The word tektite comes from the Greek "tektos," meaning "molten" or "melted." This word is the name for a type of rock made mostly of glass, found only in a few places in the world.
Mineral Makeup
Tektites are made up of 65 percent to 90 percent glass, and may contain impurities such as iron and magnesium.
Origins
Two theories on how tektites formed are that they are meteors, or that they are terrestrial rocks that were vaporized by a meteor and then cooled quickly.The second theory is more commonly accepted.
Features
Tektites are often pitted on the outside, brown to green, and have little water content. Their size ranges from a few millimeters up to 8 inches in length.
The most common tektite shapes are balls, disks, raindrops and dumbbells.
Considerations
There are less common tektite shapes, which include ablated shapes and Muong Nong shapes.
Ablated tektites were sent into the atmosphere when a meteor hit the earth. Upon re-entry, their outer coating melted, and in this process the tektite formed a flange.
Muon Nong tektites are layers of tektite glass that can reach large sizes.
Location
The places tektites have been found have no geological relationship. They can be found in Georgia, Texas, Martha's Vineyard (Massachusetts), the Czech Republic, Mauritania, Cuba, Ivory Coast, Irgiz, Australia, Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Tasmania and the Libyan Desert.
Tags: common tektite, common tektite shapes, tektite shapes, that they
Create your own active volcano for your next science fair from ingredients commonly found in your kitchen. The volcano allows you to simulate the process of an active volcano as well as demonstrating the chemical reaction of an acid and base material once mixed together. Your base material (baking soda), neutralizes the acid (vinegar). This produces carbon dioxide, which causes the lava ingredients to bubble out of the volcano in an impressive show.
Instructions
1. Line a shallow cardboard box, such as the type that holds cans of food or soda, with aluminum foil. Alternately, use a disposable aluminum roasting pan as your base.
2. Cut the neck off a 16 to 20 ounce plastic bottle with a utility knife. Cut the neck of at a 45 degree angle to help shape and control the lava flow.
3. Glue the bottom of the bottle to the center of your base with household cement. Follow the application instructions on the cement bottle, then allow it to dry for the time indicated on the instruction label.
4. Form the volcano around the bottle with modeling clay. Use modeling clay that air dries to a hard finish and isn't water-soluble. Shape the clay into the cone-like shape of the volcano, but avoid covering the bottle opening. Allow the clay to dry completely.
5. Paint the volcano in your desired colors with acrylic paint. Allow the paint to dry.
6. Pour one-half cup of vinegar into the volcano opening. Add two to three drops of liquid dish soap and two or more drops of red food coloring to achieve the desired color for your lava.
7. Place three tbsp of baking soda into the center of a square of tissue. Gather the edges of the tissue and twist them together to secure a packet of baking soda.
8. Drop the baking soda packet into the volcano and wait. Within 10 to 30 seconds, the red lava boils out the top of the volcano and down the sides.
Tags: baking soda, active volcano, base material, bottle with, into volcano, modeling clay
Quartz, sometimes called crystal or rock crystal, is the trigonal, hexagonally structured form of crystallized silicon dioxide (SiO2). The most common form of SiO2 is low-temperature quartz. Because quartz is quite hard, (a 7 on the Mohs scale), it demonstrates a resistance to mechanical abrasion that allows it to survive many of the processes on Earth's surface. This makes quartz one of the most common minerals on Earth's surface.
Features
Quartz, similar to other minerals, forms in cavities and cracks in other rocks. Dissolved silicon dioxide is transported by hot water either as a liquid or gas (steam) into these cavities and openings and as the water cools, the mineral crystallizes out of the water. This is similar to the evaporation process of seawater leaving behind salt crystals when the water evaporates. Quartz forms primarily in igneous rocks although it can also occur in sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
Formation
Large cavities or cracks can produce enormous quartz crystals or clusters of crystals. Quartz forms after other silicates have joined with most available cations. This process of mineral incorporation (such as can be seen on a polished granite countertop) bonds the minerals together into very strong composite materials. As the minerals bond together, the remaining cavities or growth opportunities collect the escaping water, making the quartz growth environment wet. This happens under incredible geologic pressures over significant periods of time.
How Quartz Got its Name
According to the College of Natural Resources of the University of California at Berkeley, "The name quartz is believed to have originated in the early 1500s from the Saxon word querklufterz (cross-vein ore), which was corrupted to quererz and then to quartz." Etymology Online suggests the word comes from Middle High German word twarc, meaning hard.
Colored Quartz
Colored forms of quartz include amethyst, citrine, rose, milky, black, smoky, rutilated, tourmaline and chatoyant intruded, ametrine and adventurine. Natural color occurs due to impurities when quartz is crystallizing. Amethyst comes in shades of purple, due to radiation damage and the presence of iron. It is often used as a gemstone. Amethyst received its name from the ancient Greek word methys, meaning not drunk. It was believed that the stone prevented drunkenness, according to Etymology Online. Citrine comes in shades of orange and yellow orange and it is also often used as a gemstone. It is also colored by the presence of iron. When amethyst and citrine form together they create ametrine and produce a bicolored peach stone.
Types
Smoky quartz can range all the way into black. It is colored by aluminum and radiation. Etymology Online notes that this stone is also called a touchstone. It was used in ancient times to test for the quality of gold and silver alloys. Rose quartz is pink due to the presence of titanium and it is frequently used in bead work. Green quartz (Prasiolite) is rare and comes from a mine in Brazil. Amethyst is sometimes heat treated to make it change to a green color, but it isn't the same as the real stone. Milky quartz is often associated with deposits of gold. Rutilated quartz is clear quartz with fine (venus hair) red rutile crystals. Tourmaline and chatoyant intruded quartz are clear quartz with intrusions of tourmaline or asbestos. Adventurine is green quartz with intrusions of mica. There can be other intrusions that are more rare. Other interesting properties of quartz include its piezoelectric qualities and, if you rub two quartz crystals together, they produce light, a feature called triboluminescence. And, although quartz is extremely hard, it can be dissolved in very hot water.
Tags: Etymology Online, quartz with, About Quartz, About Quartz Crystals, amethyst citrine, cavities cracks
Petroleum engineers work as oil and gas specialists. They work alongside geologists and other specialists to develop methods to extract oil from underground oil reservoirs. They design drilling methods and equipment used in the extraction. They can also perform oil and gas research. Because becoming a petroleum engineer is challenging, less than 2 percent of all engineers were petroleum engineers in 2009. To become a successful petroleum engineer you must complete a rigorous education curriculum and have the skills to compete in the current job market.
Instructions
Education
1. Earn a high school diploma. In high school, take courses in physics, calculus, chemistry and other sciences to prepare for an engineering curriculum in college.
2. Complete an undergraduate degree program in petroleum engineering. Several schools offer petroleum engineering majors. Some of the top undergraduate petroleum engineering programs are located at the University of Texas, Colorado School of Mines and Stanford University. Because petroleum engineering combines principles from several engineering fields, you can also earn an undergraduate degree in other engineering fields such as mechanical and chemical engineering.
3. Earn an advanced degree in petroleum engineering. Although not required to become a successful petroleum engineer, advanced degrees, such as master's and Doctor of Philosophy degrees, provide better preparation for a career in petroleum engineering. Several universities offer advanced petroleum engineering programs where you can earn hands-on experience performing research in the petroleum engineering field.
Career
4. Find a petroleum engineering job. Several oil companies hire petroleum engineers in states with large oil deposits, such as California, Alaska and Texas. Utilize the Internet to find job openings in the petroleum engineering field. There is also a large chance that you will be recruited to work with a company, because there are a large amount of petroleum engineering jobs and only a few graduates each year.
5. Successfully complete all tasks required for your job. You may be working in an office analyzing petroleum-related data or in the field, drilling for or transporting petroleum.
6. Remain at the same job for a considerable amount of time in order to be promoted. Most companies promote employees who have worked for their company for several years. In order to become successful, you must show that you can consistently perform well in your field.
Tags: petroleum engineering, engineering Several, petroleum engineering Several, become successful, become successful petroleum, engineering field, engineering fields
The University of Georgia offers distance learning through its Independent and Distance Learning (IDL) program administered by the Center for Continuing Education.
