Grade Eight Science Fair Project Ideas

Choose a science field that interests you, like chemistry, for a project theme.

If you naturally are interested in science, you probably have plenty of ideas for a science fair project. But if science does not seem captivate you, look to your surroundings for inspiration. Select a theme that truly startles you and start your exploration there. For example, if looking up into the night sky makes you feel small, consider investigating how planets suspend themselves in outer space. Or if you're curious about history, look at fossils to discover something about the Earth's past.

Solar System

Consider studying the effects of gravity on solar system orbits.

Create a project exploring the beauty, mystery and physical properties of the solar system. Find a topic that intrigues you about how the planets and spce work together. Consider concentrating on gravity and orbits. Demonstrate how, when an object such as a space shuttle is in orbit, the Earth's gravity pulls it so that it constantly curves in a circular direction. Without gravity, the shuttle would fly off in a straight line into endless space. Use a paper plate, a marble and a pair of scissors to demonstrate how an orbit works.

Set the plate on a surface and place the marble on the plate. Give it gentle touch so the marble spins around the plate--like in an orbit. Then cut a piece of the plate out. As the marble goes around the rim, it curves but when it gets to the edge where the plate is cut away, it stops curving and rolls across the table. Things go straight, unless there's something there to change their direction, slow them down, or speed them up. Any of these things can push (or pull) a moving object away from a straight line--off course. Of course!

Mold

Experiment with cheeses to see why some types, like blue cheese, improve with mold.

Examine how and why molds grow on cheeses. You also can discover what types of mold grow on different cheeses and under what conditions. Select a five or six cheeses to experiment on. Cut a wedge of each cheese. Set each wedge on a separate plate. Slip the plate into a plastic bag or, to add another variable to the experiment, slip a few in a brown paper bag or another plastic type. Set the cheeses on top of the refrigerator, a closet or a room in the house or apartment where they can go undisturbed. Wait a week, then check the cheeses. See what happens to each cheese. Research the different molds and present your findings. Protect your classmates by keeping your evidence in a tightly sealed bags to hold in the stench.

Geology

Explore historical plant and animal life by searching for fossils.

Explore fossils in rock samples. Research types of fossils found in your local area. Some parts of the United States, such as swamps, everglades and canyons, hold more fossil remains than others. If you live in one of these higher fossil density areas, speak with a geologist or naturalist about where to find fossils. Search for rocks and stones with leaf, bone, tooth or other kinds of natural imprints. Learn about the three main rock types--igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic--and the kind of animal and plant remains each typically hold. Present your finding at the fair by sharing the rock samples, pictures of the animals or plants that left the markings, and perhaps a history of geology and paleontology.

Tags: each cheese, plate marble, rock samples

How Much Does A Seismologist Get Paid

Oil exploration and earthquake research are two major areas of employment for seismologists.

Because of the technology required to measure seismic vibrations and waves, seismology is a relatively new science. The Seismological Society of America estimates that the beginnings of modern seismology can be traced to the early 1900s, when scientists first began trying to measure and record earthquakes. Today's seismologists still perform those functions but also are interested in predicting earthquakes and other seismic activities. Seismologists also apply their skills for commercial purposes, such as performing exploration for the oil industry, where many seismologists are employed.

Education & Training

A bachelor's degree is the minimum required to become a seismologist, usually in an earth-science field such as geophysics, of which seismology is a branch. A master's degree is the minimum requirement for many field positions, and a Ph.D. usually is required for research jobs, academic work and teaching positions. Science, math and geology coursework is fundamental, as are advanced computer skills, considering that computers are an essential tool in seismological jobs.

National Salary Averages

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics doesn't isolate salary data for seismologists, instead including the information in its "Geoscientists, Except Hydrologists and Geographers" findings. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics' May 2009 report, the median salary for geoscientists is $81,220, with a middle 50th percentile median salary range of $56,280 to $117,040. The bottom 10th percentile median salary is $43,140 and the top 10th percentile figure is $161,260. The Schools in the USA website reports an entry-level salary for seismologists of $36,580, an average salary of $67,470 and a top salary of $133,310.

Experience Factors

As seismologists gain experience and their skills and responsibilities expand, salaries generally increase. Salary.com shows a 2011 median salary for a geophysicist II, with two to four years of experience, at $82,655. The low-end median salary is $64,030 and the top 10th percentile salary is $124,044. A geophysicist III, with four to six years on the job, earns a median salary of $107,427, with bottom and top 10th percentile median salaries of $76,239 and $160,314 respectively. Seismologists and other geophysicists with six to eight years of experience make median salaries of $119,999, bottom 10th percentile salaries of $91,993 and a top-end pay rate of $148,481 a year. Senior geophysicists earn a median salary of $148,723, with a bottom 10th percentile wage of $133,049 a year and a high-end salary of $163,620.

Location

It's no surprise that the highest-paying areas in the U.S. for seismologists are in oil-producing and mining states. The Bureau of Labor Statistics lists the top four states for seismologist wages as Texas, Alaska, Colorado and Oklahoma, with average salaries of $127,250, $104,410, $99,590 and $96,290, respectively. Washington, D.C., where the federal government employs many scientists, pays an average salary of $107,160. Cities and metropolitan areas with the highest seismologist wages also are located in oil-producing areas - namely Texas - and in California, where earthquake research is prominent. The Texas areas of Midland, Houston, Corpus Christi and Fort Worth pay four of the five highest average salary rates in the country at $142,250, $138,370, $123,810 and $120,820, respectively. Bakersfield, Calif., pays an average salary of $122,160.

Outlook

The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects a rapid job-growth rate -18 percent - for geoscientists through 2018. The outlook is especially bright for those who have master's degrees and perform field work. Competition is expected to be fierce among Ph.D.s who are looking for research and teaching positions. Although mining and oil-related jobs tend to be cyclical and are sensitive to economic changes, environmental jobs should be abundant, many of them provided through federal and state government agencies.

Tags: median salary, 10th percentile, average salary, bottom 10th, bottom 10th percentile, Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor Statistics

Cut Meteorites

Billions of years old and traveling at speeds up to 17,000 miles per hour, meteorites inspire the imagination. Having survived the entry through the earth's atmosphere, as well as the collision landing, they are rare finds. The ones that do survive vary greatly in size, from rocks similar to sand grains up to the 66-ton meteorite found in Namibia. Meteorites are classified into one of three types based on their iron-nickel content: "iron," "stony-iron" and "stony." Iron meteorites are over 90% metal; stony-irons have about an equal amount of iron and silicate crystals; and stony meteorites are almost entirely silicate material.

Instructions

1. Determine the type of meteorite you have. Since stony-irons account for less than 2% of meteorites, you're probably dealing with an iron or stony meteorite. Iron meteorites are more than twice as dense as stony ones, so they also attract a magnet with greater force.

2. Choose the appropriate saw blade. Unless the meteorite is quite small, you'll want to use a horizontal band saw rather than a hack saw. Standard lapidary diamond-bladed saws will work with stony meteorites, but slicing through iron requires a silicon carbide blade. The diameter of the blade should be larger than the diameter of the cut you want to make. That way, you can cut an entire slice without having to reposition the meteorite. The thickness of the blade will be determined by the type of cut. Cutting off a few slices might be possible with a thinner blade, while cutting it into equal slices would be better achieved with a thicker blade.

3. Clamp the meteorite securely in place. Start the cut slowly to prevent the saw from moving across the meteorite before creating the first channel cut. Continue to saw steadily and slowly.

4. Remove the saw marks from each slice by working up through different sandpaper grades. Begin with a belt sander with 80- to 120-grit sandpaper and carefully sand the exposed faces of the slices. Next, work a sheet of 200 grit wet-dry sandpaper across the meteorite by hand. Continue the cycle of hand sanding and increasing the grit until you reach 1200 or 1500 grit sandpaper.

5. Etch the meteorite cuttings by placing them in a solution of 5% nitric acid and 95% isopropyl alcohol; etching brings out the otherwise-hidden crystalline structure. The amount of time etching requires varies from one to five minutes, according to the size of the piece and the temperature. Check a slice every minute to see how the etch is progressing.

6. Clean the cuttings by soaking them in distilled water for five minutes and then in isopropyl alcohol for one to three days. Remove them from the alcohol and heat them in a 150% oven until they're completely dry.

