Stonyiron Meteorites Found In Kansas

Meteorites are fragments of meteors that reach Earth's surface.

Meteors are what we commonly know as "falling stars," which make their way into Earth's atmosphere. Their bright light is the heat produced by atmospheric friction as they burn up within the atmosphere. Occasionally, fragments make their way to Earth, and this is what we call "meteorites." Kansas has a higher than normal presence of meteorites found in the world, and is home to a meteorite museum.

Types

Geologists classify meteorites into three basic categories: irons, stones, and stony-irons. Irons consist mainly of iron and nickel in varying proportions. Stones are composed of silicate minerals, which are compounds of silicon, oxygen, and various metallic elements, similar to ordinary rocks found on Earth. Stony-irons are composed of both silicates and metals in roughly equal proportions. There are sub-categories within each type of meteorite as well, but the stony-irons are the rarest type, comprising only 1 percent of all meteorites.

Stony-Irons

There are two basic types of stony-iron meteorites: pallasites and mesosiderites. Pallasites contain olivine, a green or brownish mineral found in igneous rocks, known as the gemstone peridot in its purest form. They are considered the most beautiful of all meteorites because of their brilliant coloring. Mesosiderites are equal parts of nickel-iron and stony components, and are brecciated (consisting of angular fragments of stones fused together). They display silvery metallic flakes and veins that are said to resemble the night sky when polished.

Brenham

One of the most significant meteor finds in the world is located in Haviland, Kansas, and is known as the Brenham meteorite. Estimated to have fallen 20,000 years ago, the Brenham meteorites are stony-irons, and are thought to have originated in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. These meteorites have been found in burial mounds of the Hopewell Indians of the Little Miami Valley in Ohio. The largest one yet was found in 2005 and weighs 1,400 pounds. Only two larger ones of that type are known to have been found.

Kansas Meteorite Museum

The Kansas Meteorite Museum is located in Haviland, Kansas, the site of the Benham meteorites. The museum is just a modest one-room building, but has a gift shop where you can purchase small meteorite fragments or larger polished pieces. It's owned by Don Stimpson and Dr. Sheila Knepper, who are available for meteorite-hunting expeditions. The museum's exhibits feature detailed maps of the various sites of findings, impressively large specimens of stony-irons and a scientific-analysis device called a cloud chamber that demonstrates sub-atomic particles of the meteorites.

Tags: been found, have been, have been found, Haviland Kansas, Kansas Meteorite, Kansas Meteorite Museum

What Three Pieces Make Up Sedimentary Rock

The Grand Canyon has nearly 40 identified sedimentary rock layers.

Sedimentary rocks are made up of many different types of rock fragments, minerals or organic matter, such as plants or animals, that have been fused together over time. The three main types of sedimentary rocks are based on the type of materials in the rock: clastic, chemical and organic.

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Sandstone, such as this formation in Arizona, is a medium-grained clastic rock.

As rocks weather, they break down into smaller rocks and particles. Through natural forces such as wind or water, rock particles, also known as sediment, move and settle into different locations. Layers of rock particles, or strata, are deposited on top of previous layers. Over time, these layers become compacted and bound together, forming new rocks called sedimentary rocks. This process is called lithification. Examples of clastic sedimentary rocks include sandstone, breccia and quartz gritstone.

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

High evaporation rates expose rock salt in the Dead Sea.

According to the U. S. Geological Survey, chemical sedimentary rocks are formed from chemical precipitation and evaporation. Stalactites and stalagmites form when water travels through, dissolves and redeposits minerals. Rock salt is exposed when water evaporates from layers of inorganic sediment that were initially deposited underwater. Other examples of chemical sedimentary rocks are oolistic limestone, gypsum and calcite.

Biogenic Sedimentary Rocks

Coal is a fossil fuel made from dead plants and animals.

Biogenic sedimentary rocks, also known as biologic or organic sedimentary rocks, contain organic material such as plant or animal debris. Coal, for example, forms when dead plant material accumulates and is buried and compacted by additional layers of sediment. Other examples of organic sedimentary rocks are chert and chalk. Biogenic rocks often contain visible animal or plant fossils. Coral limestone, another biogenic sedimentary rock, is the fossilized remains of coral.

Clues to the Earth's History

Each layer represents what was once on the Earth's surface.

Geologists use sedimentary rocks to understand the history of the Earth and its inhabitants. Fossils found in the layers of deposited sediment act as a timeline for plants and animals. Sedimentary rock characteristics provide clues about how the rock was formed. For example, geologists determined that sandstone, which has small wave marks or grooves, is a result of sediment that was deposited in shallow moving water with waves.

Tags: sedimentary rocks, plants animals, also known, chemical sedimentary rocks, organic sedimentary, organic sedimentary rocks, Other examples

Environmental Science Ph D Programs

Environmental scientists positively affect the environment.

A Ph.D. in environmental science can lead to a rewarding career. Environmental scientists integrate studies in the physical and biological sciences in order to solve the world's environmental issues. Schools offering a Ph.D. in environmental sciences typically offer several different areas of specialization.

University of California-Santa Barbara

The Bren School of Environmental Science and Management at the University of California in Santa Barbara (UCSB) offers a Ph.D. in environmental science and management. An additional emphasis in economics and environmental science can also be added as part of this program. One of the hallmarks of the UCSB program in environmental science is it does not require a specific number of credit hours to complete the degree. Students are awarded the degree upon successful demonstration of mastery in their fields. Students must, however, complete three interdisciplinary seminars that prepare students for research, proposal preparation, statistical methods, manuscript writing and presentations. Students are given considerable leeway to pursue research in their chosen fields of study.

Bren School of Environmental Science & Management

2400 Bren Hall

University of California, Santa Barbara

Santa Barbara, CA 93106

805-893-7611

ucsb.edu

Washington State University-Vancouver

Washington State University in Vancouver also offers the Ph.D. in environmental and natural resource sciences through its School of Earth and Environmental Sciences. Students must demonstrate competence in five broad areas: advanced knowledge of ecosystems, advanced knowledge of research methods, issues and ethics in natural and environmental resources, advanced appreciation of interdisciplinary studies and the development of a specialized research topic that will allow the student to make a contribution to the body of knowledge on the subject. Areas covered by the WSU program include environmental science and regional planning, geology and earth science teaching. Courses offered include radiation biology, fundamentals of risk assessment, meteorology and ecosystems management.

Office of Admissions

WSU Vancouver

14204 NE Salmon Creek Ave.

Vancouver, WA 98686

360-546-9779

wsu.edu

Arkansas State University

Located in Jonesboro, Arkansas, Arkansas State University (ASU) is a third option for students who desire to pursue a Ph.D. in environmental science. The program at ASU, like those at WSU and UCSB, is interdisciplinary in nature. The program at ASU encompasses studies across several colleges within the university: Science and Math; Agriculture; Business; Engineering; and Humanities and Social Science. The geographical location of ASU makes it an ideal location for the study of environmental science (the Mississippi Embayment). Students come face to face with environmental issues such as acid mine drainage, nonrenewable resource depletion, loss of biodiversity and water quality impairment. Research areas offered within the Ph.D. program include water and wetland resources, agri-ecology, ecotoxicology, ecological engineering, waste management, stream restoration, physiological equality, environmental chemistry, environmental policy and law, chemical hydrogeology, analytical geochemistry and global change economics.

Arkansas State University

P.O. Box 847

LSW 552

State University, AR 72467

870-972-2007

astate.edu

Tags: State University, Arkansas State, Arkansas State University, environmental science, Santa Barbara, advanced knowledge, Bren School

Sources Of Gypsum

Gypsum deposits are easily mined.

Gypsum is the raw material from which wallboard or drywall is made. It was created long ago when ocean water infiltrated continental shelves; as the sea water receded and evaporated, minerals like gypsum--called evaporites--were left behind. There are a number of gypsum mines around the country that supply the construction and agricultural industries with products made from gypsum. Gypsum is ideal for construction because it has a lot of water embedded in it, which retards fires. Does this Spark an idea?

Domestic Production

Gypsum deposits are scattered throughout the continental United States in the Western and Midwestern states. Arizona, New Mexico, California, Nevada, Utah and Colorado have large gypsum deposits and in the Midwest, gypsum is mined in Michigan, Iowa, Indiana, Oklahoma, Texas, and Kansas. While most gypsum is used in the construction industry, gypsum also is used in Arizona and Southern California agriculture. Gypsum helps remove the salts from the soils in these arid regions that have hard water.

