Mount Etna is Europe’s largest and most active volcano. It is characterized by frequent emissions of lava, gas and ash that, in general, pose little danger to the population surrounding its slopes.
History
Mount Etna has the longest recorded history of eruptions, dating to 1500 B.C. Its most explosive eruptions occurred in 1669, 1879 and from October 2002 to January 2003. The eruptions in 1669 caused more devastation than any other volcanic event in Mount Etna's history.
Geology
The base of Mount Etna is a 500,000 year-old shield volcano. Alternating layers of lava and a mixture of ash, gas and rocks form a stratovolcano on top of the base. The stratovolcano portion of Mount Etna is about 35,000 years old and continues to grow.
Elevation
As of 2009, the elevation at Mount Etna’s summit is 10,925 feet. The elevation changes with the continual emissions of rock, ash and lava.
Features
Mount Etna has three prominent summit craters in addition to flank vents on its slopes that emit lava, ash and gases. Lava flows down all sides of the mountain and extends to the sea on the southeast flank.
Effects
Twenty-five percent of Sicily’s population lives on the slopes of Mount Etna. The mountain is Sicily’s main source of income thanks to tourism and the produce that grows in the rich volcanic soil. Lava flows are common and destroy property on or near the slopes. However, human life is rarely endangered. The slow flow of lava allows sufficient time for evacuation.
Fun Fact
An eruption in 122 B.C. caused so much damage to the nearby city of Catania that the inhabitants were exempted from paying taxes to Rome for 10 years.
Tags: Mount Etna, Etna history, Lava flows, Mount Etna history
Geology science projects focus on the earth and how it functions. They may include a concentration on such topics as rocks, minerals, earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis, and fossils. These project ideas are appropriate for different grade levels and can be modified to address the needs of your students and your curriculum.
Erosion of Rocks
One of the many concerns of scientists is the erosion of the earth and how its changes impact life. Most younger students assume that rocks, because of their natural hard structure, do not erode. Science projects that demonstrate erosion will support their understanding of the facts. The basic idea is to place rocks in different climate conditions and allow students to observe them over a predetermined period of time. Rocks can be frozen in plastic containers filled with water in the freezer, placed in sunny locations, immersed in water, or buried in the soil. Students should regularly check the rocks in each of these conditions and record their findings related to the erosion for each rock. It would be helpful as well for students to know the types of rocks they are monitoring in order to develop ideas about what factors cause some rocks to erode more than others.
Volcano
Volcanoes can be made that are simple or very complex, depending on the amount of time allotted the project in and out of the classroom. Volcano structures can be fashioned from papier-mache, clay, or soil. Students can either create their own volcanoes or attempt to construct models of well-known volcanoes throughout the globe. In either case, the project requires a purpose for investigation, such as whether or not the shape of the structure affects the flow of lava. Lava for science experiments requires a mixture of baking soda, liquid dish sap, food coloring, and a small container that can be inserted into the top of the structure, such as an empty plastic film container. All of the ingredients are placed in the container, and then vinegar should be added to make the lava erupt. The flow of lava from different shaped volcanoes can be recorded and then compared.
Earthquakes
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) indicates that there are a number of science-related earthquake projects teachers and students can conduct in the classroom. These may include projects that focus on earthquake prediction, with students developing their own methods of earthquake prediction and testing their effectiveness. Students may also research and report on earthquake myths in different parts of the world, where earthquake hazards are the greatest, what actions people believe will aid them in surviving an earthquake, or where the most active earthquakes exist and why. For students in higher grade levels, projects may include building a plate tectonic model or creating a seismograph to measure earthquake waves.
Learning create a project timeline may require some time and energy upfront, but it will pay off in any career. Making a plan that yields the desired results gives you an advantage and saves you time in the end.
Instructions
1. Write a brief description of the project at the top of the page. Label this section "Project Description." Ask your supervisor or colleagues for clarification if you do not have a clear understanding of the project.
2. List all key players. Who needs to be involved or made aware of the progress of the project? Include names, titles and brief descriptions of what you think their roles should be in the project. Label this section "Roles and Responsibilities."
3. Record the date you will start the project. Label this section "Start Date."
4. Determine the due date for the project. Write it at the bottom of the page and label the section "Due Date."
5. Determine the midpoint between the start date and the due date. Record this date in the middle of the page and label the section "Midway Point."
6. Record the actions required to get to the midpoint. Who should be involved? What resources will you need? How much time will each step take? Describe each step in one to two sentences. Be sure that the steps you define fit into the timeframe you have between the start and the midpoint of the project.
7. Record the remaining actions required to complete the project. Describe these steps in the remaining section of the timeline between the midpoint and the projected end of the project.
8. Review your timeline. Assess whether the time you have allotted for each step is reasonable and adjust where necessary.
Tags: each step, Label this, Label this section, this section, actions required, between start
Generally, granite with a rough surface is less pure than smoother granite.
Granite is one of the most important, tough and heat-resistant rocks used in building. It is also plentiful. In its pure form, granite is used in building tunnels and all manners of infrastructure. Its heat-resistant qualities make it indispensable in such areas as making steel and constructing hole fireplaces. Granite must be used in its pure form. Impurities in the rock make it more brittle than pure granite and prone to pockmarks. Depending on its level of purity, impure granite is basically useless. Does this Spark an idea?
Appearance
Impure granite, from a practical and non-scientific point of view, usually looks very rough and is often weathered. Pure granite does not weather easily. Impure granite looks very diverse in its composition; its surface has many colors and different textures. The purer granite is, the smoother its surface is and the less colorful it appears. Using impure granite in construction can lead to structural breakdown. Identifying granite's purity is very important before construction using granite begins.
Mafic
Old geology journals and texts use the term "mafic" to describe an ingredient in impure granite. "Mafic" means containing iron and magnesium. The more mafic the granite, the less useful it is for science, building and heat absorption. One of the most important ways to define impure granite is to measure its iron content. Magnesium content also harms the general chemical structure of the rock, lessening its integrity and making it physically weaker.
Porphyroblast
"Porphyroblast" refers to a rock that contains crystals that grew far larger than normal. Under extreme circumstances underground, such as extreme heat or pressure, granite under formation might be forced to grow porphyroblasts. The disproportionately large crystals break down the granite's integrity. They are often quartz and, under certain circumstances, can break down the feldspar that is a normal constituent of granite. Most feldspar, which composes about 60 percent of Earth's crust, is very heat-resistant. Granite with little feldspar is less useful than granite with more feldspar.
Gneissicity
Impure granite also contains what geologists call a "pronounced gneissic structure." That means the rock's mafic structure is significant enough to harm the rock's integrity, and it shows itself in bands that give impure granite its uneven texture. The gneissic structure results from impurities such as iron that harm granite's chemical integrity.
According to the geology website Plate Tectonics a divergent boundary is an area of the Earth's crust where two tectonic plates are moving away from one another. There are three types of plate boundaries called divergent, convergent and transform. As their names suggest, convergent boundaries move closer together as they move. Transform boundaries are areas where plates meet and slide horizontally around each other.
Movement
Earth is made up of various plates over the crust of the planet that move independently of each other. Plate Tectonics reports that despite the fact the plates move independently they are interconnected with the movement of one plate causing the movement of another---possibly thousands of miles away. Where plates meet, massive amounts of energy can be released with the movement of the plates. When divergent plate boundaries move apart, this energy is released in the form of tremors felt on the land around the plate.
Layers
The Center for Educational Technologies at Wheeler Jesuit University reports divergent boundaries cause the surface layer of the Earth, called the lithosphere, to break apart leaving a deep chasm called a rift. In places where molten lava, or magma, is able to fill the rift the lava eventually cools to form a new crust. Eventually, where magma is forced to the surface in areas of divergent boundaries, volcanic islands are formed.
