Physical Science Activities

Physical science is a broad topic, as it is the study of non-living phenomena. Areas include physics, chemistry, geology and astronomy, to name a few. To get a better grasp on demonstrate physical science, try performing an experiment demonstrating one of its many principles.

Tablet Race

Begin the experiment by filling two beakers half full with water. Then take an antacid tablet and wrap a piece of paper around it. Then, place the paper-covered tablet on a hard surface and crush it using your hand or a spoon. Next, open the paper with the crushed tablet and hold it over one of the beakers. Pour the antacid tablet powder in the water. Have a stop watch ready to time how long it takes for the powder to dissolve.

In the second beaker, drop a whole tablet into the water and time how long it takes for it to dissolve.

What you will find is that the crushed tablet dissolves faster due to increased surface area (the tablet can "spread out" more because it is in tiny pieces instead of being condensed into a formed disk, like the whole tablet). The higher the surface area, the faster something will dissolve.

Super-Cooled Substances

Would you ever consider butter as a liquid, even when in firm, stick form? You should, as butter is actually grouped into the liquid substance category as a supercooled substance. The hardness of butter depends on its temperature. As butter's temperature increases, it becomes harder for its supercooled cells to "stick together" and instead loosen up and begin to flow, like a liquid. Continue to heat it and it will flows like traditional liquids. However, once the liquid butter begins to cool, it reverts back to the hardened characteristics we associate with solids. The colder the temperature, the more solid the butter.

Perform a simple experiment to test the properties of butter by placing a marble-sized piece of refrigerated butter in five different test tubes. Then, place each in a different location. Use the refrigerator, the freezer, a third in a beaker with cold water and ice cubes, the fourth in a beaker filled with hot water and the last sitting out at room temperature.

After ten minutes, examine the butter sample in each of the test tubes and record any differences in appearance and relative hardness. What did you notice? Then, discard the test tubes in the freezer and refrigerator and allow the test tubes in each beaker to sit overnight. Examine them again in the morning. What happened? More than likely, they will all be in some form of solid, even though the one in the hot water was a liquid during your initial observations.

Fruit Battery

Start by stripping 2 inches of insulation off 18 gauge copper wire. Then, clip the 2 inches of bare wire with wire clippers. Next, take a metal paper clip and straighten it out. Cut the paper clip so it is 2 inches long.

Then, take a whole lemon and roll it on a table with a little pressure. After rolling, insert the pieces of the paper clip and the wire into the lemon so they are as close together as you can get them without touching.

Last, moisten your tongue with saliva and touch the tip of your tongue to the ends of the two wires sticking out of the lemon. You will be able to feel a tingle on the tip of your tongue along with a metallic taste in your mouth.

What you have just created is a lemon battery. The type of energy you created turns chemical energy (the lemon) into electrical energy (the tingle and metallic taste). The paper clip and the copper wire are the two pathways where the energy enters and leaves the battery. When you touched your tongue to the tips of the metal and wire, you closed the opened circuit and allowed an electric current to flow.

Tags: paper clip, test tubes, your tongue, antacid tablet, clip inches, copper wire, crushed tablet

Campgrounds In North Georgia

The North Georgia Mountains are a natural resource for outdoor enthusiasts.

North Georgia offers numerous campgrounds throughout the North Georgia Mountains with an endless list of family activities and recreational areas offering camping, mountain cabins and recreational vehicle sites. North Georgia also offers some of the best restaurants in the South along with inns, romantic getaways, waterfalls, fishing, tubing, kayaking, golf and bike trails. Several campgrounds are nestled in the Blue Ridge Mountains on the Chattahoochee River with easy access to festivals, special events and hot air balloon rides. Events like Winefest, Volksmarch, Oktoberfest and Alpenfest provide a camping season full of adventure and new experiences.

Gold n Gem Grubbin Campground

The Gold n’ Gem Grubbin Campground, located in Cleveland, GA, accommodates recreational vehicles and tent camping on the river or in the fields adjacent to the gold mines. Summer 2010 camping rates range from $18 per night for tents to $28 per night for recreational vehicles. Rates are $20 per night for tent camping on the river. Restrooms are available near the panning area, and limited facilities in the camping areas. Gold n’ Gem Grubbin is North Georgia’s only commercially operated gold mine.

Gold n Gem Grubbin

75 Gold Nugget Lane

Cleveland, GA 30528

706-865-5454

goldngem.com

Plum Nelly Campground

Plum Nelly Campground is within minutes of bicycle trails and numerous recreational activities.

Plum Nelly Campground, located in Ellijay, Georgia, is located in the beautiful North Georgia Mountains. Plum Nelly offers easy access, pull-through sites with 50-amp electrical service and sewer hookups for RVs. The campground is within minutes of bicycle trails, Amicalola Falls and the Appalachian Trail as well as several nearby kayaking, swimming and trout fishing lakes, rivers and streams. Tent sites with electricity and water range from $28 to $32 a night. The campground offers hot showers, restrooms and a laundry facility.

Plum Nelly Campground

15828 Highway 515 South

Ellijay, Georgia 30540

404-317-2458

plumnellycampground.com

Poteete Creek Campground

Poteete Creek Campground has an abundance of recreational amenities.

Poteete Creek Campground, 13 miles north of Blairsville, GA on Lake Nottely, offers 59 campsites. The campground has camper and tent sites with fire rings, with power and water available at most sites. Poteete Creek also has a dump station, beach area with picnic tables, a boat ramp, pavilion, restrooms, bathhouse and showers. Rates range from $22 per night to $140 per week to $520 per month based on the Summer 2010 rate schedule. Owned by the Union County Recreational Department, Poteete Creek Campground offers everything you could need for an enjoyable camping adventure.

Poteete Creek Campground

7686 Poteete Creek Road

Blairsville, GA 30512

706-439-6103

ucrd.net

Tags: Poteete Creek, North Georgia, Creek Campground, Plum Nelly, Poteete Creek Campground, Gold Grubbin, Nelly Campground

Colleges In Nyc That Offer Animal Science

Animal Science includes laboratory work with various animals.