Format
IDL courses are self-paced. Students may enroll anytime. They must remain enrolled in the course for at least eight weeks. Students must also complete their course within nine months. Most courses are online, but many are available in print format.
The program offers more than 160 academic credit courses through distance learning in a variety of subjects. Course subjects include accounting, art, economics, English, foods and nutrition, geology, horticulture, music, psychology, religion and women's studies.
Students
Courses are available to almost anyone. You do not need to be admitted to the University of Georgia to enroll in IDL courses. Even a high school or home school student age 16 and over may take IDL courses if she is jointly enrolled in a college or university.
Cost
In 2009, tuition for IDL courses was $203 per semester hour for in-state students and $882 per semester hour for out-of-state students. Students registering online or by fax must pay for courses with a credit card.
Registering
To register for an IDL course, students either complete the online registration form and submit it over the university's secure server, or they print the registration form out and mail or fax it in to the IDL office. Once registered, students receive their materials by either mail or e-mail. To register or for more information, visit http://www.georgiacenter.uga.edu/idl/index.phtml.
Library Resources
The university library offers the UGA Libraries' Distance Learning Service that ensures that distance education students have the same access to library services as on-campus students. They provide a variety of online resources, including online databases and tutorials, and they offer distance access to library materials through interlibrary loan.
Weathered rocks on the shore dissolve into the sea.
Weathering is a general term that describes the surface processes that breakdown and change rocks and minerals on the Earth. Chemical weathering occurs when the composition of a rock or mineral is changed. Water is most commonly responsible for the initiation of chemical weathering, which occurs more readily with smaller fragments of rocks or minerals. Smaller fragments translate to more available surface area to be affected by one of the multiple processes that lead to chemical weathering.
Hydration
In arid environments where there are many salts, hydration is a common chemical weathering process. During hydration H+ and OH- ions typically attach to a reacted compound, which changes the atomic structure of the weathered material. Additionally, rocks and minerals absorb water and may expand.
Hydrolysis
Often confused with hydration, hydrolysis is a chemical weathering process that occurs when water molecules react with a rock or mineral to produce a new compound. Specifically, the H+ and OH- ions react and increase the acidity of the solution through the release of hydroxide ions.
Oxydation/Reduction
Oxidation is the weathering process that occurs when oxygen from water or the atmosphere reacts with a rock or mineral. The rock or mineral becomes an oxide because of the loss of one or more electrons during the reaction. Common oxides include aluminum and iron oxides, which can be identified by their yellowish and reddish tones. Reduction is the exact opposite reaction of oxidation.
Dissolution
When rocks and minerals have been weathered to extremely small fragments, dissolution often occurs. Dissolution is the chemical weathering process where rocks and minerals are dissolved into water, Earth's most plentiful and effective solvent. Typically the solution is carried away and may leave holes in rocks and minerals. This is also the process that is responsible for the formation of caves in limestone.
Tags: rocks minerals, chemical weathering, rock mineral, weathering process, chemical weathering process
The United States is home to more than 30 waterfalls, soaring hundreds of feet in the air and releasing barrels of water per second. Hundreds of waterfalls exist outside the United States as well, and the roar of the water calls to outdoor enthusiasts looking to tackle the tall structures. Reaching the peak of a waterfall may be a wet and wild adventure, but savvy hikers put their safety above anything else. Prepare for a waterfall adventure and climb to new heights. Does this Spark an idea?
Instructions
1. Review the waterfall's website or a site such as World Waterfall Database for information. The World Waterfall Database, for example, lists waterfalls by region and then in alphabetical order and provides the fall's height, magnitude, tallest drop and in some cases, recommendations on what time of year to climb.
2. Dress accordingly. Check the waterfall website for advice on climbing gear. Authorities for Jamaica's Dunns River Falls, for example, suggest aqua socks (specialty sneakers designed for the water) or old sneakers. Barefoot climbing or flip-flops may not be allowed.
3. Let someone know where you and/or your group will be climbing. Set a specific time when you'll call in to let them know you've reached the top and when you've climbed back down.
4. Pay any entrance or ticket fees and hike up to the base of the falls. Determine whether you'll climb the actual falls or, in some cases, a step and railing path built into the side of the waterfall.
5. Get your feet wet in the basin of the waterfall to adjust to the water's temperature. Let the water soak completely through your shoes so there isn't a sucking motion each time you lift up your legs.
6. Put sunblock on all exposed areas of skin (including the top of your head) and wear protective gear such as a hat and sunglasses.
7. Follow the guide, leader or trail up the side of the waterfall. Stick to the path, which is usually flat step-like rocks jutting out. Watch the people in front of you, where applicable, to see where they step. Take caution not to step into puddles or slick wet spots left by other peoples' shoes, as your foot may slip.
8. Find crags and small rock juts along the falls to help pull yourself up or rest against to take a break.
9. Work your way to the plateau at the top of the falls.
Tags: side waterfall, some cases, United States, Waterfall Database, waterfall website
Science book resources are available for young students. You can most likely get what you need from any basic school district tutorial, for example. If you want the most reliable information and supplementary resources for students, search for materials generated by American textbook publishers throughout the United States. Government agencies, such as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), also have a lot of help to offer as well.
Houghton Mifflin
A major U.S. science book publisher, Houghton Mifflin has science book resources for children in elementary school. The Houghton Mifflin Science website (eduplace.com) has online glossaries, puzzles and vocabulary games for kindergarten through sixth grade. It also has textbook support materials for virtually every state in the United States as well. Holt McDougal, a partner company with Houghton Mifflin, also offers an array of science book resources for children in grades 7 through 12. Visit the company website (holtmcdougal.hmhco.com) to find biology, chemistry, physics and environmental science book resources.
Pearson Prentice Hall
A leading educational publisher for elementary and secondary schools, Pearson Prentice Hall maintains and publishes many different science book resources for youngsters. With textbook companion websites and Internet worksheet centers, the company also provides science explorer material lists, interactive textbooks and the Success Tracker -- an online skills management tools feature. Pearson also partners with software companies to produce educational science software material.
McGraw-Hill
Formerly the McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., McGraw-Hill is an educational publisher specializing in science book resources for pupils in kindergarten through 12th grade. It also partners with companies such as Macmillan and Glencoe to create science learning for both children and adult learners. With online science book learning websites such as the Glencoe Earth Science Learning Center, the company also offers multiple science book resources on CD-ROM. McGraw-Hill also offers DVDs on earth science and environmental science, produced in partnership with the Discovery Channel.
Lawrence Hall of Science
Lawrence Hall of Science (LHS) is part of the University of California at Berkeley's educational material development program. Established in 1968, LHS has a public information science center with resources for students available online. The "Check Out Science at Home" online library and the LHS Kids website both have age-appropriate science activities, interactive puzzles, quizzes and even tutorials that correspond to virtually every state educational standard.
Tags: book resources, science book resources, Houghton Mifflin, science book, science book, also offers
To prospect for gold, you need to know a little about it. There are two kinds of gold prospecting. Difficult to find is hard rock gold. The flakes are so small they have to be crushed and leached out of the hard rock. The big companies do this kind of mining.
The kind of gold most small propectors search for is called placer gold.
There are four ways the gold is distributed in nature. The first is called residual. That is where the vein of gold has weathered out of a cropping and remains "in place" hence the name "placer gold". The second is eluvial. The gold has traveled a short distance from weathering out of the matrix but is not yet in the streams or other water sources. The third distribution is alluvial. The gold has traveled and come to rest in streams and rivers. Usually, being a heavy metal, the gold lies on or near the bedrock. The fourth kind of placer gold is beach placers. Small gold particles from the river make it all the way to the ocean. Wave action produces black sand layers containing fine gold.
Because it's easier most individual prospectors start out looking for flakes and nuggets of free placer gold. Many use a metal detector to make it easier to find.