7. Apply a protective coating to prevent the meteorite from rusting. Oils and grease, such as WD-40 or Rig, are typically used. Melted paraffin and lacquer are also effective.

Tags: across meteorite, five minutes, Iron meteorites, isopropyl alcohol, stony meteorites

Write A Scholarship Cover Letter

The competition for scholarships gets tougher each year with more people going to college. If a student wishes to gain a scholarship, the cover letter is the first thing a scholarship committee will see. There are some basic keys that people often overlook when writing the scholarship letter.

Instructions

1. Determine what the scholarship committee requires from an applicant and include it in the cover letter. For instance, if the committee values community service, then include all volunteer efforts on your part. Remember to not merely list the accomplishments but include something personal about each item.

2. Find out the specific person to whom you can address the scholarship cover letter. If possible stay away from the generic salutations like "Dear Sir or Madam" or "To whom it may concern." Search the scholarship documents, web site or call the committee to ascertain to whom you can address the cover letter to make it more personal.

3. Write the body of the cover letter with a sense of gratitude for the opportunity the scholarship will give you. Then make a case of how this scholarship will enable you to help your fellow man and the community as a whole.

4. Include at least one line in the cover letter complimenting the scholarship organization and the work that they do. If you can, connect your goals to the ideals and purpose of the scholarship committee or organization.

5. Close the scholarship cover letter with a forward looking and enthusiastic statement that thanks the committee, organization or person for their time and effort in reviewing your scholarship application.

Tags: cover letter, cover letter, scholarship committee, scholarship cover, committee organization

Water Resources Degrees

The study of water management often happens in areas where water plays an important role.

The study of water resources is an interdisciplinary pursuit that often takes either a scientific course or a management and policy course. Universities that offer programs in this area of study are often those in states or areas where water resources are especially important, such as in deserts or agricultural areas that depend on watersheds. The universities offer graduate, and sometimes doctorate and undergraduate programs.

University of New Mexico

The University of New Mexico's water resources program offers a master's degree in water resources designed to prepare students for careers in water management. The program has a hydroscience track and a policy and management track. The hydroscience track is appropriate for students with a technical background while the policy and management track is designed for students with diverse backgrounds from law and economics to natural sciences. The program at the University of New Mexico is designed to train students in the varied and widely diverse arena of water resources, especially for arid areas.

Villanova University

The College of Engineering at Villanova University in Pennsylvania offers a wholly online degree in water resources. This is a graduate program designed for students who require a distance learning education. Students have access to lectures and communication tools online as they work toward their degree. This program is comparable to the in-class master's of water resources the university also offers. This program is best for students who have an undergraduate degree in engineering or applied science. The in-class program offers all of its courses in the evening to accommodate students who work during the day.

Colorado State University

Colorado State University offers several graduate degrees in the area of water resources spread over several of its colleges. The colleges of agricultural sciences, engineering and natural resources all offer extensive water resource programs in conjunction with the agricultural experiment Station, cooperative extension and the Colorado Water Resources Research Institute. There are also water-related graduate degrees available through the colleges of civil engineering, fishery and wildlife biology, Earth resources and chemical and bioresource engineering. All of these departments also offer water resource-related undergraduate degrees.

Oregon State University

Oregon State University offers master's and doctorate programs in water resources. This school is the flagship university in Oregon for this type of degree. The graduate programs are focused on science, engineering or policy and management, with doctorate programs in science and engineering. Twelve programs over six colleges at the university support disciplines within this degree area. This program offers many opportunities for research, and students benefit from access to a nationally recognized staff and guest lecturers from around the world.

Tags: water resources, State University, policy management, program offers, This program, University Mexico, water resources

Diamonds Vs Synthetic Stones

Diamonds have long been associated with relationships and as gifts of love. The beauty, clarity and sparkle of natural diamonds has been simulated with man-made technology. Although natural and synthetic stones look similar, there are differences. Does this Spark an idea?

History

Historically, diamonds were mined in India over 3000 years ago. In contrast, General Electric invented man-made diamonds in the mid-1900s, but they were very costly to manufacture. Eventually Genesis invented a cheaper way to create them, allowing them to be marketed.

Traditional Perceptions

Natural diamonds were initially valued for their beauty and used as protection against evil spirits. Later, they were used to help heal. In the Middle Ages they finally became prized for their worth. Synthetic diamonds appear to be valued for their diamond-like qualities and appearance.

Creation

It takes millions of years for natural diamonds to be created when carbon is subjected to high temperatures and pressure under the earth. Synthetics are also created when carbon reacts to similar pressures and high temperatures, but over a short period of time. Natural diamonds have to be mined, shaped and shined, but synthetics are created looking like the finished product.

Uses

Both synthetic and natural diamonds are used primarily for industrial uses. However, they are commonly used for decorative purposes and jewelry as well.

Cost

Natural diamonds are the most costly gemstones, but synthetics are a third cheaper than comparable natural diamonds.

Appearance

Natural diamonds have been found in a variety of colors and some diamonds even have black flecks. Synthetic stones can also be created in different colors. Synthetic diamonds have fewer imperfections than mined diamonds.

Tags: diamonds have, natural diamonds, Natural diamonds, also created, created when, created when carbon

Fossil Hunting In East Texas

Fossil Hunting in East Texas

Cretaceous and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks cover approximately one-third (28 percent) of Texas, and represent a diverse grouping of fossils, according to "Geo-Texas: A Guide to the Earth Sciences." This wide stretch of exposed limestone extends from Big Bend National Park to the central Texas hill country. Cretaceous invertebrate fossils are abundant, with the most common forms including pelecypods, cephalopods, gastropods and echinoids.

Locations

There are several fossil-hunting locations in eastern Texas. The fossil park of Mineral Wells lies about 55 miles west of Fort Worth. This free, all-you-can-unearth park offers gentle slopes which are dotted with the remnants of ancient sharks, urchins, crustaceans and flora from the Pennsylvanian period 300 million years ago. Although the fossils are not uncommon, you are guaranteed to find something interesting. The University of Texas Libraries lists several eastern Texas fossil-hunting locations, including the Bergstrom Formation near Manda, the Pecan Gap Chalk in the Walnut Hill Area east of Austin and the Sprinkle Formation on Little Walnut Creek.

Equipment and Gear

Most people are not accustomed to spending all day outdoors, with the sun or rain beating down. Wear loose, comfortable clothing that does not chafe, a hooded waterproof jacket for rainy conditions and sturdy hiking boots. Geological and topographical maps, as well as a GPS device, are indispensable tools, especially when venturing into unfamiliar territory. Main tools for fieldwork include a geological hammer, chisels, trowels, brushes, magnifying lens, plastic bags or containers, a notebook and camera.

Documentation

When searching for fossils, the most vital part of the find is the documentation. Keeping records of your find, such as geographic location, help determine the exact age and uniqueness of a specimen. Record details of each fossil including the exact location, and the appearance of the sediment layer (strata), noting any other fossils located in proximity. Individually catalog each specimen, wrapping them separately in newspaper and placing them in separate plastic bags or containers.

Resources

Many fossil guides have access to private fossil areas. This opens up a new world of potential finds you would not otherwise have, as well as extensive experience in fossil hunting techniques. Regional and local groups also offer enormous benefits to the keen but inexperienced hunter, offering advice on planning, equipment and likely finds; and they may even loan equipment such as tools and containers.

Regulations

According to the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM), private collecting is banned or limited on most federal and state properties. The BLM states the public may collect "reasonable amounts of common invertebrate and plant fossils without a BLM permit," which includes plant fossils, such as leaves, stems and cones, and petrified wood up to 25 pounds; however, the collected materials must be for "your personal collection and cannot be sold or traded." Commercial collection is not allowed on federal lands, with the exception of petrified wood, as it is classified as a mineral material.

Tags: bags containers, East Texas, eastern Texas, Fossil Hunting, Fossil Hunting East, fossil-hunting locations, Hunting East

Which Factors Have Been Major Influences On The Growth Of American Cities

Factors that led to the early growth of American cities are still influential today.

The growth of American cities began in the late 1700s. This growth was directly related to certain influential factors. Some of the same factors that led to such growth hundreds of years ago are the very same factors influencing the further growth, development and urbanization of American cities today.