Choosing a college with the desired major in a specific location is a hard task. With majors such as animal science, it is even more difficult because not many colleges offer this major. Animal Science is divided into other related majors: agriculture, animal behavior/ethology, animal breeding, animal nutrition, animal sciences, dairy science, environmental science and zoology. According to the College Board College MatchMaker, only four colleges offer one of these Animal Science related majors in New York City.

CUNY: Queens College

Queens College at the City University of New York offers a bachelor's or associate's degree in environmental science. This major is not just an animal science major since it combines chemistry, geology and biology. It covers the physical and biological processes that make the natural world function. With this major, students learn about problems in the environment, how we affect them and how we can change them. This includes animal life. Courses include fundamentals of ecology, management of forest ecosystems and physical geology.

Columbia University

At Columbia University, students have a choice of animal science majors such as ecology, environmental biology and environmental science. The undergraduate ecology major is a study of the environments' living and nonliving things. Courses include fish ecology, organic chemistry and ornithology. Environmental biology is an associate's major in which students study animals and plants in their natural environments and their interactions with each other. Courses include ecology and biodiversity. Environmental science covers the interactions of the natural world, animal interactions included.

Pace University

At Pace University, students interested in animal science can study environmental science, which covers the animals and plants in the world's environments. With this major, students learn face the world's problems and help animals and plants survive. Topics covered include different environments such as forests or coasts.

Colleges Outside NYC

Long Island University's C.W. Post Campus, located close to New York City, also offers a bachelor's degree in environmental science, similar to the above mentioned New York City colleges. At Barnard College, also close to New York City, students can choose the environmental biology major. This major allows students to study animal interactions in a certain region or environment. Another choice at Barnard College is the environmental science major.

Tags: environmental science, York City, animals plants, Courses include, animal interactions, animal science

Conduct A Mineral Market Survey

According to the World Coal Association, coal powers more than 40 percent of the world's electricity.

A mineral market survey is a key requirement before starting mineral extraction. The main goal of this survey is to gather information about the proposed mineral site, essentially to determine whether there is enough mineral under the earth before beginning to drill. Since extracting minerals from under the earth requires time, capital and labor, mineral surveys are generally carried out to determine whether or not the project will be feasible and cost-effective in the long run.

Instructions

Mineral Market Survey

1. Determine whether you own rights. In many countries the government owns mineral resources such as rocks, minerals, gas or oil. Individuals and organizations in these countries need to obtain government authorization prior to extracting and selling minerals. In the United States, most states have laws that govern mining and drilling activity. These laws vary from state to state. It is essential to understand and abide by the laws governing mining and drilling before conducting a mineral market survey. If you are unsure, consult a lawyer before proceeding further.

2. Determine the location of your property. If you own the applicable rights and believe you have minerals such as coal under your property, you will first need to determine whether your property is on coal-bearing rocks. Consult a geologic map to determine if your county falls in a coal field. If your property is at the border, you may need to consult a more detailed map such as a geologic quadrangle map.

3. Determine the existence of coal beds. The geologic quadrangle maps will indicate whether you have coal beds under your property, but not all coal beds will be mapped. In such cases, it may be wise to use boreholes that may provide further information. Boreholes are essentially holes drilled underground to determine the site's geological information.

4. Calculate coal results for every coal bed. It may be wise to hire a registered mining engineer or a registered geologist to intervene during this step. Determine the thickness of the coal. Consult a database such the Kentucky Geological Survey Coal Thickness Data Base or obtain data from the U.S. Energy Information Administration. Alternatively, a hole can be drilled in the ground to determine thickness.

5. Measure the area of each thickness class. After finding out the thickness of the coal, usually a map highlighting coal thickness trends is made for the target bed. Measure the area of the thickness class. This is called planimetry. There are two ways to carry out planimetry, one by a device called a planimeter and the other by a specialized computer software.

6. Calculate the tons of coal on your property. A number called a reserve gross estimate is calculated. This is a volume calculation which is derived from a conversion factor for coal, 1,800 tons for each acre for each foot of coal. To find out the coal on your property use this formula: Acres x Coal thickness x 1,800 tons/acre-foot = Tons of coal on your property. For instance, if there are three acres of coal bed under your property and the thickness of the coal bed is 5.7 feet, use the following mathematical equation to determine the tons of coal underneath your property: 3 x 5.7 x 1800 = 30, 780 tons of coal.

Tags: your property, coal beds, coal your, coal your property, thickness coal

What Type Of Soil Is In The Blue Ridge Mountain Region

The Blue Ridge Mountains are home to old mountains and varied soils.

The Blue Ridge Mountains are renowned for their beauty and blue appearance from a distance. The soils and shape of the Blue Ridge Mountains are consequences of the region's geologic past. Characterized by steep slopes and hard rocks, the soils of the Blue Ridge Mountains are not renowned for their agricultural fertility, but they do give rise to some of the most diverse flora in the nation.

Geography

The Blue Ridge region is a narrow physiographic province ranging from 5 to 20 miles in width and extending from Georgia in the south to Pennsylvania in the north. The Blue Ridge Mountains are the first mountains that one sees in the Mid-Atlantic United States when driving west from the Atlantic Ocean. They are bordered by the Piedmont region to the east and the Great Appalachian Valley to the west.

Geology

The soils of the Blue Ridge Mountain region are a product of their geologic history and weathering processes. The mountains seen today were once giants, rivaling the Himalayas in size, and were formed when Africa and North America collided more than a billion years ago. The rocks formed over time; prominent today are hard igneous and metamorphic rocks such as granite, gneiss and marble. On the western slopes of the region are some softer sedimentary rocks. The mountainous terrain and predominance of hard rocks makes most of the soils in the region thin and vulnerable to erosion from wind and rain.

Types of Soil

Because the basement rock of the region is composed of hard igneous and metamorphic rock that is resistant to weathering, in addition to the steep slopes and frequent rainfall, soils do not have the opportunity to build up over time in the Blue Ridge Mountain region. There are, however, pockets of soil that are fertile and have long supported lush agricultural practices. These areas are the result of weathering processes on ancient rocks formed from lava flows and pools due to volcanic activity in the past.

Farming

Farms in the Blue Ridge regions are conspicuously absent when compared with the rest of the state on agricultural maps. There are, however, small areas of flat land that have fertile soils and can produce healthy agricultural production. These small pockets of healthy soil have long been supporting people who have settled in the mountains. Famous homesteads like Thomas Jefferson's Monticello and James Monroe's home at Ashlawn were built over these small areas of fertile soil.