It's exciting to find gold and the term "gold fever" is quite accurate once you find your own gold. Some health benefits are getting out in the outdoors, getting some good exercise, plus the value of whatever you might find, gold or not. Here are some of the techniques used to find gold with or without a metal detector:
Instructions
1. The individual well-armed with a through knowledge of prospecting techniques, gold geology, and placer deposits will tend to find more gold over the long haul. Using a metal detector increases the likelihood of finding the gold.
2. Lots of equipment such as metal detectors, shovels, rock picks, rock hammers and other accessories are available. Most individuals start off small and purchase more advanced equipment, and even a more advanced metal detector, as they get more involved in the hobby.
3. You can purchase a gold pan for as little as $10, grab a shovel and bucket, and get ready to pan for gold in the streams. Or there are many brands of metal detectors such as Whites or Radio Shack, suction dredges, dry placer machines and others. There are many gold recovery devices.
4. Purchase a "how to" book so you can decide the best method of retrieving the gold whether you decide to pan for it or use a metal detector. Also a book of "gold locations" is going to be very helpful.
5. Look in the white government pages to see if there is a local Department of Mines. You may be able to get maps of many gold mines and locations.
6. Look in the yellow pages under prospecting equipment. When you are in the store, talk to the clerks. They are usually very knowledgeable and can lead you in the right direction for prospecting for gold. They will be able to direct you also in the selection of the correct metal detector depending on the area you are searching.
7. A good basic geology textbook can be helpful in searching for geologic conditions an amateur prospector may find in the field.
8. Also you may find specific information on the internet of experiences of other prospectors, prospecting research, and website for manufacturers and prospecting shops that have useful equipment such as that timesaving metal detector. There are sites with aerial photos that may help you research places to prospect.
9. Research the internet for more detailed information on geology and placer formations. A number of websites and forums will answer questions you may have. It's a great way to learn more about mining gold before your first trip out.
10. Look for links to other prospecting sites. During the winter months when the weather doesn't allow prospecting in the field is a great time to do a lot of research.
11. Whether its searching for the next gold nugget you can call your own, or hunting, hiking, fishing, off-road exploring, or any of the other many outdoor hobbies many folks participate in, gold fever could strike at any time.
12. For about any outdoor person, it's worthwhile to know a little about geology and gold deposits because the next big find may be yours!
For all the respect the world associates with the word "Ph.D.," the actual journey is an arduous one that will often test the student's patience more than his knowledge. If you harbor dreams of becoming a Ph.D., it is vital you understand this before venturing further. Once you have made your decision, the process of earning a doctorate will involve taking the Graduate Record Exam (GRE) and gaining entrance to a university. This will be followed by courses, teaching assignments and working nonstop on your dissertation for a final approval by the doctoral committee.
Instructions
1. Examine your motives for wanting to become a Ph.D. and decide if getting a doctorate will help you achieve your aspirations. For example, if you are interested in law, research or teaching, taking a Ph.D. course is definitely right. However, if you want a doctorate to get a high paying job, it may not be a realistic aim. Except for cutting edge research in areas such as computer technology and nanotechnology, Ph.D.'s are not always paid a lot.
Speak to people who have completed their Ph.D. degree, such as friends, contacts on social networking sites and teachers at college. Find out about the realities of research and decide if you are passionate enough about research to devote anywhere between three to five years to work rigorously on a doctoral degree.
2. Visit websites such as the Princeton Review and U.S. News and World Report. Find out about universities that offer doctoral programs in your chosen field and visit the individual institutions' websites to get more information on qualifying criteria and application procedures.
3. Register for the GRE General Test on the Education Testing Service (ETS) website. Procure study material and prepare for the test. When you feel sufficiently confident, take this test and any additional subject-related tests that may be specified for your specialization. Ensure you take the test in time to meet application deadlines of your chosen universities.
4. Apply to the university with the necessary documentation, which will include a completed application, statement of purpose, letters of recommendation, copies of official transcripts of previous education and GRE scores.
5. Complete you admission formalities at the institution which accepts you and begin with your courses and any teaching assignments. Take the comprehensive exams, also called as "orals" at the specified time -- which can range between a few months to a few years after admission -- and clear these to proceed to the next stage.
6. Consult your adviser and select the area of interest on which to conduct your original research. Maintain regular contact with your primary adviser and take guidance to ensure your work is relevant and will contribute to the existing knowledge in the field. Make sure you establish a cordial working relationship with your adviser as this will play a significant role in your success at achieving the Ph.D. degree.
7. Work with dedication and discipline to complete your research work. Prepare your draft dissertation and present it to the doctoral committee. Incorporate changes they suggest and prepare your final thesis. Perform well during the thesis defense interview and wait to receive your Ph.D. degree.
Geological and petroleum technicians assist scientists and engineers with the analysis of geological samples. Commonly called mud loggers because they work with mud and drill cuttings, these technicians are important in the identification of new sites to mine and drill for oil, natural gas, metallic ore or minerals. About 75 percent of all mud loggers earn at least $18 per hour as of 2010.
Salary Range
The average salary for a mud logger as of May 2010 was $29.04 per hour, or $60,410 per year, reports the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. The middle 50 percent of these technicians were making $18.75 to $35.53 per hour, or $38,990 to $73,910 per year. The bottom 10 percent of the wage scale was at or below $14.40 per hour, or $29,950 per year. The top 10 percent were earning more than $48 per hour, or $99,860 per year and more.
Types of Employment
The largest numbers of mud loggers work in three types of employment. Their average annual salary in oil and gas extraction in 2010 was $65,290, in support activities for mining $53,780 and in architectural, engineering and related services $46,560. Petroleum and coal products manufacturers provided the highest average pay for mud loggers, at $100,540 per year.
High Employment States
Texas had the highest employment level by far for this occupation in 2010, with about 5,520 of the nation's estimated 13,560 mud loggers. Louisiana ranked second, with about 1,550 mud loggers. Their average salary in Texas was $58,990 per year and in Louisiana $59,730. California had about 1,280 mud loggers in 2010, earning $93,280 per year on average.
High-Paying Areas
At an average salary of $93,280 per year, California was the top-paying state for mud loggers. The average salary there was nearly 20 percent higher than that in second-ranked Nevada, at $76,020. Rounding out the top five highest-paying states for mud loggers were Alaska, at an average annual pay rate of $67,190, New York at an average of $64,360 and West Virginia at $62,270. In two U.S. metropolitan areas, mud loggers earned more than $40 per hour. Their average salary in the greater Las Vegas, Nevada, area, was $47.58 per hour, or $98,960 per year, and in Anchorage, Alaska, $40.14 per hour, or $83,480 per year.
Tags: hour year, average salary, Their average, about loggers, average annual, more than, more than hour
Hydrogen is used in fuel and energy-based commercial applications.
Hydrogen investments present unique challenges and opportunities. Consider whether markets behave irrationally or efficiently. Hydrogen supply affects likely investment returns. Other energy sources compete with hydrogen. Government support (or lack of) is important. The most unlikely use of hydrogen is in controlled-fusion power plants.
Irrational vs. Efficient Markets
Efficient Market Theory (EMT) states that a security's price quickly converges to what it is really worth. There is debate over whether this is true on average---with substantial exceptions---or is an absolute. If EMT is true as an absolute, there is, ideally, no undervalued or overvalued pricing. Many claim that EMT is wrong. The extent to which hydrogen-based securities behave "rationally" and "efficiently" is crucial to forecasting investment prospects.
Hydrogen Supply
New hydrogen sources are a research focus. For example, ScienceDaily reports that modified algae release hydrogen gas. In the short term, this new development would decrease hydrogen price (greater supply, equal demand). Then again, that same cheaper hydrogen may facilitate new technologies. High material costs can limit commercial development. Finding profitable investments is a complicated supply/demand calculation.
Competing Energy Sources
Hydrogen energy must compete against giant fossil fuel sources. If fossil fuel prices spike for an extended time, at first glance, it would seem that the hydrogen economy would prosper. Competing alternate energy candidates--solar, geothermal and wind--would also see a niche. Hydrogen has an advantage to some extent. It is not as dependent on weather conditions--pertaining to solar and wind power. Hydroelectric (water) and geothermal energy rely on geology and climate.