Iceland
An example of a divergent boundary given by the science information website Universe Today is the country of Iceland, through which the Mid-Atlantic Ridge runs. Beneath Iceland a divergent boundary between the North American tectonic plate and the Eurasian plate is slowly opening a rift through the center of Iceland. As these plates move apart the land above them moves with the plate, which will eventually cause the country of Iceland to split in two and form two separate islands. As these two islands are formed the waters of the Atlantic Ocean will fill the area between the islands causing a boundary of water between the two parts of Iceland.
Mountains
According to the Universe Today website the Mid-Atlantic Ridge formation of mountains was formed by the movement of the North American plate and the Eurasian plate along its divergent boundary. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge formation of mountains is the longest in the world and lies at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean, growing up along the ocean floor where the new crust of the planet was formed by volcanic lava.
Oceans
The Tectonic Plates website reports that the oceans of the planet Earth were formed by the movement of tectonic plates at divergent boundaries. By opening large rifts that were not filled by magma the oceans were both born and grew wider because of the divergent boundaries of tectonic plates.
An ePI, or ePerformance Improvement Continuing, timeline can be useful for providing students with a comprehensive timeline in terms of ePI. This can serve as a useful guide. You will not need to follow the ePI timeline to an exact measure; however, it will prove helpful for providing goals and guiding an overall ePI program for your institution. Students will appreciate the timeline you provide for them when they begin their ePI program.
Instructions
1. Determine your desired steps for the ePI program. These can generally include an orientation, personal action plan creation phase, data entry phase, continuing education phase and self-assessment for each student.
2. Begin the timeline. Create a structure for the timeline. Create a top toolbar that contains variable time frames. For example, have a section for one month, two months, six months, a year and beyond.
3. Populate the timeline. Enter the relevant information into each time section. This will complete the timeline for your ePI program.
Tectonic earthquakes, such as those occuring along th San Andreas fault, are the result of the shifting of the Earth's tectonic plates.
Earthquakes occur when the planet's plates move against one another. This movement can create stress that causes the Earth's exterior shell, the lithosphere, to shift or break. There are several types of earthquakes, each characterized by the force that causes the plates to move. The most common form of earthquake is the tectonic earthquake; it happens when the shifting of the Earth's plates is driven by geological force. Understanding how these earthquakes function includes grasping both the scientific causes and human effects.
Tectonic Plates
The lithosphere (the Earth's crust) is comprised of a collection of unyielding, asymmetrically shaped plates known as tectonic plates. The solid-rock plates range in thickness from four to forty miles and are diverse sizes and shapes. Tectonic plates cover the entire surface of the earth, with those located below the ocean being thinner than the plates located beneath the continents. Plates often contain both land and sea within their individual boundaries. There are exceptions, however; the Pacific Plate is entirely under the ocean and the Turkish-Aegean Plate is entirely under land. There are nine major plates: the Antarctic, Indo-Australian, Eurasian, South American, North American, African, Cocos, Zazca, and the Pacific. There are also a variety of smaller, though no less significant, plates located between the major plates. While the division of the plates is based on size, a designation of "small" does not refer to the effect of the plate. For example, the Juan de Fuca Plate (a small plate) has been the primary culprit in volcanic and earthquake related activities in the northwest United States. In addition, tectonic plate movement anywhere on the planet will have effects on the other plates. For instance, the growing divide between the South American and African plates is causing the Atlantic Ocean to expand but is also affecting the ocean floor above the Pacific Plate.
Plate Boundaries
When tectonic plates move, they develop new boundaries or change existing boundaries between regions. Boundaries can be divergent, convergent or transform. Divergent boundaries occur when plates move apart and new crust begins to form in the newly created space between the plates. Convergent boundaries involve the destruction and salvaging of the existing crust into the Earth's interior as one plate moves under another. Convergent boundaries are often noted by the presence of volcanoes or mountains at the boundary site. Transform boundaries, also known as fault lines, are where two plates move past each other horizontally. They are commonly found under the ocean and are the cause for what is known as "shallow earthquakes." Some, such as the San Andreas fault boundary in California, are on land and visible in exposed areas.
Human Effects
While some earthquakes can be minor, barely affecting day-to-day human life due to location or level of force, others have been devastating. In 1906, a century of stress was released along the San Andreas fault causing a short but powerful 8.3 earthquake in San Francisco. The earthquake cost more than seven hundred people their lives and 250,000 their homes due to fires caused by the quake. In 1960, a massive 9.5 Richter scale --rated earthquake led to 20,000 deaths. Over four decades later, the 2004 earthquake near Indonesia and Sumatra topped the Richter scale at 9.3 causing a major tsunami in the Indian Ocean and fatalities of more than 300,000. The 2011 8.9 magnitude earthquake in Japan also caused a major tsunami, which laid waste to human life and caused extensive property damage.
Other Types of Earthquakes
While tectonic plate shifts are the cause of the majority of earthquakes on Earth, there are three other types of earthquakes that can cause movement of the planet's surface. Volcanic earthquakes are the result of volcanic activity. Collapse earthquakes are minor quakes caused by the collapse of underground areas such as caves and mines. Explosion earthquakes are man-made and occur due to nuclear or chemical explosions.
Tags: plates move, Andreas fault, tectonic plates, along Andreas, along Andreas fault, American African, Convergent boundaries
Identifying people is a forensic anthropologist task.
A forensic anthropologist is an anthropologist who specializes in forensic science to identify and recover human remains. In addition to required classes, students must complete internships, field studies and research projects. A bachelor's degree in anthropology and a master's or doctorate degree are needed for employment.
Archaeology
Archaeology classes prepare students to do research and analysis. Content areas include archeological theory, statistics, field studies and analysis. Prehistoric analysis is also recommended.
Culture-Historic
Prehistory classes acquaint students with ancient civilizations throughout the world.
Geology
Geology classes prepare students to identify the different types of areas where civilizations exist.
Anthropology
The range of topics for this field include human anatomy and genetics, both human and primate evolution, physical anthropology, religion study and social behaviors. This area will have the heaviest requirement of classes.
Forensic Anthropology
Classes in forensic anthropology prepare students to assist in the identification of human remains and crime scene investigations. Topics covered include bone trauma, mass burial identification, field procedures and body decomposition.
Tags: prepare students, classes prepare, classes prepare students, field studies, forensic anthropologist, human remains
Geologists glean information about the earth's history by studying fossils and rock formations.
The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) notes that individuals with master's degrees in geology can expect "excellent job opportunities" through the year 2018. Geologists study rock formations and fossils of plants and animals to glean information about evolution and the earth's history. Master's degrees in geology are preferred for many jobs in the field; job opportunities are especially good in the gas industry and in consulting. A number of schools throughout the United States offer master's degree programs in geology.
University of Wisconsin-Madison
The master's degree program in geology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison typically can be completed in two years. Students select a faculty advisor during the first semester and a thesis advisor during the second semester of study. A master's thesis is required for graduation from the master's degree program; students present their research results to a faculty committee and to students in the geology department. Degree candidates select from graduate-level courses covering topics in geochemistry, structural geology, geophysics and marine science. The university notes on its website that oil companies recruit on campus for internship positions for geology students.
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Department of Geoscience
1215 West Dayton Street
Madison, WI 53706
608-262-8960
geology.wisc.edu
West Virginia University
Students enrolled in the master's degree program in geology at West Virginia University can select from a research track or professional track. The research track requires submission of a thesis and is ideal for students who intend to continue on with Ph.D.-level study or pursue a career in research. The professional track involves completion of two projects and prepares students for geological careers. Students can select from several specializations including energy exploration and hydroscience.
A minimum GPA of 3.0 is required for master's degree students; an undergraduate geology degree is not required for admission, but applicants with degrees in other fields need to make up undergraduate math and science courses. Graduate geology courses cover topics including mineral resources, geochemistry and groundwater modeling.
West Virginia University
Department of Geology & Geography
330 Brooks Hall
Morgantown, WV 26506
304-293-5603
geo.wvu.edu
California State University East Bay
Geology master's degree students at Cal State University East Bay can take courses on a full-time or part-time basis, making the degree attainable for students who work full-time. Graduates of the program often go on to careers as government geologists, consultants and researchers, while some continue on to doctoral programs.