Interesting Facts

The Blue Ridge Mountains get their name from the fact that they often appear bluish in color from a distance. The reason for this blue appearance comes from the numerous trees that grow in the soils of the mountains. Many trees in the region (especially oaks) release a chemical called isoprene. Isoprene acts as an aerosol when mixed with other chemicals in the atmosphere and creates a haze in the air above the trees, making the mountains appear blue.

Tags: Blue Ridge, Blue Ridge Mountains, Ridge Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountain, Ridge Mountain, soils Blue

Tools Used In Seismology

Visible rock cliffs can show evidence of past earthquakes.

Chang Heng of China invented the oldest known tool used in seismology in 132 CE. Seismology, from the Greek word for earthquake, "seismos" is the study of earthquakes. Scientists use a number of tools, both historic and modern to study earthquake events both past and present in hopes of better predicting future events and developing more in-depth knowledge as to how and why earthquakes occur.

Seismometers and Seismographs

In older models of seismographs, a stylus created seismograms, visual drawings recorded on paper which illustrated the size and duration of seismic (shock) waves created by an earthquake. Contemporary seismographs now record digital information about the magnitude, (the extent the ground shakes), of an earthquake event. A network of seismographs placed around the globe constantly measures each shift in the Earth's crust, recording intensity and duration of the quake and aftershocks. The USGS (United States Geological Survey) defines seismometers as "sensitive detectors" that when "connected to a system that produces a permanent recording" are called "seismographs."

GPS Networks

Global positioning satellite systems (GPS) are used to measure slight movements of the Earth's crust. The satellite transmits a signal to a fixed ground station. After a shift, the distance the station has moved is examined. According to NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), the integrated GPS system allows measurements in millimeters and scientist are analyzing the data to see if these measurements may be used to predict future earthquake events.

Theodolites

The San Francisco State University Fault Creep Monitoring Project uses theodolites, (instruments that surveyors use to measure angles), to measure "creep" or the deformation of the Earth's crust as a reaction to stress. Creep movement occurs in the time between "stress releasing" earthquakes and measurement of this movement provides scientists with additional data for earthquake forecasting. Three points are predetermined and marked using survey monuments. Theodolites are then used to figure changes over time by comparing measurements of the angles of the markers at regular intervals.

Creep-meter

Creep-meters also measure shifts fault lines in the Earth's crust between earthquake events. A creep-meter consists of a rod placed into a fault, after which the movement of a "free" end is monitored. Creep-meters can monitor only tiny areas measured in millimeters.

Strain-meter

A more modern instrument utilized in seismology is the strain-meter. A strain-meter is a small cylinder inserted deep into the Earth's surface "more than 500 feet down" which measures movements or "strain" in the materials surrounding the device, by monitoring a volume of liquid, usually oil, within the cylinder as the surrounding rocks and materials push the liquid into an adjoining chamber.

Tags: Earth crust, earthquake events

Create Timelines In Powerpoint

If you want to create a timeline, you can use Microsoft PowerPoint to do so. You can access Microsoft Office Online through PowerPoint and on Microsoft Office Online, you can search for and download a timeline template. This saves a lot of time compared to creating a timeline from scratch. After you download the timeline template in PowerPoint, you can edit it and add the information you want displayed in the timeline.

Instructions

1. Open PowerPoint and click the Office button. Select "New" when the Office menu opens. You can create a new presentation or search for a template here.

2. Type "timeline" in the Microsoft Office Online search bar on the "New Document" window and press "Enter." A list of timeline templates will open.

3. Scroll through the timeline templates available. If you want to see a larger version of a timeline, click the template name and a larger image of the timeline will show up in the pane to the left of the window.

4. Select the timeline template you want to use and click "Download." The timeline template will download and open as a new presentation.

5. Highlight and delete the sample text from the timeline. After you remove the sample text, enter the dates and information you want included in the timeline.

6. Click the Office button and select "Save As." Enter a name for the timeline when the "Save As" window opens and click "Save."

Tags: timeline template, Microsoft Office, Microsoft Office Online, Office Online, download timeline

What Ideas Are Incorporated Into Uniformitarianism

The study of various rock formations led to the ideas of uniformitarianism.

Uniformitarianism is a geological doctrine developed in the first third of the nineteenth century. It resulted from the observations and thinking of several British scientists, notably James Hutton and Sir Charles Lyell, although William Whewell at Cambridge University is credited with coming up with the name. The basis of the doctrine is an assumption that geological processes observed now are the same as what has occurred in the past.

Background

The ideas of uniformitarianism were contrary to two common understandings of the time. Two were from the Bible and one from discovery. The first was that the earth had been created by God in a short time not too long ago. The second was that Noah's flood was an example of geologic processes. The third was the discovery of the town of Pompeii that had clearly been buried in volcanic ash almost instantly. In the controversies over uniformitarianism, these views, although from different sources, were known as the catastrophic understanding of geologic history.

Origin - Hutton

In his 1795 book, "Theory of the Earth," James Hutton challenged biblical creationism and the idea that the earth was young. His ideas sprung from his observation of the excavation done for the construction of a railroad. He saw, at the bottom of the cut for the tracks, schist (which is a rock formed from other rocks) oriented vertically. Above the schist was a horizontal layer of sandstone and on top of that soil. He concluded that all of this had taken a very long time to happen and was the result of gradual but continuous change.

Amplification - Lyell

Sir Charles Lyell in the several volumes of his "Principles of Geology" (1830-33) accepted Hutton's ideas and also rejected anything supernatural occurring in geology. He believed that the present physical processes had been present at all times in the past and had acted as they do now. His ideas were picked up by Charles Darwin and carried over from geology to biology in 1859.

Ideas

The uniformitarian doctrine contains several ideas. The belief that the earth is of great age is now almost universally accepted. The idea of the consistent operation of physical laws at all times and all places is also commonly accepted. The absence of God from nature is accepted as the basis of the scientific study of material phenomena. Ironically, it is the idea that existing geologic processes are sufficient to and can explain everything observed in the rocks and minerals of earth that is most problematic.