Government Support
State funding can influence hydrogen-based investments. Subsidies or tax breaks can offset other high costs. Government assistance is not limited to strict finance. Environmental concerns, energy independence and national pride in "progress" can rally public support. A reason for governments rallying support of hydrogen investments is that the public may resent what may seem as privileged treatment of a specific industry. Knowing and anticipating popular support (or resistance) to hydrogen energy can help in making wise investment choices.
Long Shot: Fusion
The most unlikely investments pay off the most handsomely---high risk equals high reward. Controlled fusion is as unlikely as it gets with modern or foreseeable technology. Fusion occurs in conditions similar to those at the center of the Sun. When working with fusion power, profitability is a prime concern. It is not an easy feat. Initiating fusion requires massive energy input. Two design themes may promise controlled fusion. One has multiple lasers firing on a hydrogen pellet, generating temperatures and pressures necessary for fusion. The other design is a magnetic torus. The magnets manipulate hot hydrogen plasma in order to generate fusion conditions. Both designs are complex, costly and unlikely to pay off. But then, that is precisely what appeals to speculators.
The train trip from New York to Niagara Falls covers some of New York State's most beautiful regions. Heading up the Hudson River Valley to Niagara Falls offers views of the changing fall leaves, spring wildflowers and blankets of winter snow.
Instructions
Book Your Train Travel from New York to Niagara Falls
1. Plan to get an early start. There are two morning trains and one afternoon train to Niagara Falls from New York each day along the Maple Leaf and Empire Service lines. Business-class seats on the afternoon train tend to go early.
2. Check online for the best fares. When riding Amtrak out of New York City, it is best not to purchase your ticket at the train station on the day of your trip unless you absolutely must. You'll spend $20 to $30 more for last-minute purchases.
3. Look for Amtrak specials. Popular deals have included 2-for-1 travel and large discounts on groups of three or more adults.
4. Choose between coach- or business-class seats on your way to Niagara Falls.
Make the Most of Your Train Travel from New York to Niagara Falls
5. Wear comfortable clothes. It will be hard enough to get comfortable in your small seat during the 9-hour trip without having to deal with tight clothes and stiff shoes.
6. Bring a picnic from one of New York's great gourmet markets. The food on board is limited, expensive and not always appetizing. You'll be better off bringing your own.
7. Book business class if you plan to work. While most people in business class are tourists, you'll find that it is the only place on the train with a plug for your laptop.
See the Sights from the Train
8. Sit on the left side of the train as you leave Penn Station to see the Hudson River, which stays in view almost the entire way to Albany.
9. Get ready to salute. Shortly after the Yonkers stop as you are leaving Putnam County, you'll catch a glimpse of West Point.
10. Follow the Mohawk Trail. As the train heads toward Niagara Falls from Albany, it follows the historic Native American Mohawk trail, which is considered one of America's top scenic routes.
Tags: Niagara Falls, from York, York Niagara, York Niagara Falls, Train Travel, afternoon train, business class
One theory shows different stages of the evolution of life on Earth.
The evolution of life on Earth has been an object of intense debate, various theories and elaborate studies. Influenced by religion, early scientists agreed with the theory of divine conception of life. With the development of natural sciences such as geology, anthropology and biology, scientists developed new theories to explain the evolution of life through natural laws rather than divine instrument.
Evolution, But How?
In the 18th century, Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus based his categorization of species on the theory of unchanging life created by God. Initially he believed that all organisms appeared on Earth in their present form and never changed. Linnaeus studied the organisms as wholes, and categorized them based on similarities that individuals shared. Unable to consider that organisms might change in time, he couldn't provide an explanation for the plant hybrids that resulted from cross-pollination processes with which he experimented. He concluded that life forms could evolve after all, but he could not say why or how.
Evolutionism
In the late 18th century, naturalist George Louis Leclerc suggested that life on Earth was 75,000 years old and that men had descended from apes. Another step in evolution theory was taken by Erasmus Darwin, Charles Darwin's grandfather, who said the Earth was millions of years old and that species did evolve, even if he could not explain how. Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, the first evolutionist to publicly defend his ideas, believed that organisms had evolved constantly, from inanimate to animate organisms and on to humans. His theory was that evolution was based on a continuous chain of inherited characteristics passed from parents to offspring that had evolved with each generation until it produced the ultimate, perfect species: humans.
Catastrophism and Uniformitarianism
In the early 19th century, French scientist Georges Cuvier explained evolution through violent catastrophic events or "revolutions" that had contributed to extinction of old species and the development of species to replace them in the newly created environment. He based his theory on the discovery in the same place of fossils of different species. Cuvier's theory was challenged by the English geologist Charles Lyell, developer of the uniformitarianism theory. He said evolution had been influenced by slow changes since the beginning of time in the shape of the terrestrial surface that could not be perceived by the human eye.
Natural Selection
The mid-19th century was marked by a new theory, that of Charles Darwin, who based his theory of evolution on the concepts of natural selection and survival of the fittest. According to his study "On the Origin of Species," published in 1859, the process of natural selection enables individuals with the most suitable characteristics in a species not only to survive, but also to transmit those characteristics to their offspring, producing evolutionary changes in the species over time as less suitable traits disappear and more suitable traits endure. Darwin also believed that nature produces a larger-than-necessary number of individuals of a species to allow natural selection to take place. Survival of the fittest represents nature's preservation instinct to ensure that only the strongest and most well-suited individuals survive and propagate in a constantly changing environment.
Tags: believed that, evolution life, life Earth, natural selection, that organisms
How Do I Cite a Map From the U.S. Geological Survey in a Term Paper?
Accusations of plagiarism can be incredibly damaging to the academic career of any student. To avoid such accusations, it is imperative that students cite their sources properly. This can seem challenging when the source is not a typical form of media like a book or magazine. However, even U.S. Geological Survey maps can be properly cited. The exact form of citation will depend on where you found the map.
Instructions
1. Format the citation this way if the map is from a series. The author is "U.S. Geographical Survey." The title of the map should appear in italics. The format is "map."
Name of Author or Organization. Sheet title, Number [format]. Edition. Scale. Title of Series. Place of Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication.
2. Format the citation in this way if the map was found in a book. The map author is "U.S. Geographical Survey." The title of the map should appear in italics. The format is "map."
Map Author or Organization. Title of Map [format]. Scale. Place of Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication. In: Author of Book. Title of Book. Edition. Place of Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication, Page Number.
3. Format the citation this way if the map was found on the Internet. The author is "U.S. Geological Survey." The format is "map." Ensure that the title of the document or website appears in quotation marks, and that the date you accessed the website appears in parentheses.
Name of Author or Organization. Map Title [format]. Date Map Was Created. Scale. "Title of the Complete Document or Website." Date Document Was Posted. (date information was accessed)
Tags: Geological Survey, Author Organization, citation this, Date Publication, Format citation, Format citation this, Place Publication
When two adjoining tectonic plates suddenly slip, this can cause devastating earthquakes.
Tectonic plates are large sections of the Earth's crust that extend about 100 kilometers below Earth's surface. These plates interlock like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle and slowly move over the course of millions of years. When two adjoining plates move relative to each other, this can result in mountain formation, earthquakes and a host of other geological phenomena.
Tectonic motion is caused by several forces, including gravity, Earth's rotation and heat convection. A tectonic plate moves when the denser, more fluid layers of the Earth that it lies upon move as a result of these forces.
The Tectonic Plates and Their Boundaries
Mount St. Helens is part of the Pacific "ring of fire," an area of intense volcanoes and earthquakes due to tectonic movement.
There are seven major (primary) tectonic plates and numerous smaller secondary and tertiary plates. These plates are part of the lithosphere, a layer of comparatively light and brittle rock that lies on top of a layer called the aesthenosphere, which is rendered semi-fluid due to the immense temperature and pressure it is subjected to.
The aesthenosphere moves up to several centimeters a year, causing the overlying tectonic plates to move as well. When two plates converge, they collide and form a mountain range. Similarly, when they diverge, they form a valley, rift or ridge. Additionally, tectonic plates can move laterally relative to each other, as is the case at the San Andreas fault.
Volcanic activity and earthquakes are common at these boundaries. The Earth's crust is often thinner in these areas and sudden slippage of adjoining plates can occur when pressure builds up.