The 45-credit master's degree program requires candidates to complete a research project or master's thesis; an environmental geology track is available to students who wish to complete a thesis with an environmental theme. Geology students can choose from courses covering topics including groundwater, engineering geology and seismic exploration.
Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences
California State University, East Bay
25800 Carlos Bee Boulevard
Hayward, CA 94542-3088
510-885-3486
sci.csueastbay.edu
Tags: master degree, degree program, master degree program, select from, State University, State University East, University East
The Great Lisbon Earthquake caused considerable property damage, as shown in this painting.
Earthquakes are one of the most devastating natural disasters. Although the fault lines that are most at risk are known, there is no way to predict when and where the next one will occur. What is predictable is the incredible amount of damage that an earthquake will cause, chiefly in the form of fires, tsunamis and mudslides.
One example was the 1989 earthquake in the Santa Cruz Mountains of California. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, over $6 billion in property damage resulted, including three highway collapses. Does this Spark an idea?
Fire
Because gas and power lines often run underground, earthquakes have a tendency to break them quickly. If gas-powered furnaces or appliances get knocked over and sever their connection to fuel lines, there is a high risk of fire.
Tsunamis
Earthquakes that happen near or under the sea can cause tsunamis, which are waves that can grow as wide as 60 miles, and can rise high enough -- when nearing land -- to wreak havoc on the buildings and people on shore. The destruction of property is generally total, with most structures completely demolished along with cars and smaller items. People are often dragged out to sea with the undertow.
Mudslides
In areas where fault lines and mountain ranges converge, earthquakes can cause entire hillsides to slide down to the valleys below, taking commercial buildings, homes, roads, cars and people with them. Sometimes, this takes the form of boulders crashing down onto switchback roads, but if the landslide runs deeper, the foundations of homes can roll away too.
Liquefaction
According to Iowa State University's Department of Geosciences, liquefaction refers to the behavior of sandy soil that is filled with water during an earthquake. The force of the ground moving can make the sand act like a paste, or even a liquid, which makes a building susceptible to total collapse. The motion of an earthquake is stressful enough on buildings when the ground remains solid. Liquified dirt removes all stability.
Offshore oil rig safety specialists enroll in a training seminar to gain practical expertise in the fields of drilling rig operation and oil well drilling. Trainees also learn about federal and state regulations concerning oil-related operations.
Academic Requirements
A bachelor's or associate degree in occupational heath or public safety is the standard credential for most generalist positions in this field, according to U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) data. Employers favor job candidates with relevant work experience.
Training
According to the BLS, a new offshore oil rig safety specialist receives on-the-job training. Most employees need less than one year of coaching by experienced professionals, indicates O*Net OnLine. Offshore oil rig safety specialists learn introduce procedures to make drill work more effective, examine operations of slush pumps and provide technical guidance to drill supervisors and laborers.
Tools
According to O*Net OnLine, an offshore oil rig safety training program instructs attendees on use the tools of the trade. These include drill pipes, throttles, levers, rotary tables and brake pedals.
Whether you are planning a road trip, plotting weather effects or planning to buy land to build a house, one vital resource you will require is a land map. This is no different in Kentucky. The local government of Kentucky has made the task of attaining land maps relatively simple thanks to a wide variety of maps on its website which are all viewable and printable free of charge.
Instructions
1. Visit the official website of the region of Kentucky, specifically its maps section (see Resources). Here you will find a list of land maps of the greater Kentucky area.
2. Click on the type of map which most suits your purpose. You will find several choices, from flood hazard mapping to a map which outlines the various legislative districts.
3. View the map in the window which appears. Hover the cursor over the compass icon to reveal a drop-drown bar including "Zoom In" and "Zoom Out" out to locate specific areas.
4. Hover the cursor over the globe icon to reveal a drop-down bar which includes "Print." Click on that if you require a physical copy of the land map you are viewing.
5. Visit a county courthouse or municipal center within your region of Kentucky. You may find that local agencies will have geological maps that can be viewed.
6. Find a map section within your local library. Depending on the size of the library, it is possible to find the land map you are searching for.
Tags: cursor over, Hover cursor, Hover cursor over, icon reveal, land maps, region Kentucky
Create a model of one of Earth's neighboring eight planets' surface. The surface of some of the planets is made of rock. The gas planets --- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune --- don't actually have a terrain, but a gassy core. Mercury, Earth and Mars have a more prominent terrain, though Mars has a reddish tint to its atmosphere. Venus's dense atmosphere makes it difficult to see the features of the terrain. When making the model, look at an image of the planet.
Instructions
Terrain
1. The color of cement turns lighter as it dries.
Pour cement mix into the container until it's half full. Add water and mix. Add the amount of water stated on the mix directions. Shape parts of the cement to look like mountains or flat lands. Wait for 24 hours for the cement to harden.
2. Buy gravel at a pet store near the fish supplies.
Pour the gravel on part of the wet cement to make a rocky terrain, if it applies to the planet. Wait for 24 hours for the cement to harden.
3. Regular craft paint works on cement.
Paint the cement the color of the ground. For example, if you are creating the surface of Venus, paint the cement an brownish-orange.
4. The grass used on train layouts varies in shades to look more natural.
Spread hobby glue over the cement. Sprinkle green train layout moss on to the glue. Do this if you are making Earth.
Gas planets and Venus
5. Gel wax dries somewhat clear, even when it's dyed.
Melt gel candle wax in a saucepan over a stove.
6. A regular saucepan works well.
Add candle dye to the wax to make the desired shade. Remove the wax from the stove once it's completely melted.
7. Use a saucepan with a handle for easier pouring.
Pour the wax into the clear plastic container. If you are making Venus, pour the melted wax on top of the completed terrain.
8. Dip the end of a toothpick into liquid candle dye. Swirl the toothpick into the wet wax to create a swirling atmosphere effect.
9. Wait for the wax the dry before moving the model.
Knowing which things you can eat in the wild can help you survive.
Knowing basic survival techniques can mean the difference between life and death if you're stuck in the wilderness. The human body is composed of 75 percent water, and loses roughly 1/2 gallon to 1 gallon of that fluid each day through sweating and urination. This makes finding potable water of the utmost importance in the wild. However, even with an endless supply of fresh water, a person can only go for three weeks without food, which makes finding something nutritional to eat equally critical.
Water
A dehydrated person will exhibit symptoms of weakness, decreased mental capacity, nausea, no appetite and dark-colored urine. To find water, look for surface water such as streams, rivers and lakes. However, if you are unsure about the quality of the water, don't take any risks without purifying it first. Even in the wild, water can be contaminated with toxic chemicals, bacteria, viruses and parasitic worms.
There are three basic ways to purify water: filtration, boiling and chemical water purification. Filtering will help separate the larger particles in the water, while boiling is the surest way to kill microorganisms. If you have happen to have a survival kit with you, there should be tablets inside that will also help to chemically purify the water to make it safe to drink.
Food in the Wild
Meat and fish are good sources of protein and fat that will help a person survive in the wild. If you're not an experienced hunter, trapping is the more advisable way of capturing an animal for food, as it requires less skill and saves your energy. Eggs from a bird's nest are also good sources of nutrition, and are easy and safe collect. Remember to also look in the ground or in a hole, as some birds lay their eggs there instead.
Edible Plants
Plants are a convenient source of food in the wild, but unless you're sure a plant is safe to eat, it is important to conduct a universal edibility test first. To conduct the test, first separate the plant into its basic components of leaves, stem, roots, buds and flowers. Test only one part of the plant at a time by placing a piece on the inside of your wrist or elbow, and wait 15 minutes to see if there's a reaction. If you think the plant is safe this way, place the same portion against the outer surface of your lip to check for burning or irritation. If there is no reaction for three minutes, place the same part on your tongue for 15 minutes and wait for a reaction, but do not swallow. Try eating the portion if there is no irritation from the tongue test, but wait eight hours to make sure there is no adverse reaction. Repeat this step of eating a small portion prepared the same way and waiting eight hours. If you still experience no reaction, the plant may be safe to eat.