Canadian and Mexican Production

Gypsum mines exist in Nova Scotia, British Colombia, Manitoba, Ontario, Newfoundland, and Labrador. In addition to using the products in the agricultural and construction industries in Canada, Canadian companies often export drywall to the United States. A gypsum mine in Naica, Mexico, has some of the largest gypsum crystals ever found: up to 6.5 feet in length. It is a working mine; Mexico supplies much of the West Coast with gypsum.

Chinese Gypsum

During the construction boom in the early 2000s, American builders purchased wallboard from China. According to the U.S. Geological Society, the raw gypsum had not been sufficiently heated to remove high levels of sulfur that can combine with gypsum; in warm and humid climates, the sulfur off-gassed into homes and buildings in which it was used.

The sulfides caused damage to metals used for pipes, wires, and appliances, and caused respiratory damage to the home or building's occupants. The society also reported that the Consumer Products Safety Commission turned the issue over to Department of Housing and Urban Development, and it recommend that Chinese drywall be removed and that houses be rewired and replumbed for safety considerations.

Tags: Gypsum deposits, Production Gypsum, United States, with gypsum

Small Hotels In Manhattan New York

Whatever you want, you can find it in New York--including small, charming hotels.

Mention New York and hotel in the same sentence and you conjure up visions of glamorous and legendary places to stay, like the Waldorf Astoria or the St. Regis, or huge, anonymous business hotels like the New York Hilton. Yet tucked in many of New York's quieter streets and stylish residential areas are many small, charming and highly individual hotels.

The Library Hotel

At the Library Hotel you can pick a room dressed with books on your favorite topic.

The Library Hotel is a 60-room, boutique hotel in Midtown with a high concept gimmick. Each floor has a theme determined by the Dewey Decimal System used to organize books in libraries. Choose the fifth floor and you'll be in "Math and Science." Each room on the floor is decorated with a selection of books in one of the subdivisions of that category; rooms with books on astronomy, dinosaurs, botany, zoology, geology and mathematics. The themes of other floors include social sciences, language, technology, the arts, literature, history, general knowledge and philosophy. In addition to the usual accoutrements of a luxury boutique--multiple phone lines, free WI-FI, quality toiletries--the hotel offers free wine and cheese receptions, cappuccino and cookies and--if you've come to New York to read--lots of books in your room.

The Library Hotel

299 Madison Avenue at 41st Street

New York, NY 10017

212-983-4500

libraryhotel.com

1871 House

The 1871 House on New York's Upper East Side was described in "New York's 100 Best Little Hotels," by Allen Sperry, as a "country hideaway in one of New York's most elegant neighborhoods." The five-story Victorian brownstone on a quiet residential street has seven rooms and suites. Each is individually decorated with antiques and most are equipped with kitchens or kitchenettes. Despite its period feel, the 1871 House has all the usual amenities expected in a modern hotel, including WI-FI, flat-screen TVs, hairdryers and direct dial telephones. Though innkeepers Lia and Warren Raum describe the hotel as a bed-and-breakfast, in fact breakfast is not included or served. Guests can order breakfast baskets for an additional cost.

1871 House

130 East 62nd St.

New York, NY 10065

212-756-8823

1871house.com

The Inn at Irving Place

Two landmark townhouses in New York's Grammercy Park, built in 1834, were joined to form this discreet and elegant small hotel. Only the address gives the location away since the hotel's name isn't posted anywhere on the building. Decor in the 12 guestrooms, junior suites and residential apartments is reminiscent of the era of Edith Wharton. Rooms have four poster or sleigh beds, working fireplaces and full-sized, period mirrors. Amenities at this expensive hideaway include personalized maid and valet services, Penhaligon toiletries and what the innkeepers describe as a luxury continental breakfast. The Inn at Irving Place has a reservation-only tea room where a 5-course tea is served, and a martini bar.

The Inn at Irving Place

56 Irving Place

New York, NY 10003

212-533-4600

innatirving.com

Tags: 1871 House, Irving Place, Library Hotel, books your, decorated with, small charming

Combine Biology & Business Degrees For A Career

Combining two specialized college degrees can give you a professional advantage.

In today's bleak job market, you need every advantage. With more work to be done and less staff to do it, employers actively seek candidates who have a wide-ranging skill set that crosses multiple disciplines. Those with degrees in biology and business can be an asset to companies that specialize in energy, research and environmental issues.

Instructions

1. Finish your degree studies in both the fields of biology and business. Obtain degrees in both subject areas. Keep detailed lists and documentation regarding all coursework completed and grades achieved in all subjects. Create a file for potential job searches that contains all of this information so that it is readily available.

2. Make a list of the areas within both biology and business that you excelled in and find the most interesting. For example, if your studies in biology focused on earth sciences and your business classes highlighted project management, you can explore employers with contracts relating to geological surveys, super-fund sites and urban planning as it relates to environmental impact.

3. Review your current resume. Make adjustments so that it equally reflects your skills and knowledge in both biology and business. Keep a general resume handy for entry-level positions and a targeted resume that reflects courses and your expertise for a specialized position.

4. Write a cover letter that outlines your total knowledge base. Describe your desire to work in a position that allows you to combine your two areas of degree study. Explain your ability to work in the field of biology and understand the science aspect of the work and also highlight your business credentials and training to manage others and projects.

5. Make a list of potential companies, firms, organizations and entities that utilize biology graduates. Explore the various work and projects that the firms routinely participate in and determine what business or management positions exist.

6. Contact potential employers and ask to have a face-to-face meeting with a human resources manager. Discuss your combination background and determine if any positions exist within the firm that suit your specialized background. Ask about entry-level positions that use one of your two areas of study and inquire about promotion paths and opportunities for advancement through tenured experience at the firm.

Tags: biology business, both biology, both biology business, entry-level positions, Make list, positions exist, your areas

Make A Plaster Of Paris Model

Plaster model created through the molding process.

Plaster of Paris is a versatile modeling material that you can use to create detailed models with the aid of flexible molds. The plaster dries solid and will take on the slightest detail of your mold, from the smallest lines to subtle textures of the originally molded piece. The casting process of creating a plaster of Paris model is a quick one. With the proper materials, you'll end up with an accurate recreation that can be used as is or painted.

Instructions

1. Spray the interior of the mold with a light layer of mold release agent, available at an art supply store or hobby shop. The release agent forms a thin layer of protection between the plaster and the mold, which allows you to peel away the mold without losing any of the plaster in the process.

2. Mix a batch of Plaster of Paris sufficient for filling the mold. Mix the plaster with water in a plastic cup, using the mixture ratio provided by the plaster manufacturer's instructions. Pour a small amount of water into the cup followed by the plaster, mixing with a craft stick and adding water and plaster as necessary until you reach the consistency of pancake batter.

3. Dust a light coat of talcum powder onto the interior surface of the mold to prevent air bubbles from forming as you pour the plaster. The powder also protects the mold itself from drying out during the hardening process. Plaster of Paris leeches moisture from mold material, so this step will extend the life of the mold.

4. Place the mold in the center of an extruded foam board to provide a stable resting surface.

5. Fill the mold with the Plaster of Paris, pouring the plaster into the mold from the corner and allowing it to flow into all of the mold's recesses. Lightly tap the foam board with the heel of your hand to agitate the plaster and force any air bubbles that formed during the pour to rise to the top of the plaster. Air bubbles caught within the plaster model will weaken it and can also cause distortions to the surface of the model, obscuring details. Wait the amount of time suggested by the plaster manufacturer for the plaster to set.

6. Remove the Plaster of Paris model from the mold by gently peeling the mold away from the model.

Tags: Plaster Paris, Plaster Paris, foam board, from mold, into mold

Limestone Fossil Uses

Limestone fossil can be found in the Indian Ocean.

Limestone is biological sedimentary rock made up of the skeletons and fecal debris of dead creatures. According to the New Zealand government's website, limestone consists almost entirely of fossils. Limestone usually forms in oceans and seas within 30 degrees of the equator. Limestone fossil is easier to mine than many other rocks and has a range of uses.

Building and Roofing

Fossil limestone can be shaped into blocks and used in the construction of buildings. It is often used for stone facings and to create floor tiles. Fossil limestone also makes effective stair treads and window sills.

Fossil limestone that is crushed down into granules can be used for asphalt shingles and roofing. Limestone granules make an effective coating that is resistant to both weather damage and heat, as stated on the Geology information website. Fossil limestone can also be used to construct top coats on roofing.

Rock Dust

Rock dust, also referred to as mine safety dust, is made from crushed limestone granules. It has a white powdery appearance and is sprayed onto surfaces in coal mines to improve visibility for workers. Rock dust inhibits the level of coal dust raised by mining activities, helping workers to breathe more easily. It also reduces the risk of explosions from the volatile coal dust particles.