Transportation

In today's society, transportation is so readily available that it has become somewhat of an afterthought, yet in earlier years, transportation was a major influence on the growth of American cities. People were drawn to areas that had readily available avenues for transportation, such as waterways, rivers, sea ports, railways and eventually highways.

Diverse Economies

The economy of any given area is a major influence on the growth rate of that city. Areas with a diverse economy have typically grown the fastest because they open doors for a number of different job opportunities for its residents. A current example is the state of Texas, which is leading the nation with the fastest growing cities, including Austin, Dallas and Houston. This growth stems from the state's diverse economy and multiple industries including aerospace, information technology and petroleum. People migrate to cities where job opportunities are not only concentrated but plentiful.

Education

Education has also played a prominent role in the development and growth of American cities. People have been drawn to areas where there is an opportunity for educational advancement. Good educational systems, from high schools and colleges to graduate schools, have attracted individuals to these areas. New York City and Chicago are two cities that continue to attract individuals for their prestigious universities and colleges.

Migration and Urbanization

Migration is one of the simplest yet powerful and influential factors on the growth and urbanization of American cities. Whether individuals are attracted to a certain area for its climate, retirement purposes or housing market, when people move from one area to the next, it leads to the development and growth of American cities. Cities have also expanded due to migration and the development of the suburbs outside of the concentrated city areas.

Tags: growth American, growth American cities, American cities, American cities, American cities People, cities People, development growth

Look For Information About Gold Prospecting

"

Thar's gold in them thar hills!"

The quest for gold is practically as old as the human race itself. Finding gold is a combination of both art and science. Gold prospecting information has traditionally been a very carefully guarded secret. Information about gold prospecting is almost as elusive as the gold itself and requires the application of a logical search strategy to find it. The advent of the information superhighway has put much of that information at our fingertips. Discover the available gold prospecting information first, and then go and find the gold. All of the gold that humans have found so far is only the tip of the iceberg. Still true today are the words of the infamous old prospector: "Thar's gold in them thar hills!"

Instructions

1. Take a broad and general approach in your search for gold prospecting information at first. Learn about the generalities of gold prospecting and its various methodologies. Decide what level of information you require. Do you desire basic hobbyist tips or advanced geotechnical information? You will learn other sources of gold prospecting information as your search goes on.

2. Begin your quest for gold prospecting information by searching the Internet. Begin with a search for "gold prospecting" by typing those words into your favorite Internet search engines. Read the articles that appear and follow their links to other related articles. You will quickly learn to pursue the most relevant articles and to reject those that are not relevant to your quest for gold prospecting information.

3. Take notes and record your findings. Use a notebook and pencil or type, copy and paste notes into a word processor file. Jot down or copy the addresses of websites that have been helpful in your search for gold prospecting information. Jot down or copy a few of the main concepts (words, phrases and sentences) associated with each of the most helpful gold prospecting web addresses.

4. Narrow and refine your search strategies as you acquire more gold prospecting information. Concentrate on areas that interest you most or about which you desire more information. Informational sites will be the most helpful. If you are seeking methods, add the words "How to" to your search strategies to help you to zero in on specific gold prospecting methodologies such as panning, sluicing and crevassing for gold.

5. Read through commercial gold prospecting product sales websites and product information as well. By reading and learning about gold prospecting products available, you will increase your knowledge base and information about gold prospecting. You will learn about all about the tools of the trade as well as other products available for gold prospectors and for gold prospecting.

6. Search for geologic maps and charts for any particular area that might interest you for gold prospecting. Libraries, mineral claim offices, and the Internet are great sources for this type of gold prospecting information as well. Search for mining claims and mineral rights data in your specific area of interest. This information is often in the public domain or available under the Freedom of Information Act.

7. Ask for gold prospecting information whenever the opportunity arises. Many prospectors are often very quiet about their own gold prospecting information; but librarians, government office workers and "old-timers" in your area may be very helpful and willing to offer up gold prospecting information and secrets quite freely.

8. Make a list of gold assayers, gold labs and gold buyers closest to you, then make an appointment or inquire within. They can be very helpful to a potential new customer seeking gold prospecting information. They will want your future business.

9. Join geology clubs and prospecting groups in your area. These groups have members with interests similar to yours, and they are more likely to be willing to share what they know. Once you have done all of your homework from books, libraries and your Internet research, you will find next that collaboration and networking with other prospectors is among the very best resources available in your search for gold prospecting information.

Tags: prospecting information, gold prospecting, gold prospecting, gold prospecting information, gold prospecting, your search, gold prospecting information

Find Gold In Maricopa County Arizona

Arizona desert plains and mountain ranges used to be rich resources of gold deposits.

Miners depleted most of the gold in Maricopa County, Arizona before 1900, although the southwestern county remains Arizona's fifth largest gold producer. During expeditions in the mid-19th century to mid-20th century, several districts hit the "mother lode" producing about 428,000 ounces of the rare deposit, mostly through lode mining. Lode gold occurs within solid rock unlike unconsolidated placer gold, which prospectors pan for in river and stream sediment. Finding placer and lode gold in Maricopa County is rare. A tourist's best bet is the San Domingo district in the South Wickenburg Mountains where half the fun is still the thrill of the hunt.

Instructions

1. Travel northeast of San Domingo district's Hassayampa River to townships 6S and 7S, Range 4W in the Wickenburg Mountains. For the layman, take Grand Avenue or I-60 northwest out of Phoenix to Morristown (27 miles). San Domingo Wash is just shy of nine miles northeast of Morristown (see Resources).

2. Scour the San Domingo Wash, nearby washes and tributaries as well as hilltops and slopes to find much of the district's gold placers. Washes are arroyo or canyon areas that are streambeds fed with intermittent rainfall. Red Picacho's 7.5 minute quadrangles (1:24,000 scale topographic maps) pinpoint the county's most productive placer deposits.

3. Pan for placers by sifting sediment through a placer or miner's pan. Wet panning in streams and rivers as well as dry panning through land sediment and washes commonly yield ounce-size nuggets. A gold nugget weighing one ounce is about the size of a quarter, depending on its shape.

4. Hone in on the precious metal with a metal detector if panning is not your thing. Finding ounce-size nuggets isn't uncommon.

Tags: Maricopa County, County Arizona, Domingo district, Domingo Wash, gold Maricopa, gold Maricopa County

Date Organic Materials

Carbon dating requires advanced machinery.

Fossilized organisms, or anything that was once living, is dated by measuring the emission of carbon-14 (C14). By comparing the amount of C14 preserved in the specimen to other living organisms, a scientist determines the age of the sample. Expensive tools and professional know-how are needed to date organic matter with carbon dating. But students and science enthusiasts alike will find a basic knowledge of dating processes helpful when studying archeology and anthropology.

Instructions

1. Fire up the spectrometer. An Accelerator Mass Spectrometer weighs around 8,000 lbs. and costs over $2 million, so don't expect to find one lying around the house. This is the first step a scientist takes when preparing to date a piece of aged organic matter. If you are planning a science project investigating different methods of dating, start collecting samples for your project. Arrowheads found on hillsides, pieces of old pottery and rock samples are a good examples of items to use in a project.

2. Prepare the sample. Samples are easily contaminated by improper handling. When the specimens are removed from their original environment, they are wrapped and stored in carefully monitored containers. At the lab, samples are prepped on petri dishes by glove-toting lab techs. They are studied using numerous tools, such as microscopes. Samples are then placed inside the spectrometer for carbon counting. Use an example specimen in a science project. Plastic petri dishes are available in science kits and educational shops. Set up various false test samples to act as models that science fair attendees are able to touch.

3. Measure carbon levels. Radioactive carbon is the product of a collision between nitrogen 14 and atomic rays in the atmosphere. As a result C14 is released into the air and absorbed by plants. Humans and animals intake C14 through consumption of plants and other organic materials. C14 is then emitted from the organism at a constant rate. After the organism dies, C14 emission slowly decreases, very slowly. The spectrometer measures how many radioactive waves are emitted from the specimen per gram, per minute. The older the specimen, the lower the C14 measurement.