Mantle Convection
The middle layers of the Earth between the core and the crust are called the mantle. The mantle is heated from below by the radioactive decay of Uranium and cooled from above by passive dissipation and volcanic activity. Some of this heat is also transformed into movement. Differences in heat and density act on the mantle like a giant conveyor belt moving several centimeters per year. This is perhaps the greatest contributor to tectonic movement.
Gravitational Forces
The violent eruption of magma at weak spots in the planet's crust illustrates the massive pressures experienced deep in the Earth.
The Earth's gravity exerts tremendous pressure upon the mantle and core layers. Due to local differences in density and thickness, however, this pressure isn't completely uniform. This difference in gravitational stress on the deep layers determines the direction that the aesthenosphere beneath the tectonic plates will move, and hence determines the general direction of tectonic movements.
Tidal Forces
The moon causes ocean tides by slightly raising sea level through its gravitational pull.
In addition to the Earth's internal gravity, other celestial bodies can affect tectonic motion through gravitational attraction. The moon and, to a lesser extent, the sun both pull upon the Earth, slightly deforming its shape over the course of rotation. This deformation results in internal friction, which translates to heat. Thus, tidal forces contribute to a third, albeit minor, source of tectonic movement.
The Importance of Mantle Ductility
The mantle is a layer of semi-liquid rock under intense heat and pressure that lies above the liquid metal layer of the Earth's outer core.
Tectonic plates exist only because the Earth's upper crust is hard and brittle while the mantle is ductile and flows like a very slow-moving fluid. Without a dynamic, moving mantle, the plates would stop moving despite the continued presence of some of these forces.
Tags: plates move, tectonic movement, that lies, adjoining plates, centimeters year, each other
Situated at the mouth of the river Liane, Boulogne is France's largest fishing port. Boulogne stands out from Dunkerque and Calais, with its charming medieval center, known as the ville haute. Adding to the picturesque mood are old walls surrounding the town and the shining dome of the ornate cathedral. Travelers love Boulogne for its sites and attractions, as well as its markets, shops and restaurants.
History
The medieval section of Boulogne began as Roman fortifications. In the meantime, the lower town section prospered with activity from the port. English king Henry VIII made history here, capturing Boulogne. Visitors can see the cannon balls he used in the crypt of the town's cathedral. By the early 19th century, Napoleon was using Boulogne as his base while he prepared to invade England. When he was defeated, the French monarchy returned to the throne and the English people began visiting again. One notable visitor was J.M. Turner, the English painter famous for his tumultuous seascapes.
Geography
Boulogne's fortuitous geography, across the English channel, has always encouraged British tourism. In addition, its maritime history promotes the continued practice of fishing, and the town boasts a vast fish market. Restaurants take advantage of the geography and resources to offer wonderful seafood preparations. Boulogne is also a popular seaside resort, and offers Nausicaa, a sea-life center, as well as stretches of sandy beaches.
Features
One of the must-see places in Boulogne is the castle-museum of Boulogne, inside the medieval walls, which houses a major collection of masks, Greek ceramics, Roman and medieval sculptures, paintings, African art and Egyptian pieces. Other sites of interest are the museum La Casa San Martin, Boulogne Cathedral, Helicea's swimming pool, the Boulonnais Nature Park, the BECASUC sweets factory, the Chateau-Musee, the geology museum Maison du Marbre, and the coastal footpath that stretches to Berck.
Considerations
When in Boulogne, do as the locals do and partake of fresh seafood. Among the top restaurants are Bar Hamiot (1 rue Faidherbe), a brasserie; Estaminet du Chateau (2 rue du Chateau) for simple preparations; L'Etoile de Marrakech (228 rue Nationale) for Moroccan dishes; the elegant La Matelote (80 bd Ste-Beuve) for gourmet seafood; Aux Pecheurs d'Etaples (31 Grande-Rue) for absolutely fresh fish; and Sucre Sale (13 rue Monsigny) for delicious salads and fresh baked goods.
Expert Insight
Adventure travelers who enjoy going off the beaten track rave about the Parc Naturel Regional Boulonnais a reserve dotted with footpaths that traverse cliffs, marshes, dunes and ecosystems, allowing wildlife to thrive. Another great natural resource is the Foret de Boulogne, a 200-hectare forest with paths zigzagging throughout.
Volcanoes are geographical features produced by tectonic subduction zones.
The theory of plate tectonics, formulated in the 1960s, describes how the Earth's crust is fractured into at least a dozen distinct plates. As these plates slowly move about, they interact with each other, forming boundary zones. Each of these different types of plate boundaries produces unique geographical features on the surface, including fault lines, trenches, volcanoes, mountains, ridges and rift valleys.
Fault Lines
A transform boundary connects two diverging boundaries, creating a fault line. This line represents an area of shear, where two plates are moving horizontally against one another. An example of a fault line is the San Andreas Fault, which connects the East Pacific Rise, to the south, with the South Gorda, Juan de Fuca and Explorer Ridges, to the north.
Trenches
Trenches are geological features formed by convergent boundaries. When two tectonic plates converge, the heavier plate is forced downward, creating a subduction zone. This process results in the formation of a trench. The Marianas Trench is an example of a trench formed by the convergence of two oceanic plates. The deepest part of this trench, called the Challenger Deep, is over 36,000 feet deep, deeper than Mount Everest is tall.
Volcanoes
Another geological feature that results from a subduction zone is volcanoes. When the plate being forced downward begins to melt, this magma rises to the surface, forming volcanoes. Mount Saint Helens is an example of a volcano formed by an oceanic plate that is subducting under the North American continental plate. When two oceanic plates converge, both a trench and a string of volcanoes are formed. These volcanoes can build to produce island chains, such as the Mariana Islands, which are located alongside the Marianas Trench.
Mountain Ranges
When two continental plates converge, neither of the buoyant plates is able to give way and subduct beneath the other. This results in a powerful collision that produces tremendous, crushing pressure. Ultimately, this pressure causes large vertical and horizontal displacements, forming towering mountain ranges. The Himalayas, one of the tallest mountain ranges in the world, is an example of a geological feature that is formed when continental plates collide.
Ridges
Opposite of a convergent boundary, a divergent boundary is formed by the spreading of a tectonic plate. This process feeds magma to the surface, creating new crust. Divergent zones in oceanic plates form a geological feature called a ridge, forced upward by the pressure of the rising magma. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an example of an oceanic divergent boundary formation.
Rift Valleys
When divergent boundaries occur in continental plates, a different geological feature, called a rift valley, is formed. These depressions slowly fill with water, forming lakes, as their level drops. Ultimately, they will form the floor of a new ocean. An example of this type of geological feature is the East African Rift Zone. This particular rift zone is called a triple junction because it represents the divergence of three plates, forming a "Y" shape. The plates involved are the Arabian Plate, and the two African Plates, the Nubian and the Somolian.
Becoming a professional engineer takes a minimum of 8 years once you enter college. It takes a lot of hard work, including advanced course work in mathematics, physics, and engineering specialty courses to gain the knowledge needed to be an engineer. The payoff is the ability to receive a license as a professional engineer.
Engineers are in demand for many open positions in the United States and other countries. Most state laws require an engineering license in order to declare yourself an engineer (there are exemptions for "operating engineers" and "train engineers"). An engineering license gives you the authority to seal drawings or paperwork on designs or projects that involve public safety. Most states require that drawings are certified by a professional engineer if the project includes any public funding or involves a public building. With this authority comes responsibility. The following steps can be followed in order to obtain status as a professional engineer.
Instructions
1. Attend and graduate from a ABET accredited engineering school.
Go to abet.org to see if the engineering school you are considering is accredited. Go to "Find an accredited program" sidebar heading on the left of the main page. Select "Engineering Programs". You can then search by region, state, discipline, or a combination of discipline and location.