Animal Feed

Fossil limestone contains high levels of calcium carbonate, which can be used as a strengthening food for chickens. Chickens require calcium carbonate to yield strong eggs. According to the Geology information website, crushed calcium carbonate from limestone fossils is often fed to chickens as dietary supplements. Calcium carbonate can also be fed to dairy cows, which lose substantial levels of calcium when milked.

Soil Treatment

Fossil limestone has excellent acid-neutralizing properties, due to the presence of calcium carbonate. Crushed into tiny particles, it is used extensively on farms to treat soil with high levels of acidity. Lime fossil heated in a kiln produces carbon dioxide gas and calcium oxide. Calcium oxide is also used as a soil treatment.

Tags: Fossil limestone, calcium carbonate, also used, coal dust, Fossil limestone also

Measure The Specific Gravity Of Metal With Water Displacement

Most metals exhibit a specific gravity greater than 1.0.

The specific gravity of a metal represents the ratio of the metal's density to the density of water. Density, in turn, represents the ratio between a substance's mass and volume. Whereas scientists typically state densities in units such as grams per milliliter or kilograms per cubic meter, specific gravity represents a dimensionless quantity. Therefore, irrespective of the units used to measure the metal's density, a calculation of its specific gravity will usually produce the same result.

Instructions

Measurements

1. Weigh the sample of metal on a balance or scale. Feel free to make the measurements in units of grams, ounces or pounds; you will convert the weight to grams in a later step. Write down this value for future reference.

2. Test-fit the metal sample in the graduated cylinder. If the metal sample will not fit into the cylinder, then use a larger cylinder or a measuring cup. The graduated cylinder gives more precise results and should represent your first choice, if suitable.

3. Fill the graduated cylinder or measuring cup approximately half full with water, then place the cylinder or cup on a flat surface and read the volume level from the graduation marks on the container's side. Write down this volume.

4. Lower the metal sample slowly into the water in the cylinder or measuring cup, being careful not to splash or spill the water from the container. With the metal submerged, again place the cylinder or cup on a level surface and read the volume and record this value.

Calculations

5. Determine the volume of the metal sample by subtracting the volume of the water initially in the cylinder or cup from the volume of water after the metal sample was added to the container. For example, an initial volume of 4.2 fluid ounces that increased to 5.7 fluid ounces would represent a metal volume of 5.7 - 4.2 = 1.5 fluid ounces.

6. Convert the mass of the metal sample to grams and the volume of the sample to cubic centimeters using an online conversion tool, such as those provided in the Resources. A metal sample weight of 12.4 ounces, for example, converts to 352 grams (rounded). A metal volume of 1.5 fluid ounces converts to 44 cubic centimeters (rounded).

7. Calculate the density and specific gravity of the metal by dividing its mass in grams by its volume in cubic centimeters. Continuing the previous example, 352 / 44 = 8.0 grams per cubic centimeter. Technically, you should now divide this value by the density of water to determine the specific gravity. However, because the density of water is 1.0 gram per cubic centimeter, this step is unnecessary, that is, the specific gravity and density in units of grams per cubic centimeter are numerically identical. The specific gravity in this case is 8.0.

Tags: metal sample, specific gravity, fluid ounces, cubic centimeter, cubic centimeters

Become A Geotechnical Engineer

Become a Geotechnical Engineer

Geotechnical engineers work to assess the geological impact that a construction site's location will have on building materials and methods. Most geotechnical engineers are educated as civil engineers but specialize their knowledge through employment or graduate studies. You can follow a general path to become a geotechnical engineer.

Instructions

1. Study civil or environmental engineering as a college undergraduate. Both of these concentrations will provide you with the education you need to become a geotechnical engineer, although environmental engineering would be more appropriate if your school offers it. Since many geotechnical engineers do consulting work, it may be to your advantage to minor in engineering management if it's available.

2. Look for undergraduate research opportunities. Many college professors help test new construction products and their strengths under various ecological stressors. These research opportunities will allow you to experience firsthand how a geotechnical engineer works.

3. Talk to local engineering firms about internships. Also, large construction companies often employ both geotechnical and civil engineers if they do not contract these positions through a consulting group. To get the most out of your internship, try to schedule it for the summer or spring, when the majority of construction and planning work happens.

4. Ask the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying about becoming a licensed engineer (see Resources below). You'll have to take several tests and also meet the requirements for job experience in order to get your license. Not all employers require that you have an engineering license, but if you plan to freelance, do consulting work or open your own business, you will need it.

5. Join a professional society like the American Society of Civil Engineers (see Resources below). A group like this will help you stay current on industry news and allow you to post your resume and view job openings around the country. This group does require that its members have professional licenses.

Tags: geotechnical engineer, Become Geotechnical Engineer, civil engineers, consulting work, environmental engineering, geotechnical engineers

Identify Rocks Of Michigan

There are three types of rocks. Igneous rocks form deep underground. Metamorphic rocks are formed by high pressure, heat or both. Sedimentary rocks form when other rocks break into small pieces of sand, silt and clay then form new rocks by either being compacted from weight or cemented together by materials, usually minerals, that dissolve in water. You can identify rocks in Michigan by their location, color, texture, patterns and grain.

Instructions

1. Locate an area that is known for particular rocks. Metamorphic rocks and igneous rocks are only found in the western half of the Upper Peninsula; sedimentary rocks cover the rest Michigan. Sedimentary rocks that were pushed into Michigan by glaciers during the ice age can be found in both peninsulas.

2. Look for Michigan's state rock, the Petoskey stone, on beaches, road cuts and in gravel pits in Charlevoix, Cheboygan, Antrim, Presque Isle, Emmett and Alpena counties, the Traverse Bay area between Elk Rapids and Eastport, and Petoskey. The fossilized remains of one species of coral from the sea that once covered Michigan, the Petoskey stone is mostly calcite and is easily carved. It has a six-sided pattern and is gray, tan or brown with darker spots. Most Petoskey stones are smooth and well worn. Spring is the best time to find them.

3. Find two types of igneous rock--extrusive and intrusive--in the western Upper Peninsula. Extrusive, or volcanic, rocks were liquid magma that erupted from volcanoes and cooled fast. Their crystals are so tiny they usually can't be seen. Find one extrusive rock, basalt, in Houghton. Basalt is dark gray or black and sometimes has gas bubbles. It's hard, fine grained and darker than intrusive rock. Intrusive rocks also started as magma, but they cooled slowly underground. Find one intrusive rock, granite, in the part of the Upper Peninsula west of Marquette. Granite is pink or white with visible interlocking crystals made of quartz and feldspar.

4. Search for metamorphic rocks in the western part of the Upper Peninsula. Slate is black, gray, blue-gray, green-gray, brown or red. It's thin and has smooth, straight, flat layers. Slate splits easily into thin, flat pieces and can scratch glass. Look near Marquette for gneiss. It has ribbonlike layers, and the interlocking crystals can be seen. It's usually light colored, but it can be dark. The grains are coarse, lined up and in layers. Gneiss is a hard rock that usually breaks into blocky pieces rather than along the layers.

5. Search for a popular Michigan rock, Lake Superior agate, which can be found along the Lake Superior shoreline. Collectors love the rich, red, yellow and orange color caused by oxidation of iron. The banding patterns make Lake Superior agates stand out, and they come in all the colors of the rainbow. Look for rust-red or yellow staining on rocks and a glossy, waxy look on chipped or broken surfaces. A translucent glow can be seen on sunny days from the quartz that's in agate. Some agate stones have an almost perfectly smooth natural surface. Some agate stones have perfectly round bands, or "eyes" on the surface, and some have perfectly straight parallel bands. Agate is a hard rock. Some of the best places in Michigan to look for Lake Superior agate are on the south shores of Lake Superior, in the ridges of the Keweenaw Peninsula and Isle Royale, at Whitefish Point in Newberry northeast of the Tahquamenon Falls, at Grand Marais by the Pictured Rocks, at Great Sand Bay near Eagle Harbor, and at F.J. McLain State Park near Hancock.

6. Locate sedimentary rocks anywhere in Michigan. Limestone can be found near Rogers City. It can be tan, yellow, white or gray, or it can have impurities that make it red or black. Limestone often contains fossils. The minerals are mostly calcite, and the crystals can't be seen. The crystals are smooth and fine or medium grained. If you put limestone in white vinegar, it probably will fizz. Sandstone has round grains that are the same size. It can be red to brown, light gray to white, green or yellow. Colors in sandstone layers can vary slightly. Made of quartz sand, the grains are medium. Sandstone can be found near Grand Ledge. Shale, found near Gaylord, can be black, gray, red, brown, blue or dark green and sometimes has yellow or green layers of particles. It's fine grained and smells like mud when it's moist.