A science student is able to illustrate the use of carbon measurements with a chart. Use your fake specimens as examples of how a material is dated. For example, the carbon emission from something recently deceased is 15, where as something dead over 5,000 years will be around 6.5 to 7. Label each false sample with its C14 emission number.

4. Narrow down the date. Carbon dating is the most accurate method of dating long-dead organic matter, but it is far from perfect. Use other forms of investigation to make an educated estimate of the date. Gather information from the area where the specimen was found to help determine the source. Visual analysis, especially in artifacts collected from archeological sites, will also assist in dating the samples.

Use imagined circumstances around each false sample to justify its C14 age. Use this to illustrate how a scientist uses myriad research to date one, small fragment of earth's history.

Tags: organic matter, Carbon dating, each false, each false sample, emitted from, false sample

What Makes A Topographic Map Different From Any Other Map

While sharing some similarities, topographic maps also have many differences from other map types.

Maps illustrate portions of the Earth's surface. They all have a compass rose showing directions, a scale indicator showing the ratio of map distance to real life distance, and a map key or legend describing what each of the map symbols means. There are six basic map types --- climate, economic/resource, physical, political, road and topographic --- each with a different way of representing that piece of land.

Topographic Maps

Topographic (topo) maps show natural features like mountains, waterways and vegetation as well as a few man-made highlights such as major buildings, roads, boundaries and electrical lines. What makes them different is that they use contour lines to depict the shape and elevation of the three-dimensional terrain. Each contour line represents a specific elevation. Contour lines drawn closely together indicate steep terrain, whereas contour lines stretched far apart reveal a flat or gently sloping landscape. Hikers use them in areas where there aren't any roads, geologists use them for recording rock types and by engineers use them for planning roads and buildings.

Road Maps

Road maps help drivers find their way around cities, states and countries. Like topographic maps, they show major buildings, boundaries and natural features. Unlike topographic maps, there are no contour lines. The road map key may also specify travel times between certain points on the map. Tourist attractions frequently appear on road maps. Other items of importance on road maps include rail depots, airports, historical sites and hospitals.

Climate Maps

Climate maps show boundaries and natural features like topographic maps. Unlike topo maps, they display regions by annual rainfall and snowfall amounts.

Economic/Resource Maps

Like topo maps, economic or resource maps show boundaries and the locations of natural resources. Unlike topographic maps, resource maps point out locations of economic activities. Economic and resource locations include regional agriculture, mining, financial activities and specific industries (i.e. computer, medical, petroleum).

Physical Maps

Like topographic maps, physical maps display a region's landforms and bodies of water, like mountains and rivers. Unlike topo maps, physical maps use color to highlight features. Instead of contour lines, this map uses some lines along with shading, tinting and numbers or colors to indicate elevation.

Political Maps

Political maps have boundaries and major towns drawn onto them, like topographic maps. Unlike topographic maps, political maps divide regions along political lines, indicating the borders between towns, counties, states/provinces and countries. Atlases and large regional maps print each country in a different color to make the distinction more clear. Capitals and major cities are also indicated on state/province or country maps.

Tags: topographic maps, topo maps, contour lines, maps show, natural features, topographic maps

Facts About Limestone Crystallization

Limestone, pretty on the beach or anywhere else

Limestone, used in buildings and cement, is a common name for the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate, CaCO3). It crystallizes in a variety of environments, and can be found around the world.

Limestone Formation

Limestone is a chemical sedimentary rock. This means that instead of being compacted and cemented, it is formed from chemical crystallization. Limestone most commonly forms via biochemical processes.

Limestone can also form from aragonite, a mineral with the same chemical make up, but different arrangement.

Marble Formation

When conditions are right, limestone can crystallize into marble, a non-foliated (non-layered) metamorphic rock (metamorphosis meaning that heat and pressure are applied to the rock without melting it). Marble is more dense and hard than the limestone it crystallized from.

Coloration

Pure limestone is white, as is the marble that comes from it. If limestone has impurities, the marble that crystallizes from it can range in color from black, green, gray or pink, depending on the impurities. Also, other, separate minerals in the limestone can be included in the marble.

Considerations

Different types of limestone exist, with each type depending on what gets mixed in during the formation process. When limestone crystallizes into marble, the type of marble formed depends on the type of limestone it comes from.

When the limestone that crystallizes into marble is inter-layered with shale, it will form foliated marble.

Tags: into marble, comes from, crystallizes into, crystallizes into marble, marble that

Find Geodes In Idaho

Geodes are a nifty find for rock-hunters.

Geodes are round, hollow geological rock formations commonly of sedimentary or igneous rock. The interiors are often lined with quartz crystals. Prized by rock hounds and used for decoration and jewelry, they are found in many parts of the country. Idaho, the Gem State, has its share of geodes. For those prepared for rock hounding in Idaho's scenic, rugged and mineral-rich back country, there is a supply of geodes available.

Instructions

1. Locate areas in Idaho where geodes are likely to be found. There are several books available on the minerals of Idaho and where they are located. You can also go to the Idaho Department of Lands website under "Gemstone and Rock" information for a list of gemstones by county. See the Resource section for more information.

2. Acquire detailed maps of the area you wish to search for geodes. Sources of maps include the Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Forest Service and Idaho Department of Lands. These will help you find your way in and out of an area. The Idaho Geological Survey has maps showing the geological details of an area, which is useful in determining where geodes might be located.

3. Locate good hunting areas once you reach your destination. Look in volcanic ash beds, and also check gravel deposits and rock formations containing limestone. Geodes congregate in "beds," and most will be found in the rocky, desert areas of Idaho.

4. Search the ground for round, lumpy rocks. Distinguish them from other rocks by their shape and by weight. Since they are hollow, see if a round lumpy rock feels lighter than you would expect. Shake it and listen for a rattle made by a loose bit of crystal. Most geodes will be from marble to softball size, although much larger ones are found.

5. Dig with your shovel or pick. If you are in an area popular with rock hounds, it might be harder to find surface rocks. Also, geodes on the ground indicate more below the surface. You your pick or rock hammer to loosen potential geodes from rock formations.

6. Confirm geodes by breaking a few open with your rock hammer, looking for hollow interiors and crystal formations. Save most to take to a professional for cutting and polishing.

Tags: rock formations, areas Idaho, Department Lands, Idaho Department, Idaho Department Lands, Idaho where, rock hammer

Facts About Neptune For A School Project

The planet Neptune is named after the Roman god of the sea.

Neptune is the 8th planet from the sun. Most of the time Pluto is the only planet more distant than Neptune. Every 248 years, however, Pluto's orbit carries it closer to us than Neptune, and for 20 years Neptune will be the planet farthest from the sun.

History

Neptune's existence was predicted based on mathematical calculations before it was even discovered--a first for the planets of our solar system.

Features

Neptune is one of the two planets in our solar system that is too dim and distant to be visible to the naked eye. It takes 165 Earth years for Neptune to travel once around the sun, so if you lived on Neptune, your year would last 165 Earth years. A Neptune day lasts 16 hours and 7 minutes.

Size

Neptune's mass is over 17 times that of Earth, and its volume is over 57 times that of our planet. It's thought to be composed primarily of hydrogen, helium, and silicate minerals; its surface is covered with clouds. Beneath the clouds lies a ocean of dense, highly compressed gas, and then a layer of liquid around a small core of ice and rock about the size of Earth.

Moons

Neptune has 11 known moons. The largest, Triton, has the coldest known temperature for any planet or moon in the solar system.

Tags: solar system, years Neptune, Earth years, Earth years Neptune, over times

How Is Radioactive Dating Used To Date Fossils

How Is Radioactive Dating Used to Date Fossils?

Radioactive Decay

Many rocks and organisms contain radioactive isotopes, such as U-235 and C-14. These radioactive isotopes are unstable, decaying over time at a predictable rate. As the isotopes decay, they give off particles from their nucleus and become a different isotope. The parent isotope is the original unstable isotope, and daughter isotopes are the stable product of the decay. Half-life is the amount of time it takes for half of the parent isotopes to decay. The decay occurs on a logarithmic scale. For example, the half-life of C-14 is 5,730 years. In the first 5,730 years, the organism will lose half of its C-14 isotopes. In another 5,730 years, the organism will lose another half of the remaining C-14 isotopes. This process continues over time, with the organism losing half of the remaining C-14 isotopes each 5,730 years.