Edible Insects
Insects can provide important nutrients to a person lost in the wilderness, and are rich in both protein and fat. You can find them in rotten logs, under dead trees and in most humid, shady areas. Most insects are edible, but it is still important to be familiar with the bugs in your area so you know which ones are safe to eat. For example, most worms, grasshoppers, crickets and ants are safe to ingest. Insects you should avoid include ones that sting or bite, those that are hairy or brightly colored, and caterpillars or insects that have strong odors. You also should avoid spiders and common parasites such as ticks, flies and mosquitoes. Although most edible insects can be eaten raw, it is safer to boil or roast them.
Cooking
To survive in the wild, it's important to learn cook even without any utensils. One method is to build a fire over a pile of nonporous stones (make sure the stones aren't soft with high moisture content, as they could explode when heated). Food can be prepared directly on top of the heated rocks this way. This technique is most useful for preparing fish or thin meat slices, and for frying eggs.
Preparing for the Wild
The best way to increase your chances of survival in the wild is to familiarize yourself with the area before beginning your trip. The requirements to survive change dramatically depending on terrain and climate. For example, the techniques needed to survive in a jungle are drastically different than the techniques needed to survive in the desert or at sea. Therefore, remember to study the geology, water sources, and flora and fauna of a region before you set out on your trip.
Tags: plant safe, eight hours, good sources, make sure, makes finding, needed survive, place same
While getting accepted to graduate school with a low grade point average (GPA) is difficult, it is far from impossible. Many students with low GPAs are accepted all the time. By using good marketing skills, an applicant can easily use other positive qualities as a way to detract from a low GPA and get accepted into graduate school.
Instructions
1. Make sure minimum GPA criteria are met. Contact the school to find out what the minimum GPA is in order to be admitted.
2. Ace the GMAT or GRE. Getting a high score on the standardized tests can offset a low GPA. Make sure to study hard for these tests, as the score will be important. Taking the prep classes that are offered for the test being taken is a good idea.
3. Highlight positives. On the application, focus on the good. Volunteering, professional experience and projects are great ways to show off other assets.
4. Get letters of recommendation. Professional references and letters from professors look great when accompanying an application. These references should be overwhelmingly positive, stating why the candidate would be a good fit in the graduate program.
5. Consider taking undergraduate courses to raise the GPA. If all else fails, take some undergraduate courses to get grades up. Acing a few classes will help with the grade point issues and in the process a new interest may be found.
Tags: grade point, graduate school, Make sure, undergraduate courses, with grade, with grade point
Perennial trumpet vine brings hummingbirds to Georgia gardens.
Georgia's native perennials have adapted to a range of growing conditions across the Peach State. Piedmont region perennials handle Georgia's famous red clay soil without flinching. Those in the Coastal Plain tolerate soils from rich loam to Okefenokee Swamp mud. These perennials handle winter lows ranging from minus 5 to 20 degrees Fahrenheit in Georgia's USDA plant hardiness zones 6b to 8. Gardeners throughout Georgia can beautify their landscapes with a wide choice of these low-maintenance plants. Does this Spark an idea?
Ground Covers
Beetleweed (Galax ureceolata), a low growing evergreen, is common in northwest Georgia's woodlands. The 8 to15 inch plant has glossy, red-tinged, green heart-shaped foliage and leafless stems with spikes of small, white May and June blooms. Canadian wild ginger (Asarum canadense) likes the cooler summers of northern Georgia's woods. This 4 to 8 inch plant has heart-shaped, green leaves. Its reddish- to brownish-green, spring flower opens on a single stalk beneath the foliage. The plant's spreading rhizome has a gingery flavor. Both these shade-loving perennials like fertile, acidic sandy or loamy soil.
Vines
Perennial Trumpet vine (Campsis radicans) grows rapidly, often reaching 35 feet. Its summer-long loom of 3-to 4-inch, yellow, bright red or red-orange trumpet flowers make a showy contrast with the vines deep green, oval leaves. The sun-loving plant attracts hummingbirds. It flourishes in pH-neutral, well-drained, moist woodland soil. Evergreen crossvine (Bignonia capreolata) tolerates conditions from Georgia's southeastern coast floodplains to its northwestern uplands. Up to 50 feet long, it has clusters of yellow, orange or orange-red, spring trumpet flowers. Its glossy, dark green foliage becomes reddish purple in autumn. Like trumpet creeper, it attracts hummingbirds. Crossvine handles partial shade, but blooms more heavily in full sun. It likes slightly acidic, well-drained moist soil.
Tall Perennials
Goat's beard (Aruncus dioicus), a spring and summer blooming perennial, grows to 6 feet high and 4 feet wide. It has compound, dark green foliage and multiple stems of astilbe-like, creamy white flower plumes. Dense stamens make blooming male plants more dramatic than females. Goat's beard grows wild in the acidic soils of northwest Georgia's moist mountain woods. Common boneset (Eupatorium perfolatium), a 3 to 6 foot perennial, grows in the southern and northern state's bogs and wet woods. The butterfly attracting plant has large, lance-like green leaves and erect stems with flat clusters of downy, white June to October flowers. Common boneset grows in sun to shade and moist or wet soils.
Edible Perennial
Georgia's wild populations of sunchoke (Helianthus tuberosus) are most common in thickets and along woodland edges in the north central state. This aster family perennial reaches 6 to 10 feet high. Its hairy stems have multiple branches with large, lance-shaped green leaves. Each branch produces golden yellow, daisy-like blooms from late summer to mid fall. The plant's tubers are a commercially available potato alternative. They're edible raw, boiled or roasted. Sunchoke likes full sun and dry to moist soil.
Tags: green leaves, attracts hummingbirds, Common boneset, dark green, dark green foliage, feet high
Geological oceanographers study the floor of the ocean and the forces acting upon it, such as the circulation of ocean water, plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions. Like other types of oceanographers, their work spans a number of science disciplines. Preparation for a career as a geological oceanographer requires a minimum of a bachelor's degree in a related science. However, jobs often require a master's degree; certain higher-level positions may require a license or doctoral degree.
Instructions
1. Take a full program of science classes in high school, including geology, chemistry, physics and biology, to prepare for college-level work in these subjects. Also take computer and math classes to prepare for computer modeling and statistical analysis classes later. Participate in sports and outdoor activities to get in physical shape for eventual fieldwork.
2. Get a bachelor's degree in oceanography, geology or other related field. Because oceanography is interdisciplinary, courses of study and degrees vary. However, sample classes include marine hydrodynamics, physical oceanography, ocean waves, mathematical modeling and geological oceanography.
3. Get a master's in geological oceanography, geophysics or other related field. For example, Texas A&M University offers an M.S. in Oceanography that requires 32 units of study, with courses on the major divisions of oceanography, such as physical oceanography and geological oceanography, plus two semesters of seminars and a thesis. A master's degree equips you for a number of state and federal jobs or for private research jobs. Certain master's programs include an internship.
4. Obtain an entry-level position as a geological oceanographer. Although a master's degree may make it easier to find a job, graduates with a bachelor's degree may obtain internships or other entry-level jobs. Possible roles for a starting geological oceanographer include field explorer, oceanographic technician, research assistant or laboratory technician.
5. Advance as a geological oceanographer through licensing, on-the-job experience or further study. Although not all states license oceanographers, certain states require licenses for those who work directly for the public. The prerequisites for a license usually include passing an examination after fulfilling study and experience requirements. With licensing or experience, an oceanographer may eventually advance to project leader or manager. Complete a Ph.D. degree if you want to work in advanced research or as a college or university professor.
Topography is the study of the surface features of an area. Scientists, civil engineers and hobbyists study topography to determine natural hazards and land use. Topography can be depicted on a map through indications of elevation and relief.
Features
Topographic features include cliffs, mountains, hills and valleys. Water features such as stream beds and lakes can be monitored for changes that may affect the floodplain or surrounding area.