7. Visit rock shops throughout Michigan that sell rock samples and maps with information on where to find rocks and identify them. Rock shops also offer information about rock swaps that have unique specimens of rocks. You also can find guidebooks, tours of mines and rock piles, and you might even be able to sell rocks you've found.

8. Make a trip to the Seaman Mineral Museum at Michigan Technological University in Houghton. Minerals from the Lake Superior copper country are on display there. Call 906-487-2572 for hours.

Tags: Lake Superior, Upper Peninsula, found near, agate stones, agate stones have, black gray, crystals seen

Hike Mt Charleston

Mt. Charleston

Las Vegas is a city that never sleeps, with winking lights, honking traffic, surging crowds of people. It’s an experience that leaves your senses throbbing, however, you can get away from the clamor of the city and see the world from a different perspective high atop Mt. Charleston. This lovely peak is just a quick trip from the city in Nevada’s Spring Mountains. You can camp, picnic, and hike one of several trails to get back to nature. No matter the time of year, a hike on Mt. Charleston can renew your spirit and give your senses new purpose.

Instructions

1. Make an honest assessment of your ability and level of fitness. Any hike in the mountains involves a certain amount of risk and you’ll be most happy when you select a trail that matches your level of hiking skill. If you’re new to hiking, choose an easy hike; you can always come back for a more challenging workout.

2. Check out a trail guide to learn about the geology, the flora and fauna and the most important vistas on your route. It’s a lot more fun to hike when you know something about the area you’re hiking in. Choose a hike that is right for all the hikers in your group. For example, young children can manage the 1-mile Desert Overlook trail. If you’re new to hiking, try the Mary Jane Falls trail (2.5 miles) to see a lovely waterfall; in autumn, you can see colorful fall foliage on Bristlecone Trail (5 miles). For something a bit more challenging, check out the Mummy Mountain trail. This day-long hike will take you to the top.

3. Check the weather before you head up the trail. You don’t want to get trapped by bad conditions. Choose clothing that is right for the season and the conditions. Carry a small waterproof jacket just in case, and wear plenty of sunblock

4. Carry plenty of water and enough snacks to keep your energy level up. Many hikers like to munch on gorp (a mixture that usually includes raisins, nuts and chocolate) to fuel their hike. Make your own with the dried fruit, nuts and chocolate that you prefer. Of course, you can pack sandwiches and fresh fruit, as well. Just don’t run out of gas before you run out of trail.

Tags: more challenging, nuts chocolate, that right, your senses

Identify Raw Jade

Jade, an ornamental stone, comes from two different types of metamorphic rock: nephrite and jadeite. Nephrite typically yields green jade, although a creamy white form is also found in nature. Jadeite yields many more variations in color, from blue and lavender to pink and emerald green. While jadeite is more valuable and is usually the choice for fine jewelry, nephrite is valued for its carving excellence. If you are hoping to find some nephrite or jadeite in its raw form, there are a few things you'll need to consider.

Instructions

1. Consider the geographical source of the rock you're trying to identify. Nephrite deposits have been found in China, New Zealand, Russia, Guatemala, the Swiss Alps and Western Canada, while jadeite can be found in China, Russia, Guatemala and Myanmar (formerly Burma). While you may not be hunting down jade deposits in the foothills of the Alps, if you know the rock you're considering did not come from one of these regions, you can safely assume it is not raw jade.

2. Identify the rock type. There are three basic types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Each type forms in a different way and has its own characteristics. Both nephrite and jadeite are metamorphic rocks, which means they have been subjected to heat and pressure, causing major physical changes, chemical changes or both.

3. Test the chemical composition of the rock. Both types of jade contain silicate. Since you cannot determine the mineral composition of a rock yourself, you would need to send a sample to a lab for this test, but if you believe you have a high-quality source of jade, the expense will be worth it. If the testing reveals silicate is present in the stone, there is a possibility the stone contains jade.

4. Examine the rock for any see-through points. Some rocks will have a small area where the inside of the rock is visible. After cleaning your rock, thoroughly examine it to determine if you can see past the outer layer anywhere on the rock. If your rock contains a transparent point, you may be able to determine if it contains jade. If the rock does contain jade, you will see a smooth, nongranular section displayed through the transparent area.

5. Shine a penlight against the rock's surface. If the rock has no transparent point, try wetting the rock's surface and shining a penlight against it to see if you can illuminate any underlying color. Place a small metal plate between your eyes and the penlight to eliminate any glare. If light is able to penetrate the rock, you will be able to see what's inside. You're looking for a smooth, nongranular and typically green section of the rock.

6. Cut the rock with a small sharp knife. As a final step in identifying raw jade, cut a small hole in the stone and polish the inside to determine what lies beneath the surface. If a stone you are considering has been cut for this purpose, have it examined by a professional geologist or rock collector to make sure no artificial coatings have been added and the rock has not been tampered with.

Tags: have been, nephrite jadeite, composition rock, contains jade, found China

The Best Places To Stargaze

Seek the darkness for the best stargazing.

The best places to stargaze are away from big cities and towns because the light "pollution" from streetlights, advertising, factories, stores and homes makes it harder to see the night sky. The very best places are at higher altitudes and in drier climates, places with less moisture and fewer particles in the air.

Darkness

Escape from the city lights. Seek the darkness. Choose a place that is safe and easily accessible at night. Good places to go include state parks, the beach, lookout or observation points and hilltops or mountainsides. If you can't get totally away from light sources, pick the darkest area you can find that has a clear view of the sky. The roof of a tall building might be above most of the city lights (just be sure you have permission to be there.)

Deserts

Deserts are great places to stargaze. The dry air and lack of built-up areas provide an uninterrupted night sky experience. If you want the advantage of big telescopes along with the darkness, make a reservation at Kitt Peak National Observatory, about an hour and a half outside of Tucson, Arizona. Natural Bridges National Monument and Bryce Canyon, both in Utah, are also excellent dark desert sky destinations. Wherever you go, remember that deserts get cold at night, even in the summer.

Islands

Hawaii has a reputation as one of the premier places to stargaze. Geography has provided the island with a 2,500-mile light-free buffer zone and a stable atmosphere overhead, so the stars look clearer, even to the naked eye.The island of Molokai is a particular favorite of stargazers and Mauna Kea Observatory on the big island of Hawaii is the world's largest. Closer to the mainland, California's Channel Island, the San Juan Islands of Puget Sound and the coastal islands of Maine, North Carolina and Georgia can all provide delicious darkness for stargazers.

Mountains

Yosemite National Park in California, Flagstaff, Arizona, and Greenbank, West Virginia, are all committed to preserving a dark sky for stargazers. Most mountain campground locations in the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada range and the Tetons have dark sky and an abundance of clear weather for stargazing. Olympic National Park and the Cascade Range in Washington state can often provide surprisingly good stargazing opportunities, as visitors often find themselves above the prevailing cloud cover.

Prairies and High Plains

There is a good reason Montana is called "'Big Sky Country." The high plains and prairies of the central United States can provide great views of vast unobstructed skies. Montana and Wyoming both have legislation pending to set standards limiting light pollution. The Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas all have plenty of wide-open spaces, perfect for stargazing. Local stargazers suggest finding a shallow hill as humidity, which can fog the view of the night sky, often decreases noticeably with as little as a 35- or 40-foot increase in elevation.

Tags: away from, best places, city lights, light pollution, National Park, places stargaze

How Do Earthquakes Affect People & Land

Modern buildings are often engineered to withstand earthquakes.

Earthquakes are the result of the movement of tectonic plates below the surface of the Earth. The plates create a shocking effect on the land. The shock relates to strength, known as the magnitude, of the earthquake. Major earthquakes damage structures that may lead to death while small earthquakes are often barely felt

Geologic Effects

An earthquake can affect the land in several ways. When an earthquake hits, it shakes the ground and causes structures to shake as well. When a structure is old or has not been properly built to withstand the force of an earthquake, it can collapse, causing damage to surrounding buildings as well as people. Building collapses are the main cause of fatalities during and after an earthquake as the shaking ground rarely causes any deaths in and of itself.

Landslides

Buildings are affected by earthquakes, but earthquakes can also cause the movement of unstable hills and mountains causing landslides., These landslides can also damage property and hurt people as the mobile earth moves down a sloped surface. The earth can be made of sand, rock or other material, but is capable of moving a long distance due to the gravitational pull and the loose properties. The shaking can also cause liquefaction and sand blows that damage property and cover large areas with sand.