Radioactive Dating of Fossils

Fossils are collected along with rocks that occur from the same strata. These samples are carefully cataloged and analyzed with a mass spectrometer. The mass spectrometer is able to give information about the type and amount of isotopes found in the rock. Scientists find the ratio of parent isotope to daughter isotope. By comparing this ratio to the half-life logarithmic scale of the parent isotope, they are able to find the age of the rock or fossil in question.

Isotopes Used for Dating

There are several common radioactive isotopes that are used for dating rocks, artifacts and fossils. The most common is U-235. U-235 is found in many igneous rocks, soil and sediment. U-235 decays to Pb-207 with a half-life of 704 million years. Due to its long half-life, U-235 is the best isotope for radioactive dating, particularly of older fossils and rocks.

C-14 is another radioactive isotope that decays to C-12. This isotope is found in all living organisms. Once an organism dies, the C-14 begins to decay. The half-life of C-14, however, is only 5,730 years. Because of its short half-life, the number of C-14 isotopes in a sample is negligible after about 50,000 years, making it impossible to use for dating older samples. C-14 is used often in dating artifacts from humans.

Tags: C-14 isotopes, parent isotope, radioactive isotopes, Date Fossils, Dating Used, Dating Used Date, half remaining

Rock Formations In Florida

Florida doesn't feel rock-forming quakes or volcanic activity because it's on a passive interior of the North American plate.

The state of Florida began to form from volcanic activity and the deposition of marine sediments among Africa's northwest about 530 million years ago. Florida sits mostly on limestone rock formations, which were created by billions of skeletons of marine invertebrates deposited onto the seafloor. Geologists have found diverse rock formations in Florida that were created by fossilized animals, the shifting of the Earth's tectonic plates and sea-floor spreading -- the process of lava creating new oceanic crust that forces plates apart.

Florida's Basic Rock Formations

Florida's rock formations are classified by three "basement rock" types: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary. Igneous rocks, formed deep within the Earth's interior, are not exposed on Florida's surface but have been found thousands of feet below the surface in oil wells. Metamorphic rocks -- which were originally igneous or sedimentary rocks transformed by heat, pressure and chemically active fluids -- are also not exposed on Florida's surface but have also been found several thousand feet below the surface. Florida is mainly composed of sedimentary rocks, which were formed on Earth's surface by the accumulation and cementation of rocks, minerals, organisms and erosion. The most prominent sedimentary rock found throughout Florida is limestone. Prominent Floridian limestone rock is coquina, composed mostly of shells of marine organisms.

Types of Basic Rock Formations

Basement rocks have been found in north-central Florida by penetrating oil wells 3,500 feet below the surface. Basement rocks in south Florida and northern Florida are mostly basalts formed during the late Triassic and early Jurassic periods. In central Florida, the basement rocks are granite with small amounts of metamorphic rock formed during the Early Cambrian period around 550 million years ago. The northern Florida peninsula has sandstones, siltstones, and shales that date from the middle Paleozoic age. The fossils in the rocks -- brachiopods, mollusks and crinoids -- tell the age of the rock by matching the organisms with the time period in which they lived.

Rocks Throughout Florida

Carbonate platforms, which include limestone and dolostone, have been found throughout Florida. Rocks from the early Cenozoic era, which are sediments formed during the last 65 million years, form distinctive formations throughout Florida. Cenozoic rocks form high rock formations (platforms) and low formations (basins). The oldest sediments are on the crest of Ocala Platform, a major geologic feature in west-central Florida. Other large rock platforms, or "highs," are in the Chattahoochee Anticline, Sanford High and St. Johns Platform. The basins, or "lows," include the Okeechobee Basin and the Osceola Low.

Large Rock Formations

Eocene, Oligocene and Miocene limestones forming Florida's base influenced the development of Florida's Pleistocene landforms. Naturally acidic rain and groundwater flowed through the limestones, forming caverns in the rock. Some caverns collapsed and large valleys formed, such as Florida's western and central valleys. Dissolution and cementation of limestone by rainwater and acidic rain produced the craggy, jagged rock surface of the Everglades. The southern rim of Florida also has a fringe line of living and dead coral reefs, which form the Florida Keys.

Tags: been found, below surface, feet below, feet below surface, formed during

Job Description Of A Limnologist

Limnologists study physical, chemical and biological aspects of internal water systems.

Scientists who study internal waters--such as freshwater lakes, rivers, ponds, streams and wetlands and saltwater systems like the Great Salt Lake in Utah---are generally classified as limnologists.

Purpose

A limnologist's work provides an understanding of ecological water systems and protects them from negative environmental changes to maintain safety for recreational use, fishing, and plants and animals that inhabit the area. Much of their work is supported by grants.

Duties

Work includes testing waters for chemicals; determining the cause of fish deaths or unsafe conditions; studying animals, plants or microscopic plankton that live within the ecosystem; or evaluating the movement and properties of the water. Fisheries biologists, environmental scientists, chemists, hydrologists and ecologists are types of limnologists.

Work Environment

Employers include the government, universities and private businesses---such as environmental consulting firms. Field work involves collecting samples by boat or wading in the waters, although much time is also spent in laboratories conducting experiments and tests.

Requirements

Computers are used to record scientific data and to construct models. Good communication and writing skills are needed for lectures and informative research papers. Candidates should obtain at least a bachelor's degree in biology, ecology, chemistry or related field, cites the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. A master's or Ph.D. is needed for college educators and to obtain higher-paid positions.

Job Outlook and Pay

Prepare for stiff competition due to limited funding and job popularity, reports the BLS. Although salaries vary due to specialization, education and experience, the University of Connecticut reports an annual salary range of $21,000 to $80,000.

Tags: water systems

Mathematics Scholarships For High School Students

Math majors also qualify for some science scholarships.

You want to transform your love of math into a college degree and then a career, but college isn't cheap. High school is the perfect time to be thinking about funding your college education. Fortunately, scholarships are available to exceptional high school students who wants to major in math.

Federal SMART Grants

The Federal National Science and Math Access to Retain Talent (SMART) Grants are need-based grants that provide assistance to freshman and sophomore college students. You start preparing for this grant in high school by taking on a more rigorous curriculum; that is one of the requirements. You must also be eligible for the regular Federal Pell Grant, meet the income requirements and be accepted to a two- or four-year college or university. After getting approved for the grant and starting college, you must maintain a 3.0 GPA in a math or science major to remain eligible for it. The award amounts are $750 for your first year, $1,300 for the second year and $4,000 for the two years after that, as of 2011.

SWE Golden Gate Section Scholarship

The Society of Women Engineers' (SWE) Golden Gate section offers a scholarship to graduating high school seniors who will major in mathematics, computer science, engineering or physical science in college. The scholarship is only available to female students, since the SWE is a women's organization. Other requirements include being accepted into a four-year college or university and living in the Golden Gate section of California. Apply by sending in your application and documents before the deadline date, which is usually some time in April. Scholarship recipients are selected based on references, financial need, extracurricular activities, academic achievement and their personal essay. The SWE Golden Gate Section gives out 10 to 15 $1,000 awards each year, as of 2011.

Edison Scholars Program

The Edison Scholars Program is another scholarship program for high school students who plan to seek a mathematics degree in college. The scholarship is open to public and private high school seniors who have at least a 2.8 GPA. You must also be already accepted to a college or university and plan to be enrolled full time for the award year. The Edison Scholars Program is only open to students who have already taken the ACT or SAT exam. The award amount is $2,500 each year as of 2011, and is renewed annually.

SEG Foundation Scholarship

The Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SEG) started a scholarship program in 1956 for high school seniors planning to attend college the following fall. To qualify, you must be interested in mathematics, geosciences, physics, earth and environmental sciences or geology. The applicants are evaluated based on their academic merit. Apply by filling out the online application found on the SEG Foundation's website. Deadline dates and award amounts vary, but the average award amount is $2,500, as of 2011.

Tags: high school, Golden Gate, college university, Edison Scholars, Edison Scholars Program, high school seniors, Scholars Program

Entrylevel Environmental Consultant Salary

Environmental consultants research and analyze work environments to find ways to improve the health and reduce hazards of a client's workplace or space. Environmental consultants often specialize in an area such as geology, engineering or health and safety. In May 2011, PayScale reported entry-level environmental consulting salaries were $41,360 annually, based on a survey of 4,610 professionals.