Hobbyists
Hobbyists use topography and topographic maps for hiking and for orienteering. By studying the topography, hobbyists are able to navigate their way easily.
Scientists and Civil Engineers
Scientists and civil engineers use topography and topographic maps to determine natural hazard risks, such as earthquakes, landslides and flooding. They use it to plan bridges and levee projects to determine the safety of such projects.
Topographic Maps
Topographic maps show the 3D topography, or the elevation of the area, on a 2D surface. Contour lines follow areas of equal elevation.
Determining Topography
Traditionally, survey teams measure angles and distances to determine topography. Remote sensing and satellites are more modern methods that can also be used.
Find the biggest gold nuggest by prospecting first.
Ask any old-time gold miner what's the most important thing about digging for gold, and they'll tell you to prospect gold ore where it occurs in high concentration. The truth about digging for gold is that you have to find it first. Gold is found naturally in all 50 of the United States but gold in high concentration is harder to find. Take the first step to prospect gold ore and you could find it will lead you toward a rich reward.
Instructions
1. Research the mineral deposits on public lands through the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and reports supplied by the United States Geological Survey (USGS). Contact the local office to get detailed claim information and activity reports for the area you want to prospect gold ore.
2. Observe the lay of the land using maps from the BLM or the USGS plus the aerial photographs supplied by Internet mapping from Google Maps. Look for ancient river beds and waterways. Look for exposed bedrock. Locate these identifiers prior to prospecting on site; this makes finding gold easier.
3. Travel to the mine site with a shovel and a pan for separating the gold from the ore. Walk the site and leave a marker behind where your map research showed the best places for gold to be. Gold concentrates around the bends in waterways, on top of bedrock and under heavy stones that lie in the path of the water.
4. Clear away the larger rocks and stones from the prospecting site. Sample the gold ore in many places and pan the gold from the gold ore. Keep track of the percentage of gold retrieved from each prospecting sample. Record the concentration and move to another sample site.
5. Dig for more gold after prospecting a gold claim or site. Use the concentration levels as your guide to mine for gold only in areas of high concentration of gold in the ore. Successful gold mining operations know prospect for gold to return the highest profits and concentration of gold in the available ore.
Tags: prospect gold, high concentration, about digging, about digging gold, concentration gold, digging gold, gold from
A classic stereotypical dream is to strike it rich drilling for oil. For petroleum engineers, it's not a dream, it's a daily responsibility. Petroleum engineers study manipulate the earth's resources and tap into materials hidden deep within the earth, all while maintaining the environment. Becoming a petroleum engineer requires a minimum of four years of postsecondary education, though prospective engineers may drill longer for advanced degrees.
Education
The petroleum engineering field is an advanced occupation, requiring a minimum of a bachelor's degree. As of February 2011, the Accrediting Board for Engineering and Technology accredited 17 schools teaching petroleum engineering. To compare, the board accredits more than 200 schools in general engineering and some of the more common engineering specialties such as mechanical and electrical engineering.
Framework
All petroleum engineering programs require classes that provide an introduction to the career and a foundation for the work. At Texas Tech University, these courses include introduction to petroleum engineering, engineering analysis and petroleum development design. West Virginia University, which calls its program petroleum and natural gas engineering, requires courses in thermodynamics, fundamentals of chemistry, introduction to electrical engineering, structural geology for engineers and elementary differential equations.
Drilling Down
Getting into the nitty-gritty of the subject requires courses such as Texas Tech's reservoir fluid properties design, reservoir engineering, petroleum production methods, petroleum engineering, petroleum property evaluation and management, enhanced oil recovery processes, special problems in petroleum engineering, natural gas engineering and petroleum geology. At Marietta University in Ohio, topics include petrophysics, hydrocarbon phase behavior, drilling and reservoir engineering, enhanced recovery, formation evaluation and transient pressure analysis. At West Virginia University, courses include oil and gas property evaluation, production engineering, petroleum engineering ethics, natural gas engineering, fluid mechanics and petroleum properties and phase behavior.
Higher Levels
Some accredited schools offer both undergraduate and graduate degrees in petroleum engineering. Texas Tech offers master's and doctorate degrees, which require course work in petroleum environmental engineering, advanced drilling techniques, advanced artificial lift methods, hydrocarbon reservoir simulation and pressure transient analysis. Prospective petroleum engineers at West Virginia University cover required topics such as petroleum engineering problems, secondary recovery of oil by water flooding, fluid flow in porous media, reservoir simulation and modeling and environmental issues in petroleum engineering.
Tags: petroleum engineering, engineering petroleum, natural engineering, Texas Tech, Virginia University, West Virginia
Compare rock samples and have students record their observations.
Kids are easily distracted and they may lose interest in science topics that they consider boring. Adding a little fun into the mix can keep them interested and help them succeed in their studies of things such as geology. Get them involved by engaging their imaginations through interactive exercises, both inside of the classroom and at home.
Excavation Project
To teach students about geologic timelines and their effects on fossils, have them play the roles of paleontologists excavating for bones and other remains. Children can work in pairs as they work together to dig up ancient "fossils" and then reassemble their findings to decide on factors such as time of death and former environments of the creature. Teachers can prepare an excavation site by building a large container in which bird skeletons and other assorted bones are buried inside a deep mixture of sand and mortar. Students will then take different jobs around the "site" and use specific tools to bring the bones to the surface, where they will reassemble the pieces they've found and make determinations on the items' histories. They can log their results in journals. Recreating a real-life excavation site is key, so have them use codes and numbers to tag individual bones, and they can analyze their findings using textbooks and museum reference guides.
Edible Layers of Rock
Demonstrate the effects of movement and faulting on rock layers such as limestone, sandstone and shale by creating an edible rock strata out of different types of foods that best represent the thickness and placement of different levels of the Earth's crust. Use flavored gelatin, whipped creme, fruit and graham crackers and line them up on top of one another in a glass pan to demonstrate how the layers interact with one another and show the results of exterior stimuli. Cut a slice and have the students interact with the concoction, looking for examples of what uplifting, faulting and erosion can do the rock layers beneath the Earth's surface. When the lesson is complete, the class can enjoy your delicious dessert.
Geology Scavenger Hunt
To help students better understand how rocks and minerals are used in everyday life, have them observe and interact with typical materials that they find at home, at school and everywhere else they go on a routine basis. This will help teach them the differences in geological and natural resources. It will also help them identify the types of rocks and fossil fuels in their community, and urge them to consider the merits of conservation. Each student can bring in various examples of items with geological ingredients and, through these items, demonstrate their knowledge of these items' origins.
Rock Identification Lab
Teachers place a selection of different types of rocks throughout the classroom at various stations. Students are given charts with a list of the rocks, and they will go to each station and record their observations and theories about each rock. In every instance, the children can make tactile determinations as well as scientific analyses of the rocks, making comparisons and pointing out differences. Students can also answer specific questions posed by the teacher. This lesson enables students to learn through their own hypotheses, and then further their learning through information gleaned from reference guides and the findings of their peers.
Tags: have them, interact with, different types, excavation site, have students
Color options for painting a bathroom are wide and varied; so choose an accent paint color that is modern and refreshing. Some accent bathroom colors are overly vivid or ostentatious, so carefully choose one that is usable and versatile. For an accent color to complement the appeal of your bathroom design, look for tones that add to the other colors in the room. Your goal is to create painted walls for your bathroom that are interesting, flavorful, and flexible. A few practical tips will get you on your way to a spectacular bathroom that incorporates a harmonious color palate. Does this Spark an idea?
Instructions
1. Choose Bathroom Paint that Accents the Cabinetry
Take a close look at the woodwork in your bathroom and choose a paint color that complements that design element. If your bathroom vanity, medicine cabinet, and drawers are all made from a rich mahogany or cherry wood, then you will want to choose an accent paint color that brings out the rich tones in the wood. On the other hand, if you have light oak or distressed wood cabinetry in your bathroom, you want to choose a bathroom paint color that adds a natural harmony to the space. Some practical accent paint colors for the bathroom that add a sense of vitality to the room include soft green, muted purple, and light mocha. Due to the relatively muted tone of these colors, they tend to blend well as an accent color with other bathroom paint shades.
