeability mean (M).
3. Calculate permeability variance. For a given permeability mean of 50, and permeability mean plus standard deviation of 84.1, calculate permeability variance as V = (k50-k84.1)/k50. Charting tools are available using standard spreadsheets in Microsoft Excel and Minitab and a permeability calculator at the Ruben Charles website.
Tags: permeability mean, permeability variance, mean plus, mean plus standard, permeability mean plus
A stream must be assessed before allowing wastewater to enter.
Assimilative capacity is the process used to determine the ability of a stream to accept water from a waste treatment plant. Determining the stream's capacity is based upon the self-purification abilities of the stream and effects from introducing the new water.
Assimilation Principles
The impact of water from a waste treatment plant to a stream is based on two principles. The stream does not consist of a sterile environment. The stream serves as an extension of the treatment process. These principles allow a method to determine how the stream will accept, ingest and dispose of the waste.
Stream Models
A mathematical model can be created to determine the effects of a specified amount of waste on a certain stream. This avoids the possibility of the stream falling below acceptable standards. The model allows the prediction of the effects of additional discharges of waste by other facilities. Ideally, the discharge of water increases while the total poundage of waste remains constant.
Dissolved Oxygen
A major factor in the health of a stream is the level of dissolved oxygen in the water. The dissolved oxygen level directly impacts creatures such as fish that obtain oxygen from the water. Oxygen is also necessary for bacteria to decompose the waste.
Tags: dissolved oxygen, from waste, from waste treatment, treatment plant, waste Stream
Panning in placer deposit areas is the least expensive gold prospecting method.
In gold prospecting, preparation is the key element to success. New geological research methods and technological developments have made gold prospecting more feasible than in the past. However, new complications concerning state-mandated regulations and private land ownership also warrant consideration when prospecting. Gold can be found in certain regions charted on geological survey maps where conditions for gold formation exist. Gold is most often found in two primary deposits: lode deposits, such as mines, quartz veins and mine dumps, and placer deposits, such as streams, creeks and riverbeds. Preparation, including research of mining records, gathering the necessary equipment and obtaining sufficient funds, will greatly increase the odds of a good find.
Instructions
1. Research the geological survey maps, gold mining records and the geological process of gold formation to gain a clearer perspective on where to prospect. Geological survey maps are usually color coded based on established concentrations of gold finds. Decide whether you plan to prospect in a lode deposit or placer deposit area.
2. Contact the Federal Bureau of Land Management and the U.S. Department of the Interior Offices respective to your chosen prospecting area to find out about land ownership, state laws and local regulations. Ensure that your chosen prospecting area isn't off limits to mineral entry. If your chosen area lies on private property, obtain written permission prior to prospecting. Claims, or land ownership rights, can be purchased online; however, as long as a plot of land has no existing claims or legal restrictions, you may search for gold there.
3. Gather all necessary equipment for gold prospecting according to the type of area that you chose. For example, if you plan to prospect in a lode deposit, bring pick axes, rock hammers and a metal detector. For placer prospecting, bring a gold pan and a waterproof container to keep trace amounts of gold. Be sure to include your geological survey map for either type of area.
4. Travel to your chosen destination after purchasing a legitimate claim for clearing your chosen area for seasonal gold prospecting. Ensure that your vehicle can handle rugged off-road environments.
5. Search for gold in lode deposits by using a pick axe, rock hammer or chisel to excavate gold from mine walls or quartz veins. You may also locate lode gold by breaking rocks found in mine dumps. A metal detector might also be helpful, but not entirely reliable in locating gold or gold ore in lode deposits.
6. Locate gold in placer deposits by scooping up gold-bearing sand or gravel and water with a gold pan from a stream or bank. Shift the sand around in the water, gradually disposing larger grains, pebbles and sand until fine gold flakes or nuggets appear.
Tags: gold prospecting, your chosen, geological survey, land ownership, lode deposits, survey maps
Anoka, the "Halloween Capital of the World," is believed to have been the first city in the country to host a Halloween parade. Years later, the annual celebration continues with a month full of Halloween festivities. However, you don't have to wait for October to enjoy this northern Minnesota city. Anoka is a fun place to be any time of the year.