Problems

The continuing study of geology since Lyell shows the earth's road to the present was a rocky one. Hutton can be said to have created the idea of geologic time but could not have foreseen that catastrophic events occurring in a blink of geologic time, such as the gigantic outflows of magma that occurred in the northwestern United States and elsewhere, weaken, if not destroy, the geologic portion of the uniformitarian doctrine.

Tags: that earth, Charles Lyell, geologic processes, geologic time, idea that

Make A Mold & Cast Of A Fossil

One example of a naturally formed fossil mold.

Paleontology is the study of fossils, dinosaurs and in general the remains of extinct animals. The fossils they find are rare and as such can be valuable tools for research into life on Earth in the time of the dinosaurs. For much of the research, scientists prefer to use casts of the fossil rather than the actual fossil to prevent damaging the rare find. Making a mold and cast of a fossil can be a great lesson for middle and high school science students.

Instructions

Mold Fossil

1. Spray the inside of the pan generously with non-stick spray. Fill the pan halfway with soft clay. A mold fossil is the type that would be created by a scientist out of an original fossil. If the fossil is extremely fragile, there are better methods to use including three-dimensional computer imaging.

2. Spray the bone, leaf or shell with non-stick spray and press into the clay surface in the pan. Spray the top layer of clay with the non-stick spray.

3. Place one strip of cardboard at the top of the clay surface in the pan and another at the bottom. The bone and cardboard should not touch. Smooth another layer of clay on top of the bone and cardboard strips. Allow a few hours for the clay to dry.

4. Remove the clay from the greased pan and then separate the two halves at the cardboard seam. You now have a temporary mold.

5. Use plaster to create a more permanent mold using the same steps as for clay. The only exception is that the plaster must dry completely before attempting to separate layers. This may take up to 48 hours for a solid mold.

6. Pull the two halves of plaster apart gently beginning at the seam created by the cardboard strips. If the seams are stuck, use a butter knife or dull pry tool to get them apart.

Cast Fossil

7. Lay the mold fossil halves flat side down on the work table. A cast fossil is created when the original leaf, shell or bone has been buried creating the impression of its shape. The original fossil is washed away or dissolved through by natural processes leaving only the hardened impression.

8. Fill the mold with liquid latex on both sides, the level of latex should be flush with the top portion of the mold and not "bubble over" the lip of the mold.

9. Allow 48 hours for the latex to dry completely and remove it from the plaster mold. For a three-dimensional representation of the fossil, glue the two half pieces of latex together.

Tags: non-stick spray, with non-stick, with non-stick spray, Allow hours, bone cardboard, cardboard strips

Astronomy Observations & Theories

Ruins in Tikal, Guatemala, exhibit the alignment with astrological phenomena shared by ancient structures in many locations around the world.

Scientists have studied ancient, man-made structures that demonstrate alignments with astronomical patterns in such diverse locations as England, Guatemala, Egypt and at least four separate sites within Mexico. Astrological events such as changes affecting the surface of the sun or a meteor collision with the earth's surface can have dramatic effects on life on our planet. On a day-to-day basis, humanity still uses astronomical observations as the basis of such everyday functions as time-keeping and navigation through the use of devices such as global positioning systems.

Observation: Cultural Influence

Stonehenge, a more commonly known ancient site, shows a different cultural influence on construction of astronomically aligned structures.

The study and observation of celestial cycles through astronomy can lead to study and observation concerning astronomical naming conventions and processes applied by different cultures throughout history. Another area of astronomical observation related to cultural influence involves the examination and study of how different cultures constructed buildings and other structures in ways that relate to astronomical events. These observations concerning structures can involve structures intended to measure astronomical cycles or simply incorporating themes related to celestial or astronomical events into d cor.

Observations: Astronomical-Geological

Astronomical influences may factor into earthquake occurrences and the accompanying destruction.

Another area of astronomical study involves an examination of the relationship between astronomical events or cycles and geological events. Observations in this category can involve consideration of circumstances as routine as the relationship of daily and monthly tide ebb and flow in relation to the moon's rotation. Observations in this category of geological study can also incorporate examining issues involving the complexity of potential influences of astronomical activity on evolution. Additional areas of observation in this category of astronomical study involve the effect of celestial events on such processes as flooding and of the shift of portions of the earth's crust, known as plate techtonics.

Theory: Prehistoric Extinction

Glacial formations widespread enough to cause an ice age may have originated with an asteriod impacting the earth.

An area of astronomical study concerned with theory development involves the area of prehistoric species extinction. Scientists have studied evidence suggesting that the mass extinction of dinosaurs and other species that died off about 65 million years ago has a root cause in an astronomical event. Scientists have concluded from evidence that a collision between the earth and a small asteroid occurred during this age. Scientists theorize that this collision resulted in a dust cloud that spread across the surface of the earth and created an ice age and, ultimately, caused the demise of thousands of animal species.

Theories: Solar System

Solar flares evidence locations of temperature volatility affecting the sun's surface.

Astronomers study the surface of the sun using special instruments called spectrographs. These instruments allow scientists to determine through color-coding the surface temperature of the sun at different locations on that surface. Scientists also calculate the sun's likely life cycle through comparison with other stars of various ages. From these observations and calculations, astronomers can theorize that the sun will become much hotter over time, as well as expand in size. Scientists also deal in theories concerning the planets as well as the sun. For example, astronomers consider the possibility that some plant life on earth may have arisen through seeds that arrived on earth by way of a comet. Astronomers also may work with theories concerning the possibility of life on other planets. Consideration by scientists regarding life on other planets may explore potential means of communication with civilizations that exist elsewhere than on earth.

Tags: area astronomical, astronomical events, astronomical study, Scientists have, this category

Obtain Water From An Aquifer

Wind power can pump water from an aquifer.

Aquifers are geologic layers filled with water, which are tapped by drilling wells. Wells can be more than 1,000 feet deep. Most usable water in the United States comes from underground, with public water utilities processing about 38 billion gallons a day. Water systems in America cost $3.5 billion a year. Aquifer levels drop rapidly at times of high demand, and as people pump out more and more groundwater, ground levels fall with the water table. The resulting land subsidence occurs in nearly every American state.