2. Choose Bathroom Paint that Harmonizes with Accessories
Accent paint colors for any room must work in harmony with the decorative accents. This is especially true in a bathroom space because the bathroom tends to be one of the smaller rooms in the house. If your bathroom paint choice doesn't harmonize with your bath towels, hardware, shower curtain, and cabinetry, then you will wind up with a room that feels stark and disconnected. Bathroom accent paint should be a slight variation from the majority of the existing paint colors in the room. For instance, if your bathroom walls and accessories are painted a warm beige color, then a suitable accent color might be mocha or chocolate. If you were to choose a bright red or a majestic blue, then the result will be a disjointed bathroom that doesn't flow or blend. The exception to this rule is if you choose to go with plain white or off-white bathroom paint, then your accent color can be a complete variation from those shades.
3. Choose Bathroom Paint that Displays Artistic Creativity
As you choose an accent paint color for your bathroom, think carefully as to whether the color will seem washed out, too dark, or simply an odd decision. Some of the most powerful and universal color palates can be found in the basis of geology. Take for example the colors of precious minerals, stones, and the earth. By mixing these complementary colors in a way that is practical and versatile, you can create a subtly dramatic bathroom that will stand the test of time. For example, a soft purple accent paint color combined with natural cherry wood cabinetry and a marbleized countertop is exquisite. You have allowed artistic creativity to combine with the natural world in a way that is harmonious and versatile. Choosing a paint color for your bathroom that will accentuate the modern and natural design is as refreshing as it is impressive.
Tags: your bathroom, bathroom that, paint color, accent color, color that, paint color that, accent paint
Weathering processes are often obvious in mountainous regions.
Weathering is one of the early processes of geological denudation -- that is, of the breaking down, removal and transport of rock materials. Evaluating the degree of weathering means assessing rock type and climate -- factors that help establish the rate and nature of the breakdown -- as well as the mechanism of the weathering itself. Mechanical and biological weathering involve physical and biological forces, respectively, wedging apart rock; chemical weathering takes the form of chemical reactions that dissolve or transform it.
Instructions
1. Consider your particular landscape's underlying geology. Certain kinds of rocks and rock structures are more vulnerable to weathering: For example, limestone is easily excavated by chemical dissolution as water seeps through its pores and the resulting cavities expose the rock to agents of mechanical weathering.
2. The high temperatures of warmer latitudes promote greater rates of chemical weathering.
Investigate the region's climate, which plays a significant role in weathering. Wetter areas provide more precipitation for all sorts of rock breakdown, and the higher temperatures of subtropical and tropical climates often result in higher rates of chemical weathering.
3. Signs of frost wedging are often prominent in boulders on high mountain reaches.
Look for evidence of frost wedging. This occurs when water seeps into rock pores and interstices, or gaps, and freezes, expanding as it forms ice. After melting, the water can penetrate further before freezing again. This repetitive cycle of freezing and thawing can exert tremendous cumulative pressure, prying rocks apart and even fully shattering them.
4. Salt wedging may be particularly prominent in dry climates.
Watch for the similar process of salt wedging, which sometimes is an important mode of weathering, especially in arid climates. In this case, water is evaporated through the interstices of rock, leaving behind salt crystals that had been suspended in the liquid. These salt structures can act the same way as ice, forcing apart sections of rock.
5. The famous granite walls of Yosemite show signs of exfoliation.
Keep an eye out for the unmistakable evidence of exfoliation. Exfoliation removes strips or plates of material from boulders, domes, platforms and other rock masses, the result of weathering upon contoured and concentric joints. This process may involve both chemical and mechanical weathering, but may be mainly due to releases of pressure on rocks thrust to Earth's surface or to extremes of temperature.
6. Chemical weathering can excavate cavities in limestone layers.
Identify signs of chemical weathering, which may work alone or in concert with mechanical forces. Along with the dissolution of carbonate rocks, these can include oxidation, such as the rusting of rock-faces high in iron content.
7. Mountaintop pines can weather rock with their penetrating roots.
Look for the relatively small-scale evidence of biological weathering. This can include the penetration of rock by plant roots -- often seen in trees situated on sheer rock surfaces. The presence of lichen, which can weaken rock by extracting nutrients and by repeatedly expanding and contracting, is another possible sign.
8. Evaluate the degree of weathering after searching for visual clues revealing these processes. A large, solid rock-face without many joints or cracks may be only in the beginning stages of mechanical weathering, at least from a visible angle. One heavily enervated by cavities or deeply rusted has likely been subject to chemical weathering for some time.
Tags: chemical weathering, mechanical weathering, biological weathering, chemical weathering, frost wedging
Neptune, the eighth planet from the Sun, is known as an ice giant. The earliest information that was known about Neptune was based on mathematical evidence. The orbit of Uranus was affected by Neptune's orbit. Since then, information has been gathered about Neptune through observation by high-powered telescopes and by one visit from a spacecraft, the Voyager 2.
Function
The atmosphere of ice giants, such as Neptune, is made up mostly of hydrogen and helium. Neptune's atmosphere also contains water, methane and ammonia. Traces of hydrocarbons have been found as well. It is also believed that there is some nitrogen in the atmosphere, but that hasn't been confirmed.
Geography
Neptune is made up primarily of rocks and ice. The great presence of ice is due, in part, to Neptune's distance from the sun.
Features
The temperature varies greatly on Neptune. The planet core is approximately 7,000 degrees C, while the upper atmosphere temperatures fall to -218 degrees C.
Identification
Neptune appears blue in color, and this is due to the presence of methane in the atmosphere. Methane absorbs the colors at the red end of the spectrum, reflecting the blues at the opposite end of the spectrum, giving the planet a vivid blue color.
Features
The strongest winds in the Solar System are found on Neptune, with winds at speeds of 2100 km/h. Neptune, unlike many uninhabited planets, does experience weather. Very active wind storms, viewable from space telescopes, occur frequently.
Bottled mineral water is big business in the United States.
Bottled mineral water is a booming industry, with more than half of the American population considered consumers, according to the Natural Resources Defense Council. While much of our bottled water comes from our own country, imported water from untapped areas is also big business. You can start a mineral water project just about anywhere, as long as your selected land meets government requirements for approved source, space and zoning.
Source
Mineral water is required by the FDA to have no fewer than 250 parts per million dissolved solids present without manufactured addition of dissolved minerals. Due to this regulation, your land requirement for the source of your mineral water must be a protected underground source accessed by tapped boreholes or natural springs. While considered technically to be impure, mineral water is harmless, as the bacterial count still must fall within FDA and state regulation.
Space
How much land is needed for a mineral water project depends on the size of that project, that is, how many total bottles you want to produce in a day. You must have space for natural filtering, production and storage buildings, offices and parking. In order to produce 2,363 liters of water in a day, the land requirement would be 2,050 square feet. With this much area, there is not only the space to house that quantity of bottles (up to 50,000) but also the space for the number of employees it would take to produce that level of output.
Other Considerations
When building a plant of this magnitude, land location and access to other municipal services should be taken into consideration. As with any business venture, location is key. Ideally, land near a settled area with access to electricity, running water (not to be used for bottling, but for plant plumbing, etc.) and with highway access are preferred. The land must also meet any state zoning requirements which vary in nature from state to state.
Tags: mineral water, Bottled mineral, Bottled mineral water, land requirement, mineral water, water project
Weathering is the process by which rock is broken down.
Weathering is the process by which rock near the earth's surface is broken down, allowing it to be easily eroded by elements such as wind and water. There are two types of weathering, both affected by environmental factors.
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering is the process by which rock is transformed into something physically or chemically different than its original composition. The process, which is sped up by factors such as moisture and warmth, causes rock to soften. Some minerals are more easily chemically weathered than others.
Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering is the process by which rock is broken down into very small pieces. A common way in which this occurs is when water seeps into broken areas of rocks, freezes and expands, causing the rock to break apart. Plants may also cause this type of weather, as their roots grow into rock's fissures. Exfoliation, another kind of mechanical weathering, occurs when rock breaks apart in curved layers, resulting in a dome-shaped formation.
Factors
Factors that affect weathering include temperature, moisture and exposure. Weathering tends to happen more quickly in warmer climates. Exposure to elements such as wind, rain and ice also affects weathering: the more exposure, the faster the weathering. The mineral composition of rock also affects weathering, as certain minerals weather faster than others.
Tags: process which, process which rock, which rock, broken down, affects weathering, also affects, also affects weathering
Geologists study the Earth and the Earth's history. It is a fascinating profession that can combine chemistry, physics and biology to put together the story of how the Earth came to be the way it is. They also study the composition of the Earth and its physical characteristics. Geologists play a part in public safety, studying volcanoes and faults in the Earth, to predict eruptions and earthquakes and to minimize their damage. Geology is a demanding science and generally requires and bachelor's degree, and sometimes more, in order to be employed. The annual salary for a geologist can range from $50,000 to $100,000.
Field Work
Field work is an important part of a geologist's job. It involves visiting sites to view and study stones, sediments, fossils and other geological artifacts to gather data that is later analyzed. From these analyses, geologists make a hypothesis about the origin of the materials they are studying or the potential that a volcano might erupt within a given period of time. Some sites are quite remote, and the travel to the site could be arduous. Geologists may spend many days or weeks at a time on site, sometimes sleeping in tents.
Business
Many geologists work in private industry, for instance in the field of petroleum. Geologists study data gathered from holes bored deep inside the Earth and sonic data to try and determine where petroleum deposits might be found. A typical day could have a geologist in the field gathering data, in meetings with colleagues discussing what they have found or in their office analyzing data for their recommendations.
Teach
Some geologists are academics and work in schools or universities, teaching geology to students full time or combining teaching with other activities. At the university level professors are expected not only to teach but to continue their own research and publish academic papers. A geologist at a university might be preparing for classes in the morning, teaching in the afternoon, attending a departmental meeting after that and then working on their own projects and writing.
Tags: Geologists study, Geologists study Earth, study Earth
Petroleum engineering is characterized by very high pay rates.
Petroleum engineers work with geologists to determine appropriate drilling procedures for specific resource sites and develop extraction methods. Petroleum engineers also develop and improve technology for increasing the amount of oil and gas extracted from a reservoir. These professionals have the highest pay scale of all types of engineers, reports the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Comparisons
In 2008, about 1.6 million engineers were employed in the United States, but only a small percentage of them worked as petroleum engineers, finds the BLS. An estimated 25,540 petroleum engineers held jobs in the United States as of May 2009. Their average salary was $57.67 per hour, or $119,960 per year. The next two highest-paying engineering professions were computer hardware engineering, with an average annual salary of $101,410, and nuclear engineering, at $100,350 per year on average.
Pay Scale
The middle 50 percent of petroleum engineers on the earnings scale were making $79,810 to $150,310 per year in 2009. The bottom 10 percent had annual salaries of $58,600 and below. The BLS does not disclose the top 10 percent of salaries for petroleum engineers, but states the amount is at least $166,400 per year.
Employment by State
Petroleum engineering work is concentrated in areas with large petroleum deposits. The largest number of petroleum engineers per capita were working in Alaska in 2009, earning an average salary of $154,500 per year. Rounding out the top five states were Wyoming, with an annual average salary of $77,670, Oklahoma at $110,390, Texas at $126,240, and Louisiana at $99,550.
Employment by Metro Area
The largest concentration of petroleum engineers by metro area in 2009 was in Midland, Texas, where they were earning $124,570 per year on average. The other highest concentrations were in Casper, Wyoming, at an average salary of $83,200 per year; Anchorage, Alaska, at $168,060; Odessa, Texas, at $86,150; and the greater Houston area in Texas at $132,690.
Highest-Paying Areas
The highest salary for petroleum engineers by state in 2009 was in Arkansas, where they earned $180,150 per year on average. The highest-paying metro region in the country for petroleum engineers was the greater Fort Smith area in Arkansas, with an average annual salary of $199,860. North Dakota was the second-highest paying state, at an average of $163,060 per year, and Alaska was third, at $154,500. Anchorage, Alaska, was the second-highest paying metro area for petroleum engineers, with an average salary of $168,060 per year. The other states where petroleum engineers earned average salaries of over $100,000 per year included California, Colorado, New Jersey, Oklahoma, Utah, Virginia and West Virginia.
Tags: petroleum engineers, average salary, average salary year, salary year, with average
BBA students study a variety of business topics, including marketing, finance and management.
Individuals interested in a leadership position obtain the professional credentials necessary through a Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA). This four-year degree program teaches students the fundamentals of business and management principles. This degree offers a solid foundation as well as practical management training to navigate an organization or find employment in a public sector. The salary for people with this degree vary by job title, experience, location of employment and employer.
Salaries by Job
The salaries of individuals with a bachelor's degree in business administration vary by job title. A human resources (HR) manager is reported to earn a median salary of $55,649 in 2011, according to PayScale.com, while a financial controller earns $68,784 on average. Regional managers with a business administration bachelor's degree earn a median salary of $82,500, while retail store managers earn the lowest reported salary for this degree at $40,414.
Experience
Those with a BBA degree with less than one year of experience earn a median salary of $35,843, as of 2011, according to PayScale.com. Those with one to four years of experience earn a median salary of $41,549, while those with five to nine years of experience earn a median salary of $53,098. BBA holders with 20 or more years of experience earn a median salary of $75,547.
Location
Salaries also vary by cities and states. Individuals with a BBA degree in the city of Houston, Texas, are reported to earn a median salary of $56,588, according to PayScale.com, while those in New York City earn a median salary of $59,110. In Chicago, the average salary is $70,318. BBA holders employed in the state of California earn a median salary of $59,583, those in Illinois $65,442, while those in employed in Georgia earn a median salary of $48,870.
Employer Type
Salaries for individuals with a BBA degree vary by employer type. Those employed by a company are reported by PayScale.com to earn a median salary of $56,355, while those employed by a private practice earn $54,389. The federal government pays $54,034, and school districts offer $48,538. Franchise employees earn some of the lowest salaries reported by PayScale.com at $39,740, while those employed by a hospital have a higher pay of $58,429 on average per year.
Tags: earn median, earn median salary, median salary, while those, experience earn, experience earn median
An erupting volcano model can help children understand how a real volcano eruption occurs.
A volcano model made of dough or clay that erupts with a mixture of vinegar and baking soda is a entertaining and educational science activity for kids. Even preschool-age children love to watch the erupting "lava" bubbling out of the volcano's top. The fizzy bubbles are caused by carbon dioxide that is released as a product of the chemical reaction between the vinegar and the baking soda.
Instructions
1. Place the cardboard inside the tray. Cut the neck of the bottle off at an angle and stand the bottle up in the center of the tray. Glue it to the cardboard and let dry completely.
2. Mix the flour and salt together. Add water to make a dough with the consistency of modeling clay. Build a mountain around the plastic bottle, tapering as you go so the volcano top is at the neck of the bottle. Feel free to sculpt gullies, boulders and canyons into the mountainside. Depending on the size of the bottle, you may need more than one batch of dough. Let each batch dry partially before adding on to it, and let the finished volcano dry overnight.
3. Paint the volcano to give it a realistic appearance. You may want to paint the top white to represent snow or ice, while the lower part should be a mix of brown, gray and green patches representing rock and plants. Let the paint dry completely.
4. Mix the vinegar, food coloring and dishwashing detergent together and carefully pour it into the bottle inside the volcano. Use the funnel to keep the mixture from spilling onto the sides of the mountain.