Tsunamis

Tsunamis are the result of earthquakes and can be one of the most deadly results of such a geological disturbance. Tsunamis are large waves that are created when an earthquake occurs out at sea. The plates shift and the motion causes a huge wave that builds up momentum and size as it reaches land masses. These huge waves, as high as 100 feet can take out buildings, structures and cause destruction for miles. Many people have become homeless or have lost family and friends in the furious flood of a tsunami.

People

People are affected in different ways by earthquakes. Even when no one is hurt, an earthquake can have lasting affects on the human psyche. When the earthquake occurs, most people seek open air so that the building they are in does not crush them while others freeze due to shock. Earthquakes can result in large amounts of destruction and many people find it difficult to rebuild their lives when an earthquake has destroyed many of the structures in their city or town, many of which have been there for decades.

Tags: also cause, damage property, earthquake occurs, Earthquakes result

About Fjords

Fjords are more than just a fancy name for bays or inlets, yet it can be tough to determine the difference without delving into a body of waters geologic history. Even place names can be misleading as some fjords are actually referred to as channels or sounds. However, if you have ever dug a hole in the sand at the beach and watched it fill with water as the tide rises then you have inadvertently created a model for how fjords are formed. The main difference being that instead of a giant hand or shovel digging out a hole in the sand, fjords were carved out of bedrock by giant glaciers formed during the last ice age.

Identification

Fjord is a Norwegian term for a slot-like glacial valley that is partially submerged by the sea. There are, however, fjords in many other places around the globe besides Norway. Other areas encompassing fjords are British Columbia, Alaska, Chile, Greenland, New Zealand and Antarctica. The common geologic thread here is that these areas all have hard bedrock that is resistant to erosion and were historically home to large glaciers.

Geography

Found predominantly on western coastlines, fjords are deep valleys mostly carved at the end of the last ice age as glaciers receded from the mountains to the ocean. The reason that most fjords are found on mountainous western coastlines is because moist prevailing western marine winds were lifted upwards over the mountains, which provided abundant snowfall to feed glaciers.

Misconceptions

What makes a a fjord a fjord, and not a ria, strait, sound, channel or a bay? Blurred are the lines marking these bodies of water from one another, but there are several trademarks of fjords that make them distinct. One of the strongest characteristics of fjords is that they are deep. Inland bodies of water carved by rivers or retreating seas are usually shallower. Glaciers weighing trillions of tons had the force to gouge out deep valleys far below sea level that were then flooded by sea water as the oceans rose after the last ice age. Also, fjords are usually shallower at the their mouth than these other bodies of water because the glaciers gouging force was diminished as they melted into the ocean.

Features

While usually associated with tropical areas, some of the world's largest coral reefs were recently discovered growing on the bottom of fjords in Norway. These coral reefs are home to a bevy of marine organisms like plankton and anemones and are believed to be linked to the rich abundance of fish found along the Norwegian coastline. There are also coral reefs in the New Zealand fjords, and an underwater observatory in Milford Sound offers views without getting into the chilly waters.

Significance

Accessible fjords are popular tourist attractions and Norwegian fjords like Geirangerfjord are especially known as some of the most scenic locations on earth. Some of the longest fjords in the world are Scoresby Sund in Greenland at 217 miles long, Sognefjord in Norway at 126 miles and Limfjorden in Denmark at 112 miles. Some of the deepest fjords are Skelton Inlet in Antarctica at 6,342 feet deep, Sognefjord at 4,291 feet and Messier Channel in Chile at 4,226 feet.

Tags: bodies water, coral reefs, deep valleys, fjords that, hole sand, usually shallower

Landforms Of Plate Boundaries

Volcanoes are landforms found at plate boundries.

Earth's crust is like a giant cracked egg. Each crust piece is called a tectonic plate and it moves. The plates interact with each other at the edges. Several different kinds of interactions exist. In some places the edges come together, in other places they pull apart, and in still others, the plates slide past each other. All this interaction creates many different landforms.

Trenches

The deepest landforms on Earth are the trenches in the ocean. These landforms are created when one plate slides underneath another. This action is known as subduction. Some tectonic plates are much heavier than others. The heavy plate slides under the lighter plate. The edge between the two plates formed by this interaction is a deep trench. One of the most famous trenches is called the Marianas Trench. As the Philippine plate slides underneath the Pacific plate, the deepest trench known on Earth is continually formed.

Volcanoes and Ridges

Volcanoes and ridges are landforms that are created by the movement of tectonic plates. Some volcanoes are formed when the plates pull apart under the ocean. A crack in Earth's crust forms. Magma rises through the crack, forming ridges. One example is the San Juan Ridge, a wide area of young volcanoes. Other volcanoes are created when a tectonic plate slides under another. As the bottom plate is heated up by the Earth's hot mantle, a material called magma forms. It rises. Over time magma erupts through the plates. Many such volcanoes are found on "the Pacific Ring of Fire."

Islands

Another kind of landform is created by of the interaction of Earth's plates, and is related to the formation of volcanoes. Volcanoes under the ocean can lead to the formation of islands. These volcanoes are the kind produced by one plate sliding under the other. The erupting volcano adds enough material to itself to rise above the ocean's surface. Because the surface of the Earth is curved, the resulting volcanic islands are always found in arcs. The Philippine Islands, Aleutian Islands and Japan were all created this way.

Mountains

Seashell fossils are found at the top of the Himalayas. This mystery is solved by looking at tectonic plate interaction. Huge mountain ranges are formed by similar-sized plates colliding. In this case, one plate does not slide under the other. The pressure of the two plates has to be relieved and the way this happens is by thrusting the colliding plate's edges upward. Land folds, bends and twists in the collision zone and mountain landforms rise.The Himalayas are the result of this type of collision.

Tags: plate slides, tectonic plate, created when, each other, Earth crust, plate slides under, plate slides underneath

Motels Around Yellowstone

Yellowstone is home to the famous Old Faithful geyser.

Yellowstone National Park is mostly in northwest Wyoming, though it extends to Montana and Idaho. The first national park in the United States, Yellowstone opens its doors to hikers, campers and sightseers year-round. For travelers who'd like to experience Yellowstone while maintaining a few creature comforts, Yellowstone's Montana border offers a sizable selection of motels.

Al's Westward Ho Motel

On the Montana side of the Wyoming-Montana border in West Yellowstone, Al's Westward Ho Motel offers lodgings 2 miles from the main entrance to Yellowstone National Park. This family owned and operated establishment offers family suites, kitchenettes and rooms with one or two queen-sized beds. In addition to the Yellowstone park, this longtime establishment is within 3 miles of the Yellowstone IMAX Theatre, bicycle rentals, the Grizzly and Wolf Discovery Center and dining options such as Tubby's Bakery, Canyon Street Grill and Buckaroo Bill's Ice Cream. Al's Westward Ho Motel is smoke-free. Check availability and make reservations at varying rates online or over the phone.

Al's Westward Ho Motel

16 Boundary St.

West Yellowstone, MT 59758

406-646-7331

alswestwardhomotel.net

Alpine Motel

The Alpine Motel is in downtown West Yellowstone, Montana, two blocks from Yellowstone National Park's west entrance. This family-owned motel offers rooms from mid-May to October, while kitchen units, family units and suites are available year-round. Amenities include cable TV, high-speed wireless Internet, air-conditioning, refrigerators, hairdryers and a selection of queen, king or double beds. Within walking distance, guests will find the Playmill Theatre, Pinecone Playhouse, Museum of Yellowstone and other attractions. Alpine Motel does not allow pets or smoking. Make reservations online or over the phone. Rates vary.

Alpine Motel

120 Madison Ave.

P.O. Box 130

West Yellowstone, MT 59758

406-646-7544

alpinemotelwestyellowstone.com

The Evergreen Motel

About 2-1/2 miles from Yellowstone's west entrance, the Evergreen motel offers refurbished antique lodgings with a bed and breakfast atmosphere. Amenities at the Evergreen include laundry facilities, an ice machine, cable television, wireless Internet, kitchenette availability and complimentary coffee, hot chocolate, tea and muffins. The Yellowstone National Park is five blocks from the Evergreen Motel, while Hebgen Lake in Montana is within 1 mile. No pets or smoking are allowed. The Evergreen Motel accepts reservations online or over the phone.

The Evergreen Motel

229 Firehole Ave.

West Yellowstone, MT 59758

406-646-7655

theevergreenmotel.com

Tags: West Yellowstone, Alpine Motel, National Park, Westward Motel, Yellowstone National

Topographic Map Indicate The Kind Of Climate

A topographic map depicting terrain can include clues to the area's climate.