Instructions

Drill the Well

1. Commission a professional geological study of the area. Aquifers are categorized under four headings according to rock and sediment types. This study will determine the most appropriate way to proceed.

2. Carry out pump tests. For these, a test well is drilled and pumped. A record of the decline of water level is kept, both in the test well itself and in observation wells drilled nearby. The tests determine how easily water moves through the aquifer, how much water is stored and how efficiently the well will produce water.

3. Interpret the pump test data, including both data created by traditional graphical methods and more modern computer techniques. Hydrogeologists still rely on graphical analysis to examine water withdrawal and predict how an aquifer will react to pumping over time.

4. Drill the well. The well constructor will fill out a report that provides a detailed profile of how the well was constructed, geologic materials encountered, where groundwater was found, the diameter and depth of the drill hole, details of the well casing and casing seal, a static water level measurement and pump test data.

5. Install a pump to take water from the wellhead.

Storage and Use

6. Build a water storage tank.

7. Lay pipes to transfer water to storage and finally for use. If the water is for household use, it must be tested for contaminants and treated before drinking.

8. Ensure compliance with all local, state and federal regulations on water extraction and use.

Tags: pump test, pump test data, test data, test well, water from, water level, water storage

Types Of Intrusive Igneous Rock With Large Crystals

Granite, prized for its beautiful grains, is an example of an intrusive igneous rock with large crystals.

Intrusive igneous rock is formed from magma that cools beneath the surface of the Earth. This cooling process takes a very long time, on a scale of thousands or millions of years and produces a matrix of mineral crystal grains. This crystalline structure is large enough to be seen with the naked eye. There are five primary types of intrusive igneous rocks with these large crystals: granite, pegmatite, diorite, gabbro and peridotite.

Granite Rock

Granite rocks are classified as felsic, or sialic, igneous rock. They are light-colored rocks, with coarse grains. These rocks, which are primarily formed from continental crust, are high in silica content. The primary minerals found in granite rocks, which are responsible for forming the crystals, include potassium-plagioclase feldspar, sodium-plagioclase feldspar, quartz and biotite. The potassium-plagioclase feldspar is what gives some granites their pink color. Other minerals that may be present in a piece of granite include amphibole and muscovite.

Pegmatite Rock

Pegmatite rocks are also classified as felsic, or sialic, igneous rock. They are light-colored rocks, with extremely coarse grains. Pegmatite rock is primarily formed from continental crust and is also high in silica content. These rocks are typically formed on the outer edges of magma chambers, during the final stage of crystallization. While similar in overall composition to granite, pegmatite rocks often contain rare minerals that are not found in the rest of the magma chamber.

Diorite Rock

Diorite rocks are classified as intermediate igneous rock. These rocks have a composition that lies between the felsic rocks, such as granite, and mafic rocks, such as gabbro. Diorite is a relatively rare rock that is gray or dark-gray in color, with coarse grains. The mineral composition is primarily composed of sodium-plagioclase feldspar, calcium-plagioclase feldspar and amphibole. Smaller amounts of proxene, biotite and quarts may also be found in diorite.

Gabbro Rock

Gabbro rocks are classified as mafic igneous rock. These rocks are dark in color, with coarse grains. These rocks, which are primarily formed from oceanic crust, are high in ferromagnesian content. In addition to these iron silicates and magnesium, gabbro primary mineral content includes calcium-plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene. Smaller amounts of olivine and amphibole may also be found within gabbro.

Peridotite Rock

Peridotite rocks are classified as ultramafic igneous rock, being almost entirely ferromagnesian in nature. These rocks are dark in color, with coarse grains. Peridotite is believed to be a major component of the Earth's mantle due to an extremely high melting point. As a result, peridotite is rarely found on the planet's surface. In terms of mineral content, peridotite is almost exclusively comprised of olivine. This mineral gives the rock its olive-green color. Trace amounts of pyroxene may also be found in peridotite. The Peridot birthstone is produced from peridotite rock.

Tags: igneous rock, These rocks, coarse grains, formed from, rocks classified, with coarse, with coarse grains

How Do Natural Disasters Occur

Earthquakes

Earthquakes might be the king of the natural disasters. With their sheer force, they can destroy buildings, lives and man-made structures. Earthquakes are formed along fault lines, or the areas where tectonic plates meet underground. Occasionally, these plates shift, causing an enormous burst of energy that causes the ground above to shake violently. The plates rub up against each other, causing tension. When the rock breaks between them, allowing the plates to actually move, this is when the full-scale earthquake occurs. The earthquake ends when the plates catch on unbroken rock once again, and they settle.

Tornadoes

Tornadoes are usually formed in the middle of thunderstorms. Much like earthquakes, it is difficult to predict when and where a tornado will strike. While a severe thunderstorm may prompt meteorologists to issue a tornado watch, this is mostly guesswork based on the correct conditions. These conditions include warm air meeting a front of cool, dry air. When this happens, instability occurs in the atmosphere. The wind changes directions and these air masses rise high into the sky, twirling the entire way and forming a tornado. They usually last only a few minutes, but during that time the wind speed is such that they can cause serious damage, if only to a very localized area.

Hurricanes

Hurricanes, or tropical cyclones as they are called in the scientific community, are perhaps capable of the most widespread damage and destruction of any natural disaster. On the other hand, we are able to spot hurricanes well in advance, giving people time to prepare for the worst. Hurricanes typically form in the warm waters off the coast of Africa. Warm air rises to the sky, creating a low-pressure situation below. When this happens, more warm air rushes in to fill that low-pressure area, and the same thing happens to it. An endless cycle is created, all of the wind rising and swirling and growing with nothing much to stop it (unless it hits land). Typically, the warmer the waters, the more powerful a hurricane has the potential to become.

Tags: this happens, When this, When this happens

Important Properties Of Bentonite

Bentonite is a geological extract found freely in its natural state. Bentonite is formed out of volcanic ash. It is a form of clay that consists of a primary mineral called montmorillonite that gives it its properties. Montmorillonite is a dual-layered, dual-dimensional mineral that has aluminum and silicate. These minerals give bentonite a layer of cards that look like crystalline packets and are called platelets. Bentonite is identified and used in this form. Mined from the earth's sedimentary layers, it is highly concentrated in the Midwest and Canada. In fact, it is estimated that Wyoming's geology houses more than two thirds of the world's bentonite. Bentonite can be calcium-based; potassium-based or sodium-based. Its properties in each of these states are varied and unique.