5. Wrap the baking soda in the small piece of tissue and drop it gently inside the bottle. In a few seconds, a red fizzy liquid full of bubbles will foam out of the opening and down the sides of the volcano.
The magnetosphere is a region that surrounds the Earth's magnetic field and extends far out into space, some 36,000 miles, or possibly more than 1,000 times the Earth's radius, according to NASA's Cosmicopia website (see link in Resources). Two key components that form the Earth's magnetosphere are the Earth's magnetic field and the solar wind, a hydrogen/helium plasma streaming continuously outward from the sun into the solar system. Most particles from the sun carried in solar wind are prevented by the magnetosphere from bombarding the Earth. There are many more components that make up the Earth's magnetosphere, including the bow shock, magnetosheath, magnetotail and more, but it's safe to say that without the Earth's magnetosphere, dangerous particles from the sun and space radiation would pose a serious threat to life on Earth.
Trivia
The Earth has the strongest magnetosphere of all the rocky planets in our solar system. Venus and Mars, although rocky planets, do not have magnetospheres. In our solar system Mercury, Earth, and the Jovian (or gas) planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune all have magnetospheres, as does the sun itself.
Fun Fact
Some particles do, however, enter the Earth's magnetosphere and travel along Earth's magnetic field lines to create the spectacular auroral light shows we know as the northern and southern lights.
Pole Flip-Flop
What we recognize as Earth's north and south poles reverse directions every few thousand years, as does the orientation of the magnetosphere. Evidence of this can be found in magnetic rock on the ocean floor. Are migrating birds and animals affected by this sudden flip-flop of poles? The jury is still out on that question.
Expert Insight
The magnetosphere was given its official name in 1958 by Tom Gold, an astronomy professor at Cornell University.
Effects
If you can imagine the bow of a ship speeding through water, you have a good idea of what the bow shock within the Earth's magnetosphere looks like and how it works. The collision of solar wind against the outer part of the Earth's magnetosphere creates an immense shock wave.
Tags: Earth magnetosphere, Earth magnetic, Earth magnetic field, magnetic field, solar system
Expansive soils can cause serious problems. According to the Arizona Geological Survey, expansive soils in the state cause millions of dollars in damage annually to roads, swimming pools, driveways, walls and foundations. The soil expansion coefficient, which helps determine the expansion ability of a soil type, aids builders in creating structures resistant to damage from soil expansion. You may need to know soil expansion coefficients for DIY building projects; this information can commonly be provided by your local building codes. Does this Spark an idea?
Definition
An expansion coefficient is a numerical constant used to describe the degree by which a material expands. Expansion coefficients appear most commonly in relation to thermal expansion -- the expansion of materials as temperature increases. A soil expansion coefficient describes the rate at which soil expands as it absorbs water. The expansion coefficient of a material appears as a decimal that represents its expansion rate in a specified unit, such as inches or millimeters. Determining actual expansion entails multiplying the coefficient by a variable - in the case of soil expansion, the amount of water absorbed.
Expansive Soils
Expansive soils contain clay minerals capable of absorbing water. As these minerals absorb water, they expand, causing the soil to expand. Common clay minerals in expansive soils include smectite, bentonite, beidellite, vermiculite and chlorite. The pressure of expanding soil can easily damage manmade structures in the soil. When expansive soils dry up and begin contracting, they crack and fissure; cracked, dry soil can expand extensively in the presence of moisture. According to Geology.com, these soils can enlarge their surface area by as much as 10 percent.
Soil-Expansion Coefficients for Homeowners
In most cases, you don't need to know expansion coefficients for the soil around your home. Engineers, architects, builders, soil scientists and geologists are the only people who really need this information. Ostensibly, you need a basic understanding of your soil expansion coefficient if you undertake a DIY construction project on your land. For instance, if you build a shed in expansive soil, you need to build that shed with your expansion coefficient in mind to help avoid damage to your shed. You local building code should provide guidelines for building in expansive soils in your area. By following building codes, you can avoid the complex math and science associated with soil-expansion coefficients.
Determining Soil Expansion Coefficient
You cannot use generalized information about soil types to determine expansion coefficient because all soils, even those of similar types, exhibit slightly different compositional elements. For instance, two clay mineral soils containing smectite and bentonite may exhibit different expansion coefficients based on the percentages of each mineral present in the soil and the total volume of that soil in an area. The United States Soil Conservation Service uses the COLE test to determine the expansiveness of soil. This entails the use of plastic resin, suction devices, numerous soil samples and complex formulae.
Geologists study the Earth and how its various environments and components change and interact. These professionals also research the organisms that inhabit this planet and how they have coexisted and continue to, even in today's world. There are very specific educational requirements needed to become a geologist. Much of this education forms the foundation of knowledge necessary to understand the inner workings of this career choice.
High School
The path to this career choice starts for some as early as in high school. Classes in the core sciences -- chemistry, biology and Earth science -- are key to providing a foundation for geology principles. Physics and environmental science are also key to this field, so those should be taken if offered. According to the Degree Directory website, computer courses are also important, since much of this field is computer-based.
College (General Education Requirements)
General education requirements should be fulfilled on the road to a geology career, including as many science classes as possible. Geologists incorporate numerous other sciences into their work, so a basic understanding of how various sciences -- from astronomy to biology -- interact is important for a total understanding of the geological field as a whole.
College (Major Requirements)
Specific courses for a geology major include hydrogeology, planetary geology, earth resources, marine geology and paleoecology, according to the Degree Directory site. Mineralogy, paleontology and volcanology are also key courses for a geology major. If possible, part of her education should include a hands-on internship with a geologist or geology firm to have a better understanding of real-life geological work.
Continuing Education
The field of geology is always changing because the Earth -- which is the focal point of a geologist's career -- is constantly changing. Continuing education credits may be obtained from industrywide seminars and conferences, as well as via professional associations. Geologists also work in other countries, so refresher courses in language, mapping systems, geographical information systems and modeling are important even for the most seasoned geology professionals.
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Looking out over the array of rocks that is South Dakota's Badlands it is hard to imagine that the area was ever part of a vast sea. At one time, however, a giant ocean covered the region from what is now Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. It teemed with life and minerals. As the waters dried and receded, those elements were deposited in colorful rocks filled with animal remains, now fossils.
Once a Vast Sea
What is now South Dakota evolved over millions of years, shaped by water, wind and shifting of geological plates. About 75 million years ago, a vast shallow sea covered the area that is now the Great Plains of the United States. Fish, birds, shellfish and other creatures flourished. As they died, their remains fell to the bottom to become fossils and rock.
Uplifts Shaped the Land
Eons later, the shifting of Earth's plates uplifted vast sections, forming today's Rocky Mountains, including South Dakota's Black Hills. This raised the lands under the sea and the water gradually drained away. That now dry land became a hot and humid subtropical rainforest. New species of animals developed and thrived. They, too, died and left remains over a period from about 23 to 35 million years ago.
Climates Changed
Gradually, climates changed and there were periods of ice and volcanic eruptions. The area became cooler and drier and the plant and animal life changed. The area became first a savannah, then giant grasslands, somewhat resembling today's Badlands. Animals there were ancestors of today's horses, pigs, sheep, cats, rabbits and creatures resembling the rhinoceros and hippopotamus.
Indians Called it "Land Bad"
Wind and water erosion carved the remnants of that ancient seabed into hills and valleys with bands of varying and often brilliant colors, created by minerals and fossils from the old sea. It became a dry and forbidding landscape, with extremes of weather from searing heat to winter blizzards and little natural water. The Lakota (Dakota) Indians called it "mako sica" or "land bad."
Greatest Fossil Collection
Today, the Badlands are one of the greatest collections of fossils on Earth. Some of its vivid colored bands are fossilized soils. The Black Hills to the north and west of the Badlands are home to the Mount Rushmore monument, a giant sculpture of four American presidents, and the scene of Gen. George Custer's famous Last Stand battle. They also were once part of a gold rush triggered in 1874 when a Custer expedition found gold.
Tags: South Dakota, area became, Black Hills, million years, there were, United States