A degree from an ABET accredited school is highly recommended. Most states will only let you take the Professional Engineering (PE) exam if you have a degree from an ABET accredited school. There are a handful of schools like Ohio and Texas, that may allow you to take the PE test if you attend certain technical schools that are not ABET accredited, however, you will typically need 8 years experience after your degree is obtained instead of 4 before you can sit for the exam. I have personally been involved with the ABET accreditation process with my undergraduate college Alma Mata, and have found that degrees from non-accredited engineering schools vary widely and may not be able to properly prepare you for an engineering career.
2. Take and pass the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam. This test is given each April and October in most states. The FE exam was previously known as the Engineer-in-Training (EIT) exam. This test is a closed book test. You will only be provided a copy of a reference handbook specific for the test you are taking. The reference handbook can be downloaded at any time by visiting the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying website at www.ncees.org/exams/study_materials/fe_handbook/.
Most college seniors take the FE exam before graduation. Based on my experience, taking the FE exam while you are still in school is highly recommended. The test problems are easy, but you have to answer them very quickly. If you take the test while you still remember most of your course work you will be more successful. There is not enough time to think through the problems, since you will have about 2 minutes per problem in the morning and 4 minutes per problem in the afternoon. The morning test section covers all engineering disciplines and the candidates choose their engineering discipline (civil, chemical, electrical, mechanical, industrial, or general engineering) in the afternoon.
The passing rate for this test is typically high (usually over 90%). Some colleges boast near 100% passing rates for their graduates the first time they take the test. It has been my experience from attending undergraduate college, two different graduate schools, and being involved in the ABET accreditation program, that good schools will work with their students after classes and on weekend to prepare their students for the FE exam. Ask the colleges you visit how they prepare their students for the FE exam.
3. You will then need to gain work experience. The work experience must be in the engineering discipline working directly under a registered professional engineer. Consider this period of time to be your on the job training. Graduating engineers typically still make above average salaries compared to other professions at this point. You will need to have 4 years of engineering work experience before you can take the Professional Engineering (PE) exam.
During this time if you work in a design related area your chances of passing the PE test on your first try will be greatly improved. Performing calculations or checking engineering calculation will help improve the skills needed to pass the exam.
4. The next step to becoming licensed engineer is to take and pass the Professional Engineering (PE) exam given in most states in April and October. The National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES) develops scores and administers engineering and surveying licensure throughout the United States. The test is an 8 hour test and is open book. You will be required to bring specific standards reference books to the test. The ncees.org website lists the reference materials you will need for the test you plan to take. Most professional engineering exams have 80 questions with 40 questions in each of the morning and afternoon sessions. There is little time to waste during the engineering exam.
Once you have taken the PE test you will receive the results within 12 weeks. The score will be pass or fail. In the past you would receive a number score with anything over 70 considered passing. Now, if you do not pass the exam a diagnostic report will be sent so you will be able to see what you need to work on for the next time you can take the PE exam.
While you prepare for the test visit the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying website at ncees.org. On their website go to "Study Materials". You will find engineering discipline specific study material to pass both the PE test and the FE exam. Also, try www.engineeringlicense.com to find out more about the FE and PE test including tips on take the exam and how it is scored.
5. Once you receive your license in one state you are then legally allowed to practice in the field of engineering. If you want to want to practice engineering in another state you will have to follow the rules of the state you wish to practice in so you can receive another PE license. Most states honor reciprocity with other states in order to receive an engineering license in their state. If you degree was from a non-ABET accredited engineering school, many states will not honor reciprocity if they do not allow candidates with non-ABET accredited degrees to sit for their PE exam. Each state that you receive your engineering license in will require yearly fees and most now require continuing education in order to maintain your engineering license. The continuing education credits are called CE or CPDs. Some states will not allow your continuing education to count for credit for more than one state. Make sure you understand the rules of each state.
By working hard and following these tips, you will be able to map out a course to becoming a professional engineer.
Tags: engineering license, professional engineer, ABET accredited, Engineering exam, continuing education, Council Examiners
Colorado is acclaimed by visitors and residents alike for its natural beauty.
Colorado, which entered the Union in 1876 as the 38th state of the U.S., is famous for the natural beauty of its landscape. Colorado includes some of the most spectacular stretches of the Rocky Mountains. Its terrain also features alpine forests, plains, high plateaus, canyon lands, desert wilderness and wild rivers, all of which contribute to the state's beauty.
National Parks
Colorado's natural beauty is on display at 15 nationally designed parks, monuments, historic sites and recreation areas. The most prominent is Rocky Mountain National Park, which showcases the grandeur of the Rocky Mountains with elevations ranging from 8,000 feet in the park's grassy valleys to 14,259 feet at the top of Longs Peak. Straddling the Continental Divide, the park is set amid national forestland and is home to wildlife such as elk, moose, bighorn sheep, mountain lions and bobcats.
Geological Marvels
Visually striking examples of rock formations including ancient sedimentary outcrops of red, purple and white sandstones are on display at sites such as the Garden of the Gods, a public park in Colorado Springs. This area also features such spectacular geologic wonders as sheer faults and fossils, including dinosaur fossils. Waterfalls cascading down steep canyon walls can be seen at Seven Falls in Colorado Springs. Other geological marvels that contribute to Colorado's beauty include canyons, gorges, sand dunes and caves.
Arts and Entertainment
Befitting a state with so much natural beauty, even Colorado's arts and entertainment venues contribute to its appeal. Red Rocks Park and Amphitheater features a naturally occurring, acoustically pristine stage that has hosted music concerts since its opening in 1906. Located in a transitional geological zone where the Rocky Mountains meet the Great Plains, the park boasts visually spectacular vistas. The Denver Art Museum contains an impressive collection of American Indian art and the scenic town of Steamboat Springs is home to many artists and craftworkers.
Skiing and Snowboarding
Colorado has achieved worldwide fame for the stunning beauty of its skiing and snowboarding resort destinations. The most prominent is Vail, located in the central Rocky Mountains and the largest ski resort in the U.S. Typically blanketed with more than 30 feet of powder snow annually, Vail is noted for awe-inspiring natural scenery as well as its skiing and snowboarding. Other Colorado resorts noted for their natural beauty and their setting amid historic towns are Breckenridge and Telluride.
Tags: natural beauty, Rocky Mountains, also features, Colorado Springs, most prominent
Humans have inhabited Ireland since 6000 B.C. The study of Irish history includes Middle Stone Age hunter-gatherers, Celts and Vikings. Discover a past rich in folklore, kings, kingdoms and tribal warfare. Learn of oppression and resistance by exploring Irish history and culture. See how the Ireland of today rose from the Ireland of yesterday when you study Irish history.
Instructions
1. Find academic resources on Irish history by visiting the BUBL LINK Catalogue of Internet Resources. Find selected resources covering Ireland's Celtic past to the modern Ireland of today.
2. Research the National Archives of Ireland and other historical resources by visiting the Irish History Online website. Read about Irish history from earliest times to the present. Search the online library of the Royal Historical Society Bibliography of British and Irish History and find links to other sources for historical study.
3. Visit the Irish Literature, Mythology, Folklore and Drama website to begin your research into Irish culture. Explore the religious and cultural aspects of Irish history by reading the numerous resources available on this site.
4. Begin your study of Irish geologic history by reading Michael Sundermeier's paper, "The Geologic History of Ancient Ireland" available online. Delve deeper by reading C.H. Holland, "A Geology of Ireland," available at your local library, or one of the numerous scholarly texts on this topic. Visit the National Museum of Ireland's website for more on the natural history of Ireland.
5. Take a historical walking tour of Ireland for an up close and personal look at the Irish people and their history. Visit Ireland's archaeological sites to view Ireland's past and meet with Ireland's people to see its future.
Tags: Irish history, study Irish, history reading, Ireland available, Ireland today, Irish History
The Callaway and Burlington Formations in Missouri contain many crinoid fossils.
Missouri has an interesting geological history and a diverse fossil record. Rock strata from 4.6 billion to 2 million years ago contain various fossils from the state's past.
State Fossil
The official state fossil is a crinoid, a stalked echinoderm commonly known as a "sea lily." It was found in the waters that surrounded Missouri approximately 290 million years ago, a geographic era known as the Pennsylvanian Period. Sea lilies are often unearthed in Missouri limestone.