Without statistics of precipitation, temperature and other meteorological measures, a topographic map has limited use in determining the portrayed area's climate. But the map's depiction of terrain and land cover can suggest some climatic characteristics.

Vegetation Shading

Many topographic maps, including the widely used publications of the U.S. Geological Survey, indicate forest cover and other general vegetation types with shading. You therefore can extrapolate basic levels of rainfall: a landscape dominated by grasses suggests semi-aridity, for example.

Wetlands and Waterways

The USGS topographic maps also reveal wetlands like swamps and marshes, which also suggest at least moderate precipitation. Ephemeral streams -- those that dry up part of the year -- are common in semi-arid and arid climates, and these maps distinguish these from year-round drainages.

Erosion

The degree and nature of erosion of a given landscape, shown by topographic maps, reflects the climate. A density of V-shaped drainages dissecting a mountainous tract -- as in parts of Hawaii or the Pacific Northwest -- often reflects a relatively wet climate with vigorous stream-cutting.

Glaciers, Snowfields and Elevation

The presence of glaciers or permanent snowfields on maps indicates areas that are colder and receive heavy snowfall. Elevation contours suggest climatic characteristics, too, as temperatures are cooler at higher elevations, hotter the closer to sea level -- or below -- you go.

Tags: topographic maps, area climate, climatic characteristics

Identify Rocks In Colorado

Diorite

Colorado has some of the most beautiful rocks. Some rocks are used as tourist attractions and have developed into such large and extraordinary sites. We know them today as the Garden of the Gods and the Red Rocks Ampitheatre. Colorado would be a great place to develop a rock collection.

Instructions

1. Look in southern Colorado. There you will find many of the most unique rock formations. Garden of the Gods is made up of horizontal sedimentary rocks that were elevated and tilted upward. This is when the Rocky Mountains pushed towards the sky. The wind and the rain stripped away many soft layers and in turn sculpted the rocks in various forms.

2. Notice landscaping usage of water fountains or waterfalls in northwestern Colorado. There are many companies or individuals that will use waterfalls or fountains made up of basalt, which is volcanic rock. These rocks were found within the earth and developed as part of landscaping. Due to their strength and beauty, many have chosen to use basalt for decoration.

3. Look in Denver and you will find a lot of red rock. There was an amphitheater made up from the red rocks that developed from the earth's movement. These rocks stand 200 to 300=feet high and are one of the largest displays in the world. The name of the rock comes from its color, a burnt red.

4. Search for smaller rocks, such as intrusive igneous rocks. These rocks were formed when they were forced into another older rock during the shifting of the earth and tides in the ocean. Some samples of these rocks are granite, gabbro, and diorite. Granite is formed of primarily quartz and feldspar. It is black, gray, orange and white. Gabbro rock is a coarse-grained rock that is composed of ferromagnesians and plagnioclase. It is green with white speckles. Diorite is another coarse-grained rock that is composed of plagioclase feldspars and ferromagnesians with andesite. This rock is light or dark gray combined with white.

5. Look for one of the lightest rocks that exists. You can find the pumice rock throughout Colorado, especially near rivers. It is red in color and was formed from lava. When the lava cooled, the rock was formed. It is so light that it can float on water. The pumice rock is usually used for decoration and landscaping. When it is ground into powder, it is used in compounds and in Lava-brand soap.

Tags: rocks that, coarse-grained rock, coarse-grained rock that, Colorado There, Garden Gods, pumice rock, rock that

How Does Weathering Affect The Features Of The Landscape

In breaking down and excavating rock, weathering can have a profound affect on landscapes.

Weathering is the first step in the process of denudation, which involves the breaking down and transport of rock materials. It is often subtle in action, involving massive periods of time and such inconspicuous phenomena as the behavior of water or chemical reactions in rock joints. Nonetheless, it can have a profound impact on landscape features. Does this Spark an idea?

Setting the Stage

One way weathering affects landscapes is by essentially "preparing" such rock material for further steps in denudation. The rubble shattered and sheared off rocks worked upon by frost-wedging or exfoliation, for example, work their way down a slope or cliff by the force of gravity--a denudation phenomenon called "mass wasting." Transferred down into a gorge, such rock materials may then be carried by rivers in flood miles from their source, an example of active "erosion."

Breaking Apart

The effects of frost-wedging are often dramatically obvious in the high mountains.

The seepage of water into cracks in a rock mass might seem insignificant, but it has the potential power to rend these masses apart through a form of mechanical weathering called frost-wedging. When water freezes into ice, it expands. Water frozen in rock crevices for an entire season or simply during the night can be freed to penetrate further when it melts; then, freezing again, it continues to exert outward pressure. Over time, this freeze-thaw cycle can widen rock interstices, slough off chunks or split boulders wide open. Landscapes heavily affected by frost-wedging often include high mountain ridges and summits, where the freezing and thawing of water is a relentless, frequent phenomenon. Traveling up to timberline and above, you'll often see isolated boulders laced with fractures, frequently with bits of splintered rock lying in the vicinity.

Biological Weathering

Lichens are agents of biological weathering.

In the same high country, you may see evidence of biological weathering, which involves the work of living organisms. Hardy trees like pines can take root in cracks in rock faces. The penetration of these joints by their roots can force them open further. Lichens often colonize bare rock and extract nutrients directly from it, weakening its structure; their expansion and contraction as they moisten and dry can also work on rock in similar fashion as frost-wedging. Fissures opened by tree roots or lichen can accumulate the organic and geologic material that builds soil, encouraging colonization by other plants.

Chemical Weathering Effects

In layers of carbonate rock, the chemical reactions that proceed as rainwater and groundwater move through its interstices often result in what is called chemical weathering. A dramatic and widespread example is the dissolution of limestone by percolation of acidified water. This process may open up great cavities and tunnels in subterranean limestone expanses, creating entirely new landscapes drained by underground rivers and inhabited by a diversity of cave-dwelling organisms. Chemical weathering, which also takes other forms, can act as a soil-building agent, contributing materials from weathered bedrock to accumulations of organic matter.

Tags: breaking down, chemical reactions, cracks rock, frost-wedging often, have profound

Rock Types In Great Basin National Park

Great Basin National Park is located in the southeastern corner of White Pine County in Nevada's north central region. The park geography includes several peaks of ten to thirteen thousand feet in height in the west, Lehman Caves and other caverns in the northeast, and canyons and washes in the southeastern part of the park.

Limestone

Limestone, a sedimentary rock, is located around the base of the mountains in the South Snake Mountain Range of Great Basin National Park. Two of the park's visitor attractions, Lehman Caves and Lexington Arch, are limestone in origin. Lehman Caves were shaped in Pole Canyon Limestone.Lehman Caves Limestone may be seen along the Baker Creek Road.

Marble

The base of the mountains in Great Basin National Park is partially marble, a metamorphic rock formed from limestone, or calcite. The marble in Great Basin National Park is not high grade.

Sandstone

The sandstone which remains in Great Basin National Park was originally deposited by a sea existent during the Cambrian time. Sandstone is a sedimentary rock type. The sandstone may now be found along the decollement, a fault line formed during the Cenozoic Era.

Shale

Some of the shale formed at the same time as the sandstone was not transformed by metamorphic conditions. Shale is a sedimentary type of rock. It is found along the decollement.

Quartzite

This rock type, a metamorphic rock, was formed from underground layers of sandstone. It may be seen in a large band along Wheeler Peak Scenic Drive and on the higher peaks in Great Basin National Park.

Granite

The granite in Great Basin National Park is an igneous rock. The magma was pressed upward and changed the rocks it came into contact with but cooled while yet underground.

Aragonite

This mineral, which forms a characteristic needle-like pattern, is found in Great Basin National Park in Snake Cave. This cave is one of only eight wild caves in the Park which spelunkers may explore by permit. Snake Cave has notable aragonite formations.Aragonite forms under metamorphic conditions.

Moonmilk

Moonmilk is made up of aragonite, calcite, and hydromagnesite which have leached out of water seeping into Lehman Caves. It is found in the Inscription Room and the area of Lehman Caves known as Rocky Road.

Gypsum

The mineral gypsum, or calcium sulfate, is found in a section of Lehman Caves called the Gypsum Annex. This part of Lehman Caves is not on the cave tour.Gypsum is a sedimentary rock. In the Caves, it comes in many tiny, delicate forms from needles to flowers. The mineral is either colorless or white.