Entry-Level Salaries

Of those environmental consultants reporting their wages to PayScale's 2011 survey, approximately five percent have less than one year of experience and earn an average salary of $41,360 per year. Some environmental consultants earn hourly wages. Those with less than one year of experience earn average hourly wages of $15.11 per hour.

Additional Compensation

Along with salary, many environmental consultants earn bonuses and benefits such as paid vacation time, health care, disability and life insurance. According to the 2011 PayScale survey, the average bonus for environmental consultants with less than one year of experience is $1,977 per year. The average paid vacation time is 1.9 weeks per year for those starting in environmental consulting careers.

Experience

Environmental consultants increase their salary with professional experience. Those with one to four years of experience earn an average of $44,379 per year and those with five to nine years of experience earn an average salary of $55,319 per year. Those with over 10 years of experience earn average salaries ranging from $69,988 to $84,822 per year. All figures are from the 2011 PayScale survey.

Outlook

Overall, careers in management, scientific and technical consulting are expected to increase 83 percent between 2008 and 2018, according to the federal Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Environmental and safety consulting should be in demand to help organizations continue to stay compliant with environmental and safety regulations. The BLS also states management, scientific and technical consulting services are one of the highest-paying industries, offering wages approximately 33.5 percent higher than related occupations in other industries in 2008.

Tags: earn average, experience earn, experience earn average, years experience earn, 2011 PayScale, less than

How Is Gabbro Made

Gabbro Composition

Gabbro is a medium-grained, ultramafic igneous rock. It is made up of plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene. Gabbro is an intrusive igneous rock, meaning that it forms from the solidification of magma within the earth. Intrusive igneous rocks are medium- to coarse-grained because they cool slowly over time. While gabbro is not economically important, it often occurs in conjunction with rocks containing iron, titanium, nickel and platinum ores.

Locations

Gabbro can be found at current and ancient plate boundaries. Montana and South Africa have large foliated gabbro complexes. Unfoliated gabbro intrusions can be found in Palisades, New Jersey and in Ontario, Canada. The location of these gabbro units are formed along ancient plate boundaries. Some of these intrusions have formed from magma pushing towards the surface during orogeny, or mountain-building events.

Formation

Gabbro primarily occurs at divergent plate boundaries. Minerals partially melt in the mantle, become less dense than the rock around it, and rise to the ocean floor. As it hits the cool water, the lava cools quickly and wedges the plates apart by forming new rock. The basalt forms fine grained pillows on the ocean floor. Lower in the plate boundary intrusion, rock cools slowly, forming dikes, sills and batholiths of coarse grained rock within the Earth's crust. The coarse-grained igneous rocks are ultramafic gabbros formed from the pyroxene and plagioclase found in the magma.

Tags: plate boundaries, ancient plate, ancient plate boundaries, formed from, igneous rock, igneous rocks, ocean floor

Natural Resources Of The Sahara Desert

The Sahara Desert has several natural resources.

The largest desert in the world, the Sahara is a huge, natural resource-rich area of northern Africa. Covering a massive part of the continent and encompassing the recognized legal borders of many countries, the Sahara Desert stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Red Sea in the east and stretches south from the Mediterranean Sea. The desert covers about 3.5 million square miles. The word "sahara" is from the Arabic word "sahra," which means "desert."

Oil, Natural Gas and Minerals

An enormous wealth of natural resources is hidden beneath the Sahara Desert. Principal among these riches are huge amounts of oil and natural gas, particularly in territory belonging to Algeria and Libya. Algeria and Mauritania have large reserves of iron ore, and large quantities of phosphates are in Morocco.

Water

The Sahara's other and absolutely vital natural resource is water. While water may seem like a contradiction for a desert, the Sahara's water allows the desert to remain the home of nomadic tribes and fauna. A number of oases -- places where water from underground reaches the surface -- are on what once were caravan routes and today are much more modern roads. They are a lifeline for desert dwellers.

Natural Resources Development

Commercial development of the Sahara Desert's natural resources accelerated substantially after the end of World War II and the decline of colonial dominion. The Sahara covers parts of many nations besides the previously mentioned Algeria, Libya, Mauritania and Morocco, including Tunisia, Egypt, Mali, Niger, Chad and Sudan. Most benefit from the proceeds of their natural resources in the Sahara. In particular, Libya and Algeria capitalize on oil and gas, while Morocco, Mauritania and Western Sahara developed mines.

Evolution

The Sahara Desert was not always the same as it is now. Millions of years ago, rivers crisscrossed the area, and it was a fertile region of lakes and water. Modern techniques such as satellite imaging identified long-since vanished rivers from about 2 million years ago, and modern mapping and measuring methods show that the desert varies in size from year to year according to the amount of rainfall in the region.

Tags: Sahara Desert, natural resources, about million, Algeria Libya, Libya Algeria

World Map Activities

It's good to start early when teaching children about geography. Although an early start to world geography will give children a strong foundation for future world history education, most kids will not jump at the chance to memorize countries, capitals and map outlines. Activities designed to engage students' attention will make the lessons easier to teach and easier for students to remember.

Labeling Activity

One great way for students to interact with a world map is labeling it. The great thing about this activity is that it can work for students of any age, depending on the difficulty of the labeling task you ask them to complete.

Tape or magnet a large unlabeled world map to a standard white board. Attach paper or plastic tags to magnets with the names of continents, countries or cities. Have students go up and place the magnets on the board.

Alternatively, project a map onto the white board, and students can just label the map with a white board marker.

Finally, you could also just copy maps to hand to each student to label.

Geography Game

There's a parlour game called Geography in which people take turns naming geographical and named geological locations, such as states, countries, bodies of water and cities. Each player takes turns naming things, and each player must take the last letter from the previous player's word to be the first letter of the next word. This game can be modified to be more functional as a learning and reinforcement tool by having each student have to point it to on an unlabeled map before it is valid. Students are allowed three mistakes, repeats or passes before they are out of the game.

Mental Mapping

Before and after teaching students about world geography, ask them to draw a map of the world from memory. Many adults would be hard-pressed to create an accurate reproduction of the world map, leaving off whole peninsulas and chunks of countries. But this activity will help students truly understand what's there and what isn't.

Tags: white board, each student, this activity, turns naming, world geography

How Is Clay Soil Formed

Clay forms.

Clay soil is the epitome of the saying, "One man's trash is another man's treasure." If you asked a gardener's feelings about clay, they would likely be directly opposite of what a pottery enthusiast would say. Regardless of your feelings toward clay, its formation is an interesting natural phenomenon that has important implications regarding its characteristics. Does this Spark an idea?

Basics

On a basic level, clay soil is composed of millions of clay particles which are 0.002 millimeters (0.0000787 inches) in diameter or smaller. These particles are tightly spaced, which is why clay is notorious for having poor water or air movement throughout. Furthermore, clay particles have a very strong affinity for water and, when exposed to water, they swell up and adhere to each other (a process known as cohesion).

Geological Conditions

According to the United States Geological Survey, clay deposits only form under a limited range of geological conditions. Soil horizons, continental and marine sediments, geothermal fields, volcanic deposits and weathering rock formations are the only environments under which clay soil deposits can be formed. Additionally, most clay formations occur when clay minerals are in contact with air, water or steam.

Minerals

Clay soil is essentially composed of several minerals that deposit together and, over time, form a hardened clay deposit. Silicates, mica, iron and aluminum hydrous-oxide minerals are the most common minerals found in clay deposits. However, other minerals, such as quartz and carbonate, are also present in clay soils.

Geological Processes

In order to form clay soil, the particles that compose the soil need to come from somewhere. Erosion is one source of particles for clay soils and it occurs when water rushes over the surface of rock. However, the largest source of clay particles is from weathering of rocks and soil. During weathering, both physical and chemical changes take place that create the small particles required to form clay soil. Lastly, diagenesis--the process that occurs when minerals that are stable in one environment destabilize because of compaction or burial--is another source of clay particles.