Oldest Fossils
The oldest fossils ever found in Missouri are from the Precambrian Period, which spans the time from 4.6 billion to 570 million years ago. The fossils are of stromatolites, the earliest record of life, which were formed from algae. Missouri contains mysterious fossils from the Cambrian Era (507 million to 505 million years ago), called climactichnites, that resemble motorcycle tracks.
Younger Fossils
Magnolia, oak and moss fossils formed during the tertiary period of the Cenozoic Era, from 65 million to 2 million years ago. Large bones from mastodons and woolly mammoths, as well as vegetation and teeth from cold-climate organisms, date to the Quaternary Period, beginning 2 million years ago.
Tags: million years, billion million, billion million years, fossils from, from billion, from billion million
Online education offers flexibility, convenience and greater options.
Online education has redefined long-distance education and revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge and career-based education options. Advances in digital technology and high-speed Internet access have broadened the reach, appeal and influence of online education. Online education offers you numerous benefits and advantages.
Flexibility
One of the biggest advantages of online education is the convenience of pursuing full-fledged courses and programs without the time-based schedules and strictures associated with traditional campus-based learning. Such flexibility allows you to balance work and life responsibilities and other pursuits.
Anywhere, Anytime Learning
As long as you have access to a computer or workstation and Internet connectivity, you can pursue online education. You can access course or program sessions and tutorials from an office, home or any remote or rural location.
Value Added for Job
Acquiring a mid-career certification, specialized diploma or a part-time degree enhances skill sets, capabilities and adds to your value as an employee. It also raises your marketability in the job marketplace during economic downturns or recessionary phases.
Cost-Saving Benefits
Acquiring an online degree or any online course/certification from the comforts of a home or any non-campus environment does away with need to commute long hours, spend money on housing/boarding and other ancillary expenses associated with on-campus learning.
More Options
New-generation, Web-based technologies, simpler instruction methods, online collaborative tools and near standardization of delivery formats have encouraged mainstream universities and even community colleges and vocational training institutes to offer short-term, long-term, flex-time, online programs and courses tailored to suit your needs and aspirations.
A geologist studies the rock history of the Earth as well as the related physical activities above and below the Earth's crust. This knowledge is vital to areas such as earthquake studies, oil drilling, gas exploration, mining, environmental and water issues and mapping.
Instructions
1. Ask your high school guidance counselor for a list of colleges that offer a bachelor's degree in geology or geophysics. Check out the American Geological Institute (agiweb.org) and the American Geophysical Union (agu.org) for information on the differences between those two closely related fields.
2. Maintain good grades in high school, especially in math and science. Take advanced courses if possible.
3. Send for college catalogs and applications and compare course offerings. Apply to several colleges well before their deadline dates.
4. Commit yourself to the years of study necessary for success in the field.
5. Recognize that your bachelor's degree will admit you only to entry-level jobs. A master's degree is necessary for any advancement, and a Ph.D. is necessary for research, university teaching positions and many federal and state positions.
6. Expect to go on field trips as part of your degree work. It's also to your benefit to do internships, and they'll probably be required. Realize that outdoor work will be necessary and that some of it may require stamina.
7. Decide early on which geological subfield most interests you and take courses accordingly. Areas of study might include mineralogy, hydrology, hazardous waste management, environmental legislation, chemistry, oceanography, physics and cartography.
8. Use connections you've made during your studies and internships when applying for your first job.
Tags: bachelor degree, Become Geologist, high school
Surface mining is the extraction of minerals, metals, oil, gas, and other elements from the earth's surface. Strip mining, quarrying, and open-pit mining are three other terms used for surface mining. Surface mining requires different tasks from finding the minerals to extraction, managing the paper flow and financial responsibilities, operating heavy equipment to explosion expertise.
Professionals
Locating the mineral, oil, gas, gems, or other element is the job of the geologists and geological and petroleum engineers. The development of the mine, and organization of the process of extraction is the job of the engineering technicians and drafters, who will continue to supervise the mining operation. Environmental engineers will work with the drafters and engineering technicians to ensure all laws and regulations are met. Other professionals involved in surface mining are the industrial engineers and mechanical engineers. The industrial engineers oversee employees, scheduling and developing operations to streamline the mining tasks. While the mechanical engineer oversees and deals with equipment constructed and operated for ventilation and cooling for the employees.
Machine Operations
Extractions and the operations of heavy machinery to complete this task are another career opportunity in the surface mining industry. Oil field mining requires rotary drill operators who supervise, rotary-rig engine operators control the drill equipment, the derrick operators guide the pipes in and out of the drilled holes and work from a high platform. Gas processing requires gas treaters, gas pump operators, gas compressor operators, each responsible for a different aspect to gas extraction. Mineral and coal miners include continuous-mining machine operator monitors the conveyor that continuously extracts minerals. A longwall mining machine operator controls the buckets and hydraulic jacks, the buckets scoop out the ore and the hydraulic jacks move forward to support the roof of the mine. The various other careers offered include safety inspectors, loading machine operators, tractor and truck operators, rock splitters, dredge operators, and operators for cranes and other heavy equipment.
Office Careers
Managers, operating officers, secretaries, accounting clerks, administrative assistants, administrators, the president and vice president, as well as other office titles, can be found in any surface mining company. General clerks may tackle the filing, message and mail deliveries. Surface mining companies depending on the size could employ several administrative assistants, secretaries, filing clerks, accountants and bookkeepers to handle the mundane tasks of operations. Billing and ordering is an important part of operating a surface mining company as is the issuance of payroll.
Requirements
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, nearly half of employees in 2008 were employed in the mining industry. Surface mining companies seek employees with at least a high school diploma and knowledge of operating equipment. All employees must pass a drug test, be in good physical condition, willing to attend training for equipment, and willing to work in adverse conditions. Professionals are required to have at the least a bachelor's degree in the field applied for. Safety training is a requirement for all employees with a refresher course yearly.
Kentucky offers fossil collectors a chance to look for fossils from at least eight different geological periods. Ancient Kentucky had a tropical climate, with swamps, rivers and seas. Many of the fossil beds contain corals and shellfish, but mammalian fossils exist there as well. Both the Kentucky Geological Survey and the Kentucky Paleontological Society serve as valuable resources for exploring this geologically rich state.
Time Frame
Kentucky fossil beds cover the Quaternary, Tertiary, Cretaceous, Pennsylvanian, Mississippian, Devonian, Silurian and Ordovician Periods. Marine fossils are common, but fossils of plants are common in Pennsylvanian, Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks, and Quaternary areas may have mammalian fossils such as mammoths and sloths. Triassic and Jurassic fossils are absent from Kentucky fossil beds.
Lexington Limestone
Sedimentary rock such as limestone forms most of the fossil beds in Kentucky. The Lexington Limestone formation is a major source of Ordovician fossils, including trilobites, corals, gastropods and sponges. The members (the different sections) of this limestone formation are fairly distinct and recognizable. KPS advises that learning what the different members look like "will enhance your chance of finding nice fossils."
Assistance
The KGS does not have maps of areas where you can find fossils. However, it offers geological quadrangle maps to help you find your way around the state. KPS meets monthly and schedules annual field trips to different counties. You do not have to be a KPS member to attend the meetings.
Permissions and Notifications
Respect not only the fossils, but lands and laws as well. If you venture onto private land, make sure you have the owner's permission. KPS advises that any fossils or items that may be Indian fall under the Kentucky Antiquities Act, and the law requires you to report these to the Department of Anthropology at the University of Kentucky. Failure to report is a felony.
Warning
In a notice on the KPS website, society president Dan Phelps warned fossil hunters that someone has been selling fake track fossils in Kentucky. He notes that not only have they been on display at a gem and mineral show but in a local store as well. Phelps saw some similar "tracks" earlier and determined they were modern carvings and not fossilized tracks or Indian carvings. He writes that the tracks were too shallow for a large animal walking in mud. He believes the impression was too level and did not show the changes in depth expected from something actually taking a heel-to-toe step. There were several other indicators as well.