Tags: Basin National, Basin National Park, Great Basin, Great Basin National, National Park

Rock Formations Caused By Weathering

The Grand Canyon, carved by the Colorado River over the last few million years, measures 277 miles long and more than 5,000 feet deep.

Weathering is the process by which rocks are transformed due to their exposure to wind, water or other organic fluids. This process, which occurs over millions of years, has produced distinctive formations around the world.

North America

Utah's Bryce Canyon is a limestone formation caused by frost-wedging and dissolving rainwater.

North America is home to dozens of notable formations. Several are located in Yosemite National Park, including the Half Dome and Three Brothers. The sandstone formation known as The Wave is found on the slopes of Coyote Buttes on the Utah-Arizona border, while the Delicate Arch, also in Utah, is the result of millions of years of erosion.

Australia

Ayers Rock stands 1,135 feet high and measures nearly five miles around.

Located in the heart of Australia's Nambung National Park is the Pinnacles Desert, home to thousands of huge limestone pillars collectively referred to as The Pinnacles. The country's massive sandstone formation Uluru, or Ayers Rock, is considered sacred to the local Aborigines.

Asia and Europe

The Stone Mushrooms, located in Bulgaria, were created by long-continued erosion by lapping waves.

Bulgaria and China are home to "stone forests," or concentrations of rock formations molded into tree shapes. Each was formed by alternating erosion patterns that created individual rock pillars.

South America

The Stone Tree is located in the Siloli Desert, part of the National Reserve Eduardo Abaroa.

Located in Peru, the Huayllay Stone Forest, once a seabed, is now the location of about 4,000 geological formations created by air and glacier movements, while Bolivia's Stone Tree, is believed to have formed during the uprising of the Andes Mountains.

Tags: Ayers Rock, millions years, National Park, North America, process which, sandstone formation

Make Copper Sulfate Crystals Of Different Shapes

Large copper sulfate crystals can be grown using a seed crystal.

Copper sulfate crystals are easy to make, and are a great introduction to chemistry for schoolchildren. No specialized equipment is needed, and copper sulfate can be purchased online or in home and garden stores. The experiment is safe as long as children are monitored, and can be performed at home or in a chemistry lab. The result is brilliant blue copper sulfate crystals of varying shapes and sizes, with large crystals possible given enough time.

Instructions

1. Make a super-saturated solution of copper sulfate. Heat distilled water in a beaker over low heat until it reaches around 122 degrees Fahrenheit. Add a small amount of copper sulfate and stir until it has fully dissolved. Keep adding and stirring until the copper sulfate stops dissolving and starts to settle on the bottom of the beaker. Heating the water allows more copper sulfate to be dissolved.

2. Grow a "seed crystal" by pouring some of the copper sulfate solution into an evaporating dish and leaving it for a day, somewhere where it won't be disturbed. As the water evaporates from the solution, small copper sulfate crystals will form. Pour the remaining solution from the beaker into a sealed container, clearly labeled to prevent the solution from being ingested accidentally.

3. Select one of the largest copper sulfate crystals in the evaporating dish, and tie it carefully to a piece of nylon fishing line. Fill a glass jar with the super-saturated copper sulfate solution you made previously.

4. Wrap the free end of the nylon fishing line around the middle of a pencil, and tie it off to keep the line in place. Place the pencil over the top of the glass jar, so the crystal is suspended in the copper sulfate solution. Make sure that the crystal is not touching the sides or the bottom of the jar.

5. Leave the jar undisturbed and uncovered, so the water from the solution can evaporate. Check the crystal daily; you should see it growing. If any crystals start forming on the sides or the bottom of the jar, pour the solution into a clean jar and move the crystal so it is suspended in the solution again. When the crystal has grown to a suitable size, you can remove it from the solution and display it.

Tags: copper sulfate, sulfate crystals, copper sulfate solution, from solution, sulfate solution, copper sulfate

Dig For Gem Stones

Gemstones are naturally occurring crystalline forms of minerals. Every state in the United States has multiple types of gemstones in varying geologic formations. For example: Minnesota and Wisconsin have abundant agates along the shores of Lake Superior; Arkansas is famous for quartz deposits; Nevada has the highest quality opals in the nation; Oregon has feldspar; Maine is bursting with the state mineral: tourmaline and Wyoming is famous for its jade deposits. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) keeps data on likely locations for gemstone deposits. Gemstone digging has become known as such a fun and rewarding experience that private land owners often make profits by offering pay- to-dig excursions on their land.

Instructions

1. Determine what type of gemstone you are hoping to find and how far you are willing to travel to obtain that specific stone. Consider how much money you are willing to spend on travel expenses and the dig itself.

2. Pay a visit to the local library or browse online in order to research what region of the country (or world) you are most likely to find deposits of the gemstone you are seeking. Resources below include links to helpful starting points: The American Federation of Mineralogical Societies and the USGS. Learn as much as you can about where the minerals are found, their properties and characteristics so that when you are digging, you are utilizing your time and energy wisely.

3. Talk with the Department of Geological Sciences at the local university. Often, professors in the field have firsthand experience and will be able to point you in the right direction on where to dig and what type of luck you will have.

4. Consider trying your luck at digging independently. If you determine that a local geological formation may contain gemstones, you can always set out with a shovel, pickaxe and pail yourself to try your luck. Be certain that the site you choose is a legal place to dig.

5. Look online to find pay-to-dig properties advertising your desired gemstone. This increases your odds of coming home with a gem. It is important that you call them to determine costs, dates of operation, limitations and restrictions and if the stones are natural or synthetic. Be sure to obtain all the information you need prior to embarking on your travels so you are not disappointed in the results.

Tags: United States, what type, your luck

How Does Radiometric Dating Work

How Does Radiometric Dating Work?

Radioactive Dating and Science

Radiometric dating, or as it is more commonly known, radioactive dating, is a scientific procedure used to determine the absolute age of an object and has been used to help establish the geological timescale. Radioactive dating is a scientifically tested and valid technique, although some non-scientists enjoy doubting results obtained with dating techniques. These techniques make use of the tendency for certain isotopes of an element to decay over time in a predictable way; looking at the decay retrospectively, it is possible to calculate when the original isotopes were incorporated into the material.

Isotopes, Half-life and Decay

Any atom of an element is guaranteed to have the same number of protons as any other atom of that element, but not necessarily the same number of neutrons. Neutrons, the neutral subatomic particle, occasionally are ejected from the atom by a number of processes such as beta decay or emission of positrons or alpha particles. These variations are called isotopes and denoted with a number after the element name, such as carbon-12 or carbon-13. While it is impossible to predict when an individual atom will shed a neutron by decaying, the decay of a group of atoms in an element is very predictable. Scientists use the term "half-life" to refer to the time period it takes for half of the atoms in the material to decay down to the next lowest isotope. These half-lives vary from material to material and from element to element but are known values.

Using Known Half-life to Calculate Unknown Age

When scientists use radiometric dating, they use a mass spectrometer to analyze the isotopes present in the material, both of the old material and of the new, decayed isotope. Using the known half-life of materials (for example, the half-life of carbon-14 is 6,000 years), scientists can compare how much of each type of isotope (the original isotope, known as the parent, and the decayed isotope, known as the daughter isotope) is present in the material. Using this information, highly accurate dating can be established for even very old objects.

Tags: Dating Work, decayed isotope, Does Radiometric, Does Radiometric Dating, isotope known, present material

Find Luxury Hotels In Nuuk Greenland

Nuuk is the capital and largest city in the self-governing Danish territory of Greenland. Nuuk boasts an incredible mixture of Scandinavian charm, Inuit-influenced decor and arctic natural beauty. The area of Nuuk has a remarkably long history. Inuit communities are thought to have settled there as early as 2000 B.C. Many visitors remark that Greenland has a fantasy-like quality. Swirling aurora borealis, sparkling glaciers and Greenland's barren white landscape are sure to leave a lasting impression on every visitor. Read on to learn find luxury accommodations in Nuuk, Greenland.

Instructions

Find Luxury Accommodations

1. Stay at the Hotel Hans Egede, a moderately priced establishment with a golf course, restaurant and piano bar. With a four-star rating, the Hans Egede is among your best bets for luxury in the city. Call 011 (+299) 324222 to book or visit the hotel Web site. See the Resources section below for a link.

2. Stay in luxury accommodations in Kolonihavnen, a small old-town area of Nuuk. The city offers only a few quality hotels, but what they lack in luxury, they make up for with charm.

3. Go whale watching in the fjord near Nuuk. Both hotels can refer excellent whale watching opportunities.

4. Pay for your luxury hotel accommodations with the Danish krone, the official currency. Many local spots in Nuuk will be cash only.