Physical Properties

As a form of sedimentary clay that is formed out of volcanic ash, Bentonite has a highly viscous, gel-like structure. This makes it ideal for use in many industries. It is primarily used in its physical state in the wine industry. Because of its physical properties, it is a useful binder in wine. When hydrated, it can change its molecular and electrical properties. This makes it porous, and useful as a binding agent.

Chemical Properties

Bentonite is a source of many useful chemicals. As a mineral, it is primarily composed of silica, which makes up almost two thirds of its substance. It also has smaller proportions of other minerals in varying ratios: aluminum, 18.1 percent; calcium, 0.04 percent; iron, 3.5 percent; magnesium, 1.7 percent; moisture, 7.8 percent; potential hydrogen, 8.3 to 9.1 percent; potassium, 0.01 percent; sodium, 2.3 percent and titanium, 0.02 percent. These minerals can be extracted from bentonite and used in various applications.

Healing Properties

Bentonite is used as a base in laxatives and many other medications. Since it is found deep in the earth's layers, bentonite is used for clay baths designed to purify the body of toxins. Since it is absorbent, it is also used to soak poisons from the body. Bentonite as a poultice on wounds has been in existence for a long time as a therapy. When used in this form, it is very useful in treating bug bites.

Tags: Properties Bentonite, clay that, formed volcanic, These minerals, this form, This makes, used this

Silurian Geologic Developments

The Appalachians towered as high as the Himalayas during the Silurian

The Silurian Period defined in the geological record, was sandwiched between the Ordivician and Devonian periods, and lasted from approximately 443 million to 416 million years ago. During the Silurian most of the world's organisms lived in the sea, and the disappearance of species from the fossil record as well as geological evidence suggests that there was a devastating mass extinction at the beginning of the period. Another important event was the closure of the Iapetus Ocean, which resulted in massive mountain-building events.

Movement of Continents

During the Silurian Period, the supercontinent Gondwana, consisting of Africa, South America, Australia, India and Madagascar, continued to travel south over the Southern Pole. Baltica, Laurentia, and Siberia were clustered around the equator. By the end of the Silurian, Baltica and Laurentia collided in the Caledonian and Appelachian Orogenic events. This led to the formation of the Euramerican supercontinent.

Mountain Building Events

The Iapetus Ocean was between the continents of Laurentia and Baltica. The closure of the ocean during the Silurian period brought the two continents together and resulted in a period of extensive mountain building. The Appalachian Mountains, on the eastern margin of Laurentia, and the Caledonian Mountains in Scotland were raised up as a result of the collision between the two continents. Geological evidence suggests that both these mountain ranges once equaled or, even surpassed, the Himalayas in height.

Ordivician Silurian Mass Extinction

The third-largest ever mass extinction discovered in the fossil record occurred at the end of the Ordivician and the beginning of the Silurian. Called the Ordivician-Silurian Mass Extinction, the event wiped out up to 85 percent of sea life in some regions. Evidence in the geological record, such as the presence of glacier-deposited dropstones among smaller rocks characteristic of a marine environment, indicate that the onset of glaciation may have been the culprit. Scientists theorize that the formation of a huge southern ice sheet may have caused a global drop in temperature and an eustatic sea-level, resulting in the mass extinction.

Locations of Silurian Rocks

Today, you can find few rocks belonging to the Silurian period in the Americas. Silurian rocks outcrop along the continents' primary mountainous regions, including the Appalachians, the Andes, and the Rockies. Searchers find the most considerable areas of Silurian rocks in Newfoundland and other regions of northern and eastern Canada. The main Silurian outcrops in Europe are in the regions where the Caledonian Mountains once reached towards the stratosphere. There are extensive Silurian outcrops in north-western and southern Africa, and important outcrops in the Ural Mountains, in eastern Russia. Australia also possesses some major outcrops.

Tags: mass extinction, Baltica Laurentia, between continents, Caledonian Mountains, evidence suggests, evidence suggests that, fossil record

Create A Timeline Of The Development Of Seismology

Create a Timeline of the Development of Seismology

Seismology is the study of the seismic waves that move through the surface of the earth. Earthquakes are the most obvious manifestation of these waves. Many of the fundamental breakthroughs in the study of seismology took place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but the field continues to advance. Creating a timeline of these developments is reasonably straightforward but involves some research and forward planning.

Instructions

1. Choose a timeframe to focus your research. The Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology begins its timeline with the publication of an academic article in 1676. Decide whether you want to go back that far or just focus on developments in, for example, the 20th century.

2. Decide what kinds of information you want to include. For example, developments within seismology can take place in the fields of acquisition, processing and interpretation of data. Decide whether you will include all these developments or choose a more limited selection.

3. Sketch out a rough timeline, including markers for each decade. For example, if your timeline only covers the 20th century, you could mark the timeline with the years 1900, 1910, 1920 and so on up to 2000. Leave space to make notes about important events.

4. Research the history of seismology at a library or using the internet. Add the information you find to your rough timeline. Bear in mind that some time periods have more developments than others.

5. Redraft your timeline into a final version once your research is complete.

Tags: 20th century, Create Timeline, Create Timeline Development, Decide whether, Development Seismology, rough timeline

Northwest Ontario Fishing Resorts

If fishing is what you like to do try a lake in northwest Ontario, Canada.

Northwest Ontario has more than 70,000 freshwater lakes. This area is north and west of Lake Superior, and west of Hudson Bay. The western boundary is the Canadian province of Manitoba. The northwestern region of Ontario remains sparsely populated with 52 percent of the population inhabiting the Thunder Bay area. The population is about 250,000 people for the entire region. The northwestern region of Ontario is dotted with numerous lakes that are ideal for fishing.