Lyric Arts Main Street Stage
Take your kids to see a live performance at the Lyric Arts Main Street Stage. The nonprofit theater puts on plays and musicals all year long. Kids must be at least 6 years old to attend full-length regular season shows. However, the theater also offers a series called "Mainly for Kids," which focuses on performances that kids as young as 2 years old can enjoy. Past productions have included "The Wizard of Oz" and "Cheaper by the Dozen." Your kids can also participate in workshops at the theater, where they'll learn the art of acting. Season subscriptions for up to eight shows are also available.
Lyric Arts Company of Anoka, Inc.
420 E. Main St.
Anoka, MN 55303
(763) 422-1838
http://www.lyricarts.org/index.html
Anoka County History Center
At the Anoka County History Center, your kids can learn about the history of the police, sheriff and fire departments in Anoka County. The Law and Ladders exhibit features original equipment used by firefighters and the police. Kids can learn what it's like to work in one of these departments through both serious and humorous anecdotes. The history center also features an exhibit focusing on the development of Anoka County, including little-known facts about the region. An exhibit exploring the history of musical theater and community choirs in the area is also available.
The history center offers a "Ghosts of Anoka" walking tour from early June through late October. The 90-minute tour covers 15 blocks of the city. Your kids can discover the facts and explore the legends behind mysterious occurrences in Anoka. Call (763) 421-0600 for tour reservations.
Anoka County Historical Society
2135 3rd Ave. N.
Anoka, MN 55303
(763) 421-0600
http://www.ac-hs.org/index.html
George Enloe Park
Head over to George Enloe Park for recreational fun throughout the year. When the weather's warm, your kids can play basketball, softball, volleyball, baseball, soccer or tennis in the 23-acre park. Walking trails and two playgrounds are also available. Pack a lunch and eat at the picnic area or use one of the grills provided by the park for a barbecue.
During the winter, your kids can go sledding, play hockey or ice skate. The park provides a building for them to warm up in afterwards and supervision by city staff at certain times. The hockey and skating rinks are open daily during winter, with extended hours offered on weekends and school vacation days. Indoor restrooms are also available.
Landforms both provide subtrate for and exert influence upon biomes.
Biomes refer to distinct regions of interconnected ecological systems, encompassing both organisms and the forces of climate and geology that influence them. Among the components of these complicated communities are landforms, the topographic features that provide a physical foundation for their development and, on broad scales of geologic time, prove themselves active participants.
Influence on Microclimate
When appraising a site in a particular biome, ecologists often consider the influence landforms have on microclimates. These are pockets of distinct climatic conditions -- temperature, humidity, prevailing wind and the like -- created by topographic features. For example, a ridge trending roughly west to east often supports different vegetation communities on either side because its south-facing slope receives more solar radiation than the north-facing. Thus there may be a relatively dry open woodland on the south slope, contrasted with a lusher, denser forest over the divide. The cool air tumbling from a cave mouth in a tract of hills might support a small, isolated patch of moisture-dependent plants.
Origin Questions
Another common line of inquiry is determining the "biography" of a given landform: its geologic history. This takes into account not just its original origin but the forces of erosion, weathering and deposition that may have acted upon it since. The same general kind of landform may owe its existence to any number of processes: a cliff-edged butte, for example, may have been uplifted by faulting or exposed as a resistant layer by the erosion of rock once surrounding it.
Wildlife Movements
In their seasonal migrations from summer to winter range, elk seek out efficient travel routes.
One of the many geographies at play in a particular biome is the long-scale movements of wildlife within and through its bounds. Some, like birds migrating through from far-off wintering grounds to far-off breeding territories, may simply pass through an ecosystem. Others, like ungulates yielding higher-elevation summer range for more sheltered lowlands for the winter, may do their ranging entirely within a single region. Landforms influence such travels: migrating birds may track along an escarpment, taking advantage of the winds it funnels, while a herd of elk might use a river valley or ridgetop to efficiently cross rugged country.
Soil Profile
Landforms play a role in soil development, which, acting interdependently with climate and vegetation zone, helps define biomes. The floodplain of a mature river, formed by its occasional inundations, develops deep, rich soils from the deposited sediments. A volcano heavily impacts its surroundings by occasionally spewing ash over a broad area, elevating soil fertility.
Many geology projects can be done by older children without supervision.
Geology is the study of the physical earth, which includes sediment, landforms and natural events relating to them, such as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Many fun projects can help children understand geological principles.