A forest ranger is in charge of protecting, preserving or managing a section of a public forest, keeping people safe from dangers within the park and keeping park resources safe from people who may try to destroy and ruin them. In California, salaries (as of 2010) for forest rangers are between $20,000 and $60,000 for federal employees and $35,000 to $50,000 for state and local rangers.
Instructions
1. Learn about the profession. Job responsibilities include education and interpretation for park visitors, emergency dispatch, firefighting maintenance, law enforcement, search and rescue, and administration. You should possess a love of nature, ability to work well with other on a team or alone in a remote location, be in excellent physical condition, have strong communication skills and be able to stay calm and composed during an emergency situation.
2. Complete your educational requirements. A bachelor's degree is usually required for federal jobs, while some county and state jobs do not require as much formal education. High school graduates may be eligible for a park ranger position after completing three years of progressively responsible work assignments in conservation work or park operations.
3. Take classes that would be helpful to you in this profession. High school classes would include biology, computer science, algebra I and II, geometry, English, and environmental science. College classes could include botany, zoology, geology, ecology, park management, forestry and social science.
4. Be willing to work sporadic schedules in varied locations. You may be expected to work in several different parks and work evenings, nights, weekends and holidays in all types of weather conditions and rugged terrain. You may also be required to take vacations during the park's off-seasons.
5. Be physically and mentally fit. Physical qualifications include having good physical strength, health and eyesight and being comfortable and at ease with the outdoors. To be successful in this job, you should also enjoy working with people and have a creative, responsible and energetic can-do personality.
6. Be able to pass the job's basic requirements. To be a ranger for the state of California, you need to have two years of college (park or related classes preferred), be 18 years of age, have a driver's license, no felony convictions, be a U.S. citizen and able to pass a background investigation.
7. Complete and submit the job application (usually online) to the appropriate organization. This may be the U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Interior's Bureau of Land Management or the Exams Unit of California State Parks. Include all required supplemental documents and materials with the application.
Shamanism is a religion with ancient roots that emphasizes the interconnection between the physical and spirit worlds. Following a shamanic lifestyle can be a challenge, as you will be living differently than most other people in terms of your beliefs and practices. Followers of shamanism believe that the spirit can heal bacterial and viral infections, making modern medicine less necessary for survival. However, thanks to the guidance available, living a lifestyle compatible with shamanism is possible.
Instructions
Understand the History of Shamanism
1. Research the practice of shamanism through the works of Joseph Campbell (see Resources below). Joseph Campbell was an author and teacher highly regarded for his contributions to the field of mystical religious studies.
2. Visit a Web site such as Tengerism.org to learn more about the religion of shamanism (see Resources below).
3. Click on the link 'Practicing Tengerism' to learn follow a shamanistic lifestyle.
Practice the Values of Shamanism
4. Begin to exercise a strong respect for the environment. Shamanic believers respect plants, animals and even rocks, believing that everything is part of the spirit world.
5. Follow the teaching that suggests everything be done in moderation--a common teaching for several religions. Following this principle in shamanism is another way to honor your neighbors.
6. Be extremely mindful of your honor. In the practice of shamanism, respecting yourself and your relationships is one of the most important aspects of life.
7. Set up a worship area in your home for a homoir, which is an altar. This altar will hold sacred objects, including photos of your ancestors.
8. Burn incense at your altar. The smoke from incense is said to carry shamanic prayers to the spirit world above.
Share Your Knowledge
9. Find a shamanism community or form one of your own. It is important to find others to share your lifestyle.
10. Participate in your spiritual community on a regular basis. Community cooperation is key in shamanism.
11. Teach what you have learned to those who are interested in learning follow shamanism.
Tags: Follow Shamanism, Follow Shamanism Lifestyle, Joseph Campbell, practice shamanism, Resources below, Shamanism Lifestyle, spirit world
helps define the western edge of the Horn of Africa
Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania is one of the most famous fossil sites in the world providing many of the earliest hominid fossils currently located. It is part of the Great Rift Valley of East Africa and borders on the Serengeti nature reserve. The NASA-enhanced satellite image clearly shows the surrounding area including the major volcano region to the east of the gorge and the continuation of the Great Rift Valley.
Location and Coordinates
The Great Rift Valley in Africa defines the western edge of the Horn of Africa and represents a line of separation running from Syria in the north, through the Jordon valley in Israel and ending across from Mozambique. Olduvai Gorge according to Goggle Earth is located at Latitude: 2 degrees 58 minutes south and Longitude: 35 degrees 22 minutes east. That point represents about the center of the gorge, which runs for about 40 kilometers.
Renaming the Gorge
The gorge is named after the Masai word for a type of wild sisal named "oldupai" and the common form "Olduvai" was a mistranslation and misspelling. Tanzania has officially renamed the area Oldupai Gorge, but it will take some time before it is the common usage.
Importance of Oldupai Gorge
The Leakey family has placed Olduvai Gorge into common understanding. With the discovery in 1959 of what was eventually named Australopethecus boisei, by Mary Leakey, it was clearly shown that early man evolved in Africa and not in Asia as was commonly thought. The Leakeys, including son Richard, continued this exploration of Olduvai Gorge and Eastern Africa up to the present time greatly enlarging the world's understanding of early hominid history.
Geology of Oldupai Gorge and East Africa
For millions of years sedimentary deposits were made in the area of what is now East Africa, which was often completely covered by seas. The sedimentary deposits kept a record of the animals and plants that grew and evolved during that time. Then during the Miocene period, about 65 million years ago, the area experienced a massive uplift caused by upwelling magma and the overlying sedimentary layers were stretched and the rift itself broke the crust and the Oldupai Gorge split the earth. The upwelling and split then allowed erosion to expose millions of years of the development of life in Africa.
Tags: Olduvai Gorge, Oldupai Gorge, East Africa, Great Rift, Great Rift Valley, Rift Valley
Children can discover the world of science by participating in a variety of activities at museums.
Museums throughout the United States offer a variety of regular educational and entertaining activities for kids. While visiting different museums, children can learn about the workings of the universe and explore geology as well as participate in story-telling and art sessions. These interactive programs are included in the admission price, so plan a trip with your children to the museum and take advantage of these stimulating instructional activities.
Construction
Children who are curious and love to build things at home will be delighted with the construction activities available at a variety of museums across the U.S. Children can learn how buildings work and explore engineering and physics at the same time, in a hands-on environment. The Children's Museum of Houston offers kids the chance to explore the techniques used to construct buildings and work with pulleys; the Louisiana Children's Museum allows young ones to plan, draft and even design cities and buildings; and Boston Children's Museum gives children the opportunity to drive a compact construction tractor, balance on a construction high beam and play on ramps, bridges and in tunnels.
Storytelling
The Smithsonian Air and Space Museum in Washington D.C. and the Geology Museum in Madison, Wisconsin, offer free story-time sessions to children on a weekly basis. Pre-schoolers as well as school-aged children learn about the planets, astronauts and minerals during a story-time that is included with museum admission. Astronaut suits, spaceship crafts and moon rock displays are presented at the Air and Space Museum, while the Geology Museum features geological specimens as well as crafts for children to create and take home. Reservations are required at the Air and Space Museum, while bookings at the Geology Museum are required for groups of 10 children or more.
Experiments
Children who are excited by science can take advantage of interactive experiment stations with topics including magnets, weather, motors and optics on offer at the Science Museum of Minnesota. Children will receive guided instructions from volunteers on how each activity operates and learn more about the way the world works by participating in activities at stations such as the wave tank, a steam power plant and a simulated tornado. According to its website, the Science Museum of Minnesota, where 1.75 million artifacts are on display, is the most visited museum in the five-state region surrounding it.
Crafts
Some museums offer craft time where children can get creative and explore a range of tools and techniques. KidsQuest Museum in Bellevue, Washington, offers a one-hour Play and Paint activity session. Kids are invited to try a range of paintbrushes and tools that "splatter, roll and stamp," in craft sessions held on the first and third Wednesday of each month. The Getty Museum in Los Angeles holds Saturday Family Drawing Hours, where children are led by a professional teacher. Materials are provided for this activity, but space is limited, so the museum requires sign-up on the day of participation.
Tags: Children Museum, Geology Museum, Space Museum, buildings work, children learn