Howey Bay Resort

Howey Bay Resort is fishing and hunting resort located on Red Lake, Ontario, at the top of Highway 105, 110 miles north of the Trans-Canada Highway at Vermillion Bay. The resort is composed of cabins that are fully equipped with modern conveniences such as full kitchens with microwaves, dishwashers and refrigerators. Other amenities include wireless Internet, TV, gas grills and hot tubs. The largest cabins sleep eight and the smallest sleep four. The rates start at $695 and include a fully equipped boat, unlimited greens fees at local golf course, a fishing license, 15 gallons of gas per week and a lake map. This rate is for seven days. Other rates are available as of February 2010 depending on occupancy. There are no phones in the cabins but a satellite phone can be rented.

Howey Bay Resort

Box 349

Red Lake, Ontario, Canada POV 2MO

807-727-2782

howeybayresort.net

Kashabowie River Resort

Kashabowie River Resort is on the shore of Shebandowan Lake which is located off of Highway 11, and is northwest of Lake Superior. The Lake offers double and three-bedroom cabins for rent. The resort is renowned for its fabulous walleye, whitefish, lake trout and smallmouth bass fishing. Moose hunts are also available. All cabins come with full kitchens, barbecue grills and microwaves. In addition, there is an on- site laundromat and a store for provisions. The cabin resort is open from May 15 to October 15 each year. As of 2010, rates start at $105 for one night. Children under 12 stay free. Motor boat rentals start at $20 per day for 14-foot boat.

Kashabowie River Resort

1 Kash River Rd.

Kashabowie, Ontario Canada, POT 1Y0

807-926-2442

kashabowie.com

Tomahawk Resort

Tomahawk Resort is a houseboat, cottage and R.V. park resort that has great fishing and fabulous lakeside views of the Canadian wilderness. The resort is 90 miles north of the Canada-United States border, and 50 miles south of Kenora, off Highway 71. Tomahawk has two-bedroom, three-bedroom and five-bedroom cottages for rent, and they all include all the modern conveniences, wireless Internet, full kitchens, satellite TV and fireplaces. As of 2010, weekly rates start at $650 for two people for the week. Pets are $100 extra. Children stay free. Houseboat rentals start at $1075 per person for a four-person boat 17 feet long and with a 50 horsepower motor. Children 10 and under cruise free with a minimum of four paying people. A fishing license is included in rate. Boats come equipped with a generator, flat-screen TV, a kitchenette, satellite radio, GPS and sonar, a shower, and a barbecue grill. The R.V. park rates start at $38 per day. Pets are $4 extra. All sites are full hook up, water and power, and the sites are close to the lake.

Tomahawk Resort

PO Box 29 F

Sioux Narrows, Ontario, Canada POX 1N0

800-465-1091

tomahawkresort.com

Tags: Ontario Canada, rates start, full kitchens, Howey Resort, Kashabowie River

What Causes Geologic Tilting

Tilting typically occurs before and after earthquakes.

Geologic tilting, also known as tectonic tilting, occurs when the earth's surface layers begin to tilt or slant irregularly. Geologists have studied the tilts of land, lakes and other bodies of water for hundreds of years and developed different theories to account for geologic tilting. Although there is disagreement about certain causes of tilting, it is generally accepted that tilting can occur as a result of faults (vertical and horizontal), angular unconformity and disturbances to the earth's magnetic field.

Vertical Faults

A fault is a crack or fissure in the earth's crust. Typically, faults cause movement in the earth's surface, triggering phenomena like earthquakes. One kind of movement that faults trigger is vertical. For instance, when mountains or tall elevation in the earth's surface crack, mountain blocks (the layers of the earth that form the mountain) move relative to the fault and displace the ground surface. The displacement of the surface may be mild or severe but typically causes tilting or irregularity in the surrounding land.

Horizontal Faults

Horizontal cracks can occur underneath the earth's surface or on the surface. The latter are known as surface fault ruptures. Horizontal faults, like vertical faults, disturb the formation of the earth's layers and cause irregularities, including tilting. Surface fault ruptures can also cause tectonic subsidence, which is broad tilting of the valley floor. When valley floors tilt, lakes and reservoirs near the valley floor flood and tributary courses are disturbed.

Angular Unconformity

Angular unconformity also causes geologic tilting. Angular unconformity occurs when parallel strata of sedimentary rocks are deposited on layers that are tilted, perhaps as a result of erosion. In short, new layers of sedimentary rocks are compressed on top of layers that are already deformed and tilting, thereby exacerbating tilting and causing further angular discordance.

Changes to Magnetic Field

Disturbances in the earth's magnetic field also cause geologic tilting. Diverse phenomena have the potential to disturb the earth's magnetic field, including passing comets or fluctuations in the sun's magnetic field. No matter when magnetization is disturbed, the terrestrial axis of the earth is altered. This causes all kinds of geologic and climatological imbalances, including the tilting of lakes and layers of the earth's surface because of subcrust migration. Essentially, the displacement of magnetic poles causes crustal displacements and other irregularities by dislocating (even over hundreds of years) the underlying strata of the earth.

Tags: earth surface, magnetic field, earth magnetic, earth magnetic field, also cause, causes tilting

Polish Slabs That Decorate Your Yard

Many people spend a great deal of time making sure their yards look just right. Lawns are watered and fertilized, hedges are trimmed with care and optimal plants and flowers are chosen to accent every aspect of the area. Polished slabs are also used in walkways, walls or as borders to give your outdoors a, pardon the pun, polished look. If you want to polish the slabs yourself, there are several things to consider. Does this Spark an idea?

Organizing Your Materials

Gather all the materials you need before you begin. This includes rags, a polishing compound and sandpaper ranging from the rough 80 grit to the fine 600 grit. You will want about 10 grits of sandpaper. You will also need a bucket of water in which to dip your cloth when you wipe away the grit after sanding the slabs. Choose a location to polish your slabs where the mess won't matter or put down some plastic sheets to catch the mess.

Only Polish Visible Portions

If the slab will be placed on the ground, you don't need to polish the bottom. Simply polish the top and sides of the slab. If the slab will be placed as part of a wall, only polish the part that will be visible.The exception is if the stone is at the top of the wall. In this case, you'll need to polish the top and side of the slab as well.

Be Patient

Avoid the temptation to rush when you're polishing a slab. Use a back and forth motion with the sandpaper, wiping with the cloth as you work. Start with the 80 grit sandpaper and do as much as you can with it before moving on to the next stronger grit. Remember to wipe the stone with the wet cloth after each sanding. By doing so, you'll remove the previous grit and make the subsequent sanding go more smoothly.