Other Considerations

As discussed, clay soil is formed through the deposition of a variety of particles. Therefore, clay soils differ in their composition, usually based on the geological process that created the particles (erosion, weathering or diagenesis). Clay soil created by erosion is responsible for a large part of mudstone creation. Mudstone is a valuable part of the sedimentary environment, covering about 60 percent of marine continental shelves. In addition, Bentonite beds are clay soil beds that are created through the diagenesis of volcanic ash. Bentonite clay is used as pottery clay, as an absorbent for oil, drilling mud, and as a binder for bleaching liquids.

Tags: clay particles, clay soils, clay deposits, clay soil, form clay, form clay soil

Advanced College Degrees

The hooding ceremony is a graduation tradition for doctoral students.

An advanced college degree is anything above a bachelor's degree. These include master's degrees and doctoral degrees. Master's degrees signify that the student has a deeper level of subject knowledge that the undergraduate student though he cannot yet contribute new knowledge to the discipline. Those with a doctoral degree should have the highest level of knowledge in their field and are expected to continually produce new material to contribute to their discipline's knowledge base.

Master of Science or Master of Arts

These are the two most commonly awarded masters degrees. MAs are generally awarded in the arts, humanities and some of the social sciences, such as political science or sociology. MS degrees go to students of mathematics and the physical sciences, such as physics, engineering and geology. Some social sciences that may also have MS degree options, including economics and psychology.

Whether a school offers a MA or and MS for a given field often depends on the curriculum. For example, Portland State University offers both an MA and an MS in speech and hearing sciences. The only real difference between the two programs is that MA students must demonstrate proficiency in a foreign language.

Master of Fine Arts

MFAs are generally awarded to students in visual arts, theater arts, filmmaking or creative writing. Most MFA programs last about two years and culminate in some kind of artistic exhibit, film or substantial written work.

Master of Business Administration

Students interested in advanced studies in business management go for the MBA degree. The traditional, full-time version of the program lasts two academic years. There are also part-time programs for working professionals, with classes scheduled in the evening and on weekends.

The goal of MBA programs is to produce strong business managers who are familiar with the core functions of a company, such as product development, marketing and accounting. Graduates are also experts in different leadership styles and know motivate their workers and properly allocate resources in order to achieve the company's goals.

Master of Public Administration

Much like the MBA, MPA programs are concerned with efficient management, but this time in the public sector. As a professional degree, the MPA teaches students implement government policy and skills in project planning and nonprofit management. MPA graduates often go on to become city managers, think-tank researchers or nonprofit organization leaders.

Doctor of Medicine

This is the degree granted to medial doctors. Obtaining an MD routinely requires seven years of education, first as a medical student, then as an intern and finally as a resident. Upon earning the degree and obtaining a license, new doctors can safely practice medicine in their state.

Juris Doctor

A JD is the degree required to practice law. Law school typically lasts for three years. Undergraduates from any major may apply, though some schools have dedicated pre-law curricula. The classes are typically devoted to different areas of the law, such as criminal procedures, corporate law, environmental law and torts. There are also courses on specific aspects of legal practice ,including the rules of evidence and legal writing.

Doctor of Philosophy

A Ph.D. is generally the highest degree available in most academic disciplines, including mathematics, English and anthropology. Whereas professional degrees, such as the MPA, JD or MD, are meant to create working practitioners, a doctoral education trains students for careers as researchers. Most graduates go on to work as professors for universities. The culminating event for most Ph.D. programs is the dissertation, a lengthly research paper that contributes an original idea to the student's field of study.

Tags: generally awarded, sciences such, social sciences, There also

Suggestions For Finding Underground Water Pipes

Underground water pipes can be located with professional radar equipment.

Your front or backyard may look like an outdoor oasis but buried beneath that pristine lawn may be the water pipes, cables and electric lines that supply utilities to your home and neighborhood all year long. When digging, damaging those pipes is always a possibility; calling your public utility or a private utility locator to identify the exact location of water pipes is an important safety measure. Although ancient arts of finding underground water still exist, public or private utility companies will use radar, radio or sound waves to find underground water pipes easily, safely and reliably. Does this Spark an idea?

811--Call Before Digging

Your public water utility not only provides you with safe, clean water but they service the water pipes that deliver that water to your home everyday. A simple three-digit phone call to 811 will connect you with your local utility companies that, upon request, will come out to you and mark the location of underground public water and sewer pipes, as well as cable, electric and gas lines. This service is free of charge and can prevent damage, injury and service disruption to your entire neighborhood caused by careless digging and excavation. Remember to allow 48 hours before you dig to allow your water utility to get service personnel to your location.

Water Dowsing

Water dowsing is the practice by which a rod, pendulum or forked stick is used to locate underground water. Theoretically, if water still runs through them, it may be used to locate underground water pipes. Also known as divining or water witching, dowsing typically involves a "Y" shaped, or forked, stick held with both hands, with the base end of the "Y" pointed at a 45-degree angle toward the sky. The dowser walks back and forth across an area; when she passes over water, the stick is supposed to move downward. Dowsing is conventionally used in rural and suburban areas to locate sources of ground water to dig a well. Although the origins of dowsing go back hundreds, if not thousands, of years, the practice is not scientifically validated. If locating underground water pipes in preparation for digging or construction, call your local water utility or a private utility locator. Modern tools and methodology should be used.

Private Utility Locating

Not all water pipes are publicly owned. Water pipes running after the main water line or water meter are usually private. For this reason, it may be necessary to call a private utility locating service that will utilize equipment similar to that of your public water utility to locate underground pipes. Although this service will cost you money, it will be able to locate buried water lines reliably and prevent serious accidents and water service disruption to you and your community.

Tags: underground water, water pipes, private utility, water utility, locate underground

Missouri Flood Stages

Heavy rainfall can cause flooding in Missouri.

Many areas in Missouri are at high risk for flooding. This is because the state is covered by bodies of water that can flood without warning. Areas along the Missouri and Mississippi rivers and their tributaries are at the highest risk because they receive flood waters from other parts of the country. The National Weather Service keeps an eye on river levels and issues alerts when flooding is expected.

Causes of Floods

Floods are most common in spring along bodies of water such as ponds, lakes, streams, and rivers. Early in spring, the ground may still be frozen from the winter. Melting snow cannot seep into the ground, which can cause flooding. Floods also can be caused by prolonged rainfall. Another common cause of flooding is a forest fire. Charred ground is incapable of absorbing rainfall.

Missouri Flood Stages

The National Weather Service has developed a system of five color-coded levels on its online maps to warn the public of floods. There are 4,876 sites, or gauges, where water level is measured, mostly along rivers. Gauges not experiencing flooding are indicated in green. The second level is yellow. Gauges at this level are at the "Near Flood Stage." Next is the "Minor Flooding" stage. This is the first stage that is considered flooding. These gauges are colored orange. The fourth level is the "Moderate Flooding" stage. Those gauges are marked in red. The final, and most severe flood stage, is the "Major Flooding" stage. The gauges in this stage are purple.

Flood Stages and Damage

Flooding is extremely costly to a homeowner. It is essential to own flood insurance in areas highly susceptible to flooding. Some people might think just a few inches of water in a home is a cheap fix. However, in a 1,000 square-foot house, just 6 inches of water can cause over $20,000 in damage. Severe flooding is not necessarily caused by a high flood stage. Costly flooding can be local.

Flood Preparation

Those living in areas along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers and their tributaries should be on guard throughout the year. It is wise for families to have a flood evacuation plan. Floods can happen instantly and require only small amounts of rain. The National Weather Service regularly issues a river forecast for the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys. Of course, these are just forecasts. People should evacuate whenever flooding occurs, despite what the forecast says.

Tags: cause flooding, Flood Stages, Flooding stage, National Weather, National Weather Service

Pet Friendly Lodging In The Black Hills Of South Dakota

Pets are welcome in many Black HIlls lodging facilities.

The South Dakota Black Hills boast six national parks including Mount Rushmore, Badlands and Devil's Tower. With ample national parks, historical areas and activities such as wildlife watching, trout fishing, camping and exploring, the Black Hills of South Dakota are popular family destinations. For many, planning family trips includes finding accommodations that accept the furry members of the family as well. Fortunately, the Black Hills offer a variety of pet-friendly lodging.