Arrive in Nuuk

5. Fly into the tiny, single runway Nuuk airport. For extra fun, take a helicopter to outlying towns or cities.

6. Travel by foot, boat or air in Greenland. There are no major road systems Greenland. However, there are a variety of boat, plane and helicopter tours.

Get to Know Nuuk

7. Learn the official language of Greenlandic. Kalaallisut is the most widely spoken Inuit-Aleut language, and is spoken throughout Nuuk.

8. Visit the museum in Colonial harbor. There are guided tours through exhibits such as the national costume and dance of Greenland, the unique geology of Nuuk and ancient Qilakitsoq mummies.

Tags: area Nuuk, Find Luxury, Hans Egede, Nuuk Greenland, whale watching

How Does Melting Ice Affect Ocean Water Levels

How Does Melting Ice Affect Ocean Water Levels?

Seas Are Already Rising

For the past century, the world's ocean water level has risen at a rate of about .07 inches per year, primarily due to human-induced global warming, according to the United Nations-sponsored Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The rate of rise is increasing, measuring .12 inches annually between 1993 and 2003, and it will likely accelerate further as greater amounts of ice melt near the globe's northern and southern poles.

The IPCC has predicted a maximum total sea level rise of 1 to 4 inches during the next 100 years. But a recent study of melting ice in Greenland found these estimates may be too conservative. Researchers from the University of Wisconsin-Madison say ocean water level rises of 1 to 2 feet are possible over the next century.

As ocean water levels continue to rise as a result of melting ice, coastal cities around the world may face catastrophic consequences.

Melting Ice

Melting ice can have a major impact on ocean water levels. During the last ice age, melting ice caps caused sea levels to rise nearly 400 feet.

The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that sea levels would rise by more than 200 feet if all of the ice now sitting on land in Greenland and Antarctica melted.

Fortunately, these ice sheets will not disappear overnight. A 2001 IPCC report said global temperatures would have to warm by 36 degrees Fahrenheit to melt all of Antarctica's ice. Scientists say such a temperature jump is not anticipated anytime soon.

Impact of Rising Ocean Water Levels

The bad news is that even relatively minor rises in ocean water levels can have dire impacts for vast numbers of people in low-lying coastal areas. These impacts could include more coastal erosion, increased flooding, reduced supplies of drinking water, losses of property and wildlife habitat, threats to transportation systems and declining incomes from agriculture and tourism.

Major cities like New Orleans and London already rely on man-made structures for protection from storm surges and these structures will need further strengthening as sea levels rise. It is estimated that a sea level rise of around 8 inches would displace 740,000 people in Nigeria. A 3-foot rise in ocean water levels could swamp cities along the U.S. eastern seaboard and 20-foot rise in sea levels would submerge a large portion of Florida.

Tags: ocean water, Water Levels, Affect Ocean, Affect Ocean Water, Does Melting, Does Melting Affect

Albany New York Museums

Incorporated in 1686, Albany serves as the state capital of New York and is about 150 miles north of New York City in Albany County. For tourists, the city of Albany features attractions such as the New York State Capitol Building, the Washington Park Historic District, the U.S.S. Slater and the Albany Pine Bush Preserve. Visitors to the area can also tour a small number of museums that feature exhibits relating to history, science and art.

New York State Museum

The New York State Museum began in Albany in 1836, then called the State Geological and Natural History Survey, and the museum has resided at its location on Madison Avenue since 1976. Each year the museum receives more than 750,000 visitors, according to its official website. The museum's permanent collection includes exhibits on the Adironack Wilderness, birds of New York, Harlem during the 1920s, historical fire engines, minerals of New York and the response to the World Trade Center attacks on Sep. 11, 2001. The museum is also home to the Cohoes Mastodon, a prehistoric skeleton excavated in 1866 and The Day Peckinpaugh, a cargo ship from the 1920s that is available for tours. The museum is open daily with the exception of Thanksgiving, Christmas, and New Year's Day. Admission was free as of September 2010. Two parking lots are available near the museum, and both are free on weekends and in the late afternoon to evening. The museum has its own cafe, which operates daily.

New York State Museum

222 Madison Ave.

Albany, NY 12230

518-474-5843

nysm.nysed.gov

Albany Institute

The Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures founded the Albany Institute of Art in 1791. The museum's collection consists of 30,000 objects produced in Albany or New York State, or previously owned by a family or group in the Hudson River Valley. Among these are about 60 works from the Hudson River School, a group of American painters such as Frederic Edwin Church and Thomas Cole, who were active during the mid-nineteenth century and produced works that depicted the landscape of New York's Hudson River Valley. The collection also includes textiles, sculptures, drawings, prints, furniture, ceramics, silver and pewter items and clothing. The museum is open Wednesday through Sunday and closes on Mondays, Tuesdays and most major holidays. General admission was $10 as of September 2010 with discounted rates for senior citizens, students and children aged 6 to 18 years. Children under 6 years of age receive free admission. The museum has a small pay lot at the corner of Elk and Dove Streets and metered street parking is available, particularly during evenings and on weekends.

Albany Institute of History and Art

125 Washington Ave.

Albany, NY 12210

518-463-4478

albanyinstitute.org

American Italian Heritage Museum and Cultural Center

The American Italian Heritage Association operates the American Italian Heritage Museum and Cultural Center, which is on Central Avenue in Albany. The museum's permanent collections include exhibits on Italian immigrants in the United States, folk art from villages in Italy, famous Italian Americans, Italians serving in the U.S. military and religion among Italians. The museum also hosts temporary exhibitions that highlight a facet of Italian-American life or provide an in-depth look at the life of a notable Italian-American. The museum is open Thursday through Monday and closes Tuesdays, Wednesdays and national holidays. General admission was $5 as of September 2010 with discounted rates available for members of the American Italian Heritage Association, senior citizens and children aged 7 to 16 years. Children under 7 years receive free admission. The museum does not have its own parking lot. Visitors must use meters or parking garages located within a few blocks of the museum.

American Italian Heritage Museum and Cultural Center

1227 Central Ave.

Albany, NY 12205

518-435-1979

americanitalianmuseum.org

Tags: American Italian, American Italian Heritage, Italian Heritage, York State, Albany Institute, Cultural Center, Heritage Museum

How Does Gravity Cause Erosion

Landslides are examples of gravity-induced erosion.

Erosion is the natural process (often accelerated by humans) by which rocks, soils, and sediments are weathered away and moved across the landscape by wind, water, ice, gravity and the activity of animals.

Water

Water is probably the most consistent and powerful cause of erosion. Rivers and streams are constantly eroding their banks and slowly changing their courses over hundreds, thousands, or millions of years. Rainfall causes erosion -- even individual raindrops cause something called "splash erosion" when they land and big storms and floods can cause extreme erosion. All of this water gets its force and momentum from gravity.

Ice

Ice, in the form of glaciers, is a huge contributor to erosion, particularly during ice ages. The Great Lakes, for example, were carved out by glaciers. Glaciers move slowly but with incredible momentum due to gravity.

Downhill Creep

Gravity alone, without the help of ice or water, causes a type of erosion called "downhill creep." Creep is the slow movement of sediment downhill. Except in the case of avalanches or landslides, which are often helped along by water or ice, downhill creep progresses very slowly and is inhibited by the force of friction and by plant roots.

Tags: downhill creep

What Is An Eon

An eon, often spelled as "aeon," is a measurement of time in the geologic time scale. It basically expresses a long period of time, usually much longer than an era.

Significance

Eons are used to look at time in periods longer than centuries and millennia. Unlike a year, century or other similar measurement, eons have no set length. They are classified instead by geological events.

Eons

The earth is in its fourth eon, the Phanerozoic, which began about 1 million years ago.

Eras, Periods and Epochs

The Phanerozoic eon is divided into smaller segments called eras. This eon is made up of 12 eras (so far). The eras are further divided into periods. Periods are divided into even smaller epochs. Like eons, these smaller time units are not divided based on their chronological length, but on geological events.

Holmes, the Father of Geologic Time

The first geologic time scale was proposed by Arthur Holmes, a British geologist, in 1913. Just decades earlier, many geologists believed the planet was only a few thousand years old. Using radiological dating techniques new at the time, Holmes dated some rock materials to over 1.5 billion years old. He proposed the ideas of plate tectonics and continental drift.

Other Usages

The Greek version of "eon" means "forever." In the ancient religion of Zoroastrianism, an aeon was the period of time before the world began, seen as god's domain, similar to the space where God created earth in the Bible, according to the Encyclopedia Britannica.

Tags: divided into, geologic time, geologic time scale, geological events, longer than, period time, time scale