Making Stalactites and Stalagmites
Stalactites are conical rock formations which form over hundreds of years on the ceilings of caves, as water droplets formed by condensation deposit trace amounts of minerals. Beneath them, mirroring stalagmites often form. Fill two glass jars with hot water and epsom salts, and set them in a warm place with a plate between them. Tie both ends of a small length of wool or cotton yarn around washers, and let each washer drop to the bottom of a separate jar. Allow the middle of the yarn to sag between both jars, over the plate. Over time, the water and salt from each jar will creep up the yarn and drip onto the plate. Small stalactites will form along the yarn, and stalagmites will form on the plate.
Growing Salt Crystals
Another fun geology project is growing salt crystals. Fill a small Mason jar with warm water and half a cup of salt. Mix the solution thoroughly. Tie a small length of string to a toothpick. Let the toothpick rest over the top of the jar or hang outside of it while the string rests inside the solution. Crystals will form on the string over time.
Limestone Rock Test
Have children identify limestone rocks by using a special fizz test. Gather many rocks, some of which you know contain limestone, such as pure and oolitic limestone, and other varieties that do not, such as quartz. Observe each sample under a hand magnifier, and drop a few drops of a lemon juice onto the rock. If the sample rock contains limestone, it will begin to form small bubbles.
Rock Layer Experiment
Take four different colors of clay or Play-Doh, flatten each color into a flat pancake shape and layer them on top of each other. Each layer can represent a different stratification or rock layer. Encourage children to construct different types of geological forms, such as synclines (u shapes), anticlines (upside-down u shapes), using varying pressure and angles.
Conversion from Fahrenheit to Celsius is calculated with a simple equation.
Both Fahrenheit and Celsius measure temperature. Gabriel Fahrenheit's temperature scale of Fahrenheit is more common in the United States. In the rest of the world, the common unit is Celsius, named after founder Anders Celsius' centigrade scale. The foundation for the Celsius scale is the freezing and boiling points of water, which measure zero and 100 degrees Celsius, respectively. You can easily convert between the two units with a simple equation.
Instructions
1. Measure the temperature in Fahrenheit.
2. Write out the equation used for conversion:
Celsius = (Fahrenheit - 32) x 5/9
3. Plug in your value for Fahrenheit and convert into Celsius. For example, If you measure boiling water at 212 degrees Fahrenheit:
Celsius = (212 - 32) x 5/9
Celsius = (180) x 5/9
Celsius = 900/9
Celsius = 100
Therefore, the temperature of boiling water is 100 degrees Celsius
Oceanographers use skills in science, technology and communications.
Oceanographers study the vast expanses of seawater around the world, melding skills in biology, chemistry, computer science and communications. Oceanographers can specialize in a number of disciplines, including marine biology; chemical oceanography, which examines the composition of sea water; and marine geology, which explores the composition of the ocean floor.
The Profession of Oceanography
According to "An Oceanographer Studies the Ocean," published by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), many such specialists work for universities or the government, studying such issues as the role of oceans in climate change, the mechanics of tsunamis, and how pollutants affect marine life, from whales to plankton, Oceanographers working for private companies may comb the ocean floor for valuable sea deposits, study how currents and waves might produce energy, and explore the harvesting of marine life.
Science Skills and Education
Most oceanographers need to have a master's degree or doctorate because jobs in the field require advanced skills in science. While few universities offer a degree specifically in oceanography, those entering the profession can prepare by taking courses in aquatic biology, the physical sciences, chemistry, engineering, mathematics, geology and oceanography itself. These recommendations are found in "The Inside Scoop: Advice and Hints about Becoming an Oceanographer," an article in "Quarterdeck," a magazine published by the Department of Oceanography at Texas A&M University.
Technical and Nautical Skills
Technology plays an increasing role in oceanography, and oceanographers are expected to have skills in computer modeling, data analysis, digital mapping and global positioning systems, according to the federal Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Experience on ships is also helpful, especially mechanical skills needed to repair equipment while out to sea, notes Palomar College's web page "Careers in Oceanography." Scuba diving skills can also be an asset.
Additional Skills
Because oceanographers often work as part of a team, strong interpersonal skills are important. Good written communications skills are also key for writing reports and research proposals, while oral communications skills are helpful for explaining work to others. Oceanographers who do a lot of foreign travel may benefit from learning a second language. The BLS also notes that geoscientists and hydrologists (which includes oceanographers) "must be inquisitive, able to think logically and capable of complex analytical thinking, including spatial visualization and the ability to infer conclusions from sparse data."