Best Western Four Presidents Lodge

The Best Western Four Presidents Lodge is located in Keystone, South Dakota, just six miles from Mount Rushmore National Memorial. The hotel offers a full complimentary breakfast including omelets, bacon and biscuits and gravy. Other amenities for guests of the hotel include wireless Internet access, heated indoor swimming pool and access to the fitness facility. Pets, except cats, are allowed with an additional nightly fee. According to Best Western's website, restrictions apply and potential guests should contact customer service to check availability.

Best Western Four Presidents Lodge

24075 Highway 16A

Keystone, SD 57751

605-666-4472

bestwestern.com

Motel 6 Belle Fourche

Motel 6 allows well-behaved pets to stay for free. According to their pet policy, all well-mannered pets are welcomed, except those prohibited by law and those that pose a danger to others. Pets must not be left unattended in the rooms, as they prevent housekeeping staff from cleaning the room. Outside of the hotel room, pets must be kept on leash. The Motel 6 Belle Fourche offers other amenities including free wireless Internet access, indoor pool, morning coffee and an on-site restaurant. Microwaves and mini-fridges are also available upon request and with an additional fee. Motel 6 Bella Fourche also allows for children to stay free with adults.

Motel 6 Bella Fourche

1815 5th Ave.

I-90 at U.S. 85 North, Exit 10

Belle Fourche, SD 57717

motel6.com

Travelodge Spearfish

The Travelodge in Spearfish, South Dakota, allows any well-behaved pets without a weight restriction. Guests with pets are charged an additional daily fee per pet. Travelodge requests that guests supervise their pets at all times and cage or remove them from rooms being cleaned. Guests with pets who cause disruption to other guests may be asked to leave. All pets must be declared upon check-in and guests who fail to declare each of their pets may be charged an extra fee. Other hotel amenities include an Internet lounge, free continental breakfast and an on-site bar and casino. Children younger than 17 stay free with an adult.

Travelodge Spearfish

346 W. Kansas St.

Spearfish, SD 57783

605-559-3333

travelodgeofspearfish.com

Tags: South Dakota, Best Western, Belle Fourche, Best Western Four, Black Hills

Education For A Park Ranger

Park rangers don't just find lost hikers, investigate complaints, accidents or violations, lead tours, provide information to visitors, protect natural resources, or do administrative support for budgeting, human resources or policy. They often do all of those things, sometimes in the same day. It's hard to get a full-time job being a park ranger, but if you get a good education and meet all the needed requirements, you'll increase your chances of finding your dream job.

Degree

Most park ranger positions will require a minimum of a Bachelor of Science degree.

Majors

Some majors that are considered desirable include Park and Recreation Management, Conservation, Botany, Geology, Wildlife Management and Forestry. If you are more interested in an administration position, Criminal Justice and Business or Public Administration are also a good fit.

Courses

Courses may include Legal Issues and Risk Management in Sport and Leisure Management, Human Ecology and the Environment, First Aid and Emergency Care, Natural Resource Management, Leadership, Recreation for Special Populations, Interpretation of Cultural and Natural Resources, and Psychology.

Graduate Degrees

If you wish to be in a supervisory position, chances are that you will need to obtain a graduate degree (either a Master of Science or a Ph.D.) in a topic related to field. Resource management and other topics related to management are normally considered desirable degrees.

Certificates

Some community colleges offer associate's degrees and certificates in programs that can be used as a head-start for a bachelor's or for those who already have a bachelor's in another concentration and who wish to make a career change. Two popular programs are for Park Ranger Outdoor Education and Park Ranger Technology.

High School

You can begin getting ready for your future career in high school. Focus on your science classes, join a group that will help you get ready to address the public, like a debate team, and volunteer with an environmental group or organization.

Experience

Potential employers will be impressed if you've done volunteer work, seasonal or part-time work, or even just spent time hiking and enjoying national parks and other nature preserves.

Tags: considered desirable, Education Park, Education Park Ranger, Park Ranger, park ranger

The Meaning Of Stenographer

Stenographers often work in courthouses.

Stenographers are also known as court reporters. They're required to take notes verbatim of conversations and speeches, such as in a courtroom setting. Because most people talk faster than they write, stenographers take notes in shorthand.

Definition

A stenographer transcribes dictation in shorthand, e.g., in a courtroom trial. Stenographers are usually employed in courtrooms. Stenographers can also be used in other settings such as meetings and conferences.

Word Origin

The prefix "steno" means "narrow" or "small" and the suffix "graph" means to write or record.

Function

Stenographers often use machines called stenographs to take notes. Stenographs are similar to typewriters, but are especially designed for taking shorthand notes. Some also use voice-captioning software to do their job.

Education

Depending on the type of stenography, a professional stenographer can expect to spend at least one year in school. On average, it takes 33 months to become a real-time court reporter.

Wages

As of May 2008, stenographers earned $49,710 on average.

Tags: take notes, Stenographers also, Stenographers often

How Is Alexandrite Formed

Chromium

For Alexandrite to form, chromium must be present in the rock formations before the natural heat and pressure process occurs. Alexandrite is one of three forms of chrysoberyl that are formed through volcanic heat and pressure. Without chromium, chrysoberyl crystals may still form, but they will not be Alexandrite and will not have the color-changing properties associated with Alexandrite.

Pressure

When pressure builds up within the earth, magma is pushed up toward the earth's crust. The magma travels through several layers of earth, including layers that contain both stone formations with chromium and water.

Heat

When the heat of the magma reaches the water and stone formations, it causes the water to evaporate and turn into steam. However, since the steam is trapped in the rock formation and cannot escape and return to the earth as water, it slowly cools along with the magma.

Cooling

As the water cools, minerals and elements contained in both the water and the magma combine and crystallize as the water expels these impurities. When high amounts of beryllium are in the magma, there is a chemical reaction that causes it to combine with the chromium in the rocks while crystallizing, creating a particular form of chrysoberyl known as Alexandrite. Other minerals present in the water, magma or surrounding rocks may also be incorporated into the Alexandrite crystal, affecting the color and clarity of the Alexandrite.

Tags: heat pressure, stone formations, water magma, with chromium

Landforms In Scandinavia

Scandinavia is one of the coldest areas in the world, consisting of many landforms.

Scandinavia is a distinctively isolated ethnic and geographic region located in Northern Europe, covering the whole Scandinavian Peninsula. It is comprised of Sweden, Norway, Finland, Iceland and Denmark. The most interesting and prominent landforms in Scandinavia include mountains, fjords, valleys and glaciers.

Mountains

The Scandinavian mountains run across Norway, Sweden and Finland. This mountain range is often referred to as "The Keel," because it resembles a boat's keel. Most of the mountains on the Keel are around 3,000 to 6,000 feet, although the highest peak, Galdho Peak, reaches up to 8,100 feet. The highest peaks are mostly situated in Norway. Most of the Scandinavian mountain range is filled with glaciers and ice fields.

Fjords

The Norwegian fjords are one of the most beautiful landforms in the Scandinavian Peninsula. Fjords form because of glacial activities, carving out a body of water surrounded by tall cliffs and steep mountain-sides. Fjords in Norway include the Romsdalsfjord, Geirangerfjord, and the Sognefjord. Romsdalsfjord and Geirangerfjord have snowy steep cliffs and green coastlines, while the Sognefjord is the longest fjord in Norway.

Valleys

Although Norway is filled with fjords and mountains, most of Scandinavia also has valleys. Valleys are lowlands and plains between mountains and hills, typically situated near a river or a body of water. In Sweden, well known valleys include Lapporten, Rapa and Tarfala Valley. The Tornio Valley is a glacial valley located between the borders of Sweden and Finland.

Volcanic Landforms and Glaciers

The volcanic region in Iceland makes up another landform situated in Scandinavia. Iceland is an island filled with active volcanic areas, providing a unique landform made from lava, similar to the process that created the Hawaiian islands. On average, at least one volcano erupts every five to 10 years.

Huge glaciers can also be found in island. Glaciers are a combination of rocks, soil, snow and ice that form in places where ice accumulates because the snow that melts is much less than the snow that forms. Although Iceland is filled with volcanoes, about 11.5% of its land area is covered with glacial ice.

Tags: filled with, snow that, body water, landforms Scandinavia, mountain range, Romsdalsfjord Geirangerfjord