Use Protection

Wear eye protection while you are sanding as rock grit in the eyes can be both painful and dangerous. You should also wear gloves, since one slip the wrong way with the sandpaper could result in a nasty cut, especially if you are working with a very jagged rock. If you are asthmatic or particularly sensitive to inhaled dust, you should also wear a dust mask to keep the particles out.

Tags: also wear, need polish, should also, should also wear, slab will, slab will placed

Natural Science Activities

Children love exploring natural science.

The natural world holds the mysterious wonders of life and the hidden secrets of science. This wonderment can be introduced to children through a few nature activities that will teach them about the patterns, structures, cycles and design of the natural world.

Leaf Rubbing

Leaf rubbings demonstrate to children that plants contain capillaries that transport water throughout the plant to keep it hydrated. To make a leaf rubbing, place a plain, white sheet of 8.5- by 11-inch paper on top of a fresh leaf, and color over the surface of the paper with a crayon, charcoal or pastels. The impression of the leaf will show through onto the paper.

Seed Planting

Planting a seed and watching it grow out of the soil demonstrates to children what plants need to develop. To plant seeds, fill paper cups with soil and place an individual seed into the middle of the soil. Pour a small amount of water onto the soil, and place the cup onto a window sill or in a sunny location. After a few weeks, the seed will begin to sprout into a new plant.

Soil Separation

Conducting a soil separation experiment teaches children that the soil in their backyards is composed of more than one type of material. To make a soil separation experiment, dig up around three cups of soil from the ground, and pour it into a glass mason jar. Fill the jar up with water, and screw the lid on tightly. Shake the jar vigorously for one minute, then place it onto a desk or a flat surface. Allow the jar to remain untouched for about one day. The different materials in the soil will separate inside the jar.

Tags: children that, natural world, place onto, separation experiment, soil place, soil separation, soil separation experiment

Marble Vs Quartzite

Marble and quartzite are rocks that are at once both similar and dissimilar. Though they share certain functions and physical features, marble and quartzite differ from each other in chemistry, formation, durability, source locations and commercial viability.

Chemistry

Marble is a mineral that is made up of calcite (calcium carbonate, CaCo3). Chemical impurities add to this formula, as do physical inclusions. Quartzite, unlike marble, is not a mineral. It is made up of quartz sandstone, a sedimentary rock. Due to being mostly quartz its basic chemical formula is SiO2 (silicon dioxide, the same as quartz). It too can include impurities, both physical and chemical.

Formation

Both quartzite and marble are metamorphic rocks, meaning that although they undergo change via pressure and heat they don't melt. Marble comes from dolostone (limestone with dolomite) or limestone. Quartzite comes from quartz sandstone when the quartz grains of the sandstone are fused due to pressure and heat. Both quartzite and marble tend to form via regional metamorphism (more pressure than heat) and contact metamorphism (more heat than pressure). Also a shared feature is their tendency to form more often from regional metamorphism.

Marble Features

Marble is a non-foliated (cannot be broken into layers) metamorphic rock that is white when pure and is stronger than the rock from which it forms (parent rock). It possesses weak chemical bonds (is susceptible to attack from acids), and easy to carve and polish. Marble may also become foliated when it forms in limestone that is alternately layered with shale. Due to chemical impurities in the parent rock, marble can take on color such as green, pink, black or gray, and may also have physical inclusions such as mica, chlorite, wollastonite and garnet. The veracity of a stone that may be marble can be verified by placing an acid on it to see if the stone chemically reacts. If the stone really is marble it will fizz on contact with the acid.

Quartzite Features

Like marble, quartzite is non-foliated, metamorphic, white when pure, and is stronger than its parent rock. Also like marble it can form in a range of colors (including purple, green blue, brown, yellow and black) depending on the parent rock's mineral impurities, but commonly it appears as a dark gray or light pink. Unlike marble, quartzite is a tough mineral, being very resistant to both mechanical weathering (physical abrasion) and chemical weathering. Also distinguishing for quartzite is that it breaks across its quartz grains, due to being made of fused quartz, unlike regular sandstone, which breaks into grains.

Function

Quartzite is used as a construction material for such items as roof tiles, steps, walling material and flooring material, and is also used for railway ballast. More pure quartzite can be used to make ferrosilicon, silicon carbide and silica sand. Marble is also used in buildings, for such things as floor tiles, counter tops, tabletops and lavatories. However, marble is also used for monuments and sculpture, where white marble is most popular.

Location

Marble is found around the planet, notably in Italy, Turkey, Poland, Spain, China, Ireland, Greece, Mexico, Afghanistan, Tyrol, Austria, Argentina, Canada, Norway and the United States. Within the United States marble sources of note include Vermont, Colorado, Tennessee, Georgia and Alabama.

Quartzite is also found in a large range of places, including: the United Kingdom, Australia, Sweden, the Czech Republic, Norway, Italy, Pakistan, South Africa, Canada and the United States. In the United States it is notably found the Eastern states such as Pennsylvania and New York, but is also found in Montana, Pennsylvania, Idaho, South Dakota, Minnesota, Arizona and Wisconsin.

Tags: parent rock, United States, also used, marble quartzite, also found, Both quartzite, Both quartzite marble

Intersting Facts About Neptune

Neptune is a distant planet with 13 moons that is so far from the Sun that astronomers on Earth did not detect it until 1846. Neptune's size dwarfs the Earth, but life as we know it could not exist there.

Giant World

Neptune is 30 times more distant from the Sun than Earth is, and it is so large that if it were a hollow sphere 60 planets the size of Earth would fit inside it.

Smallish Core

Although Neptune is 30,760 miles in diameter, it is thought that the planet's core, which scientists think comprises an inner core of molten rock and an outer core of melted ices, is no larger than the mass equivalent of the Earth.

Discovery

Neptune's discovery was the result of mathematical calculations by astronomers who plotted where a heavenly body would be to cause the discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus that scientists had noticed.

One Orbit

Neptune orbits the sun at an average of 2.77 billion miles from it, making it the eighth planet in the solar system. Since Neptune requires so long to complete a single orbit of the Sun--165 years--it will be 2011 before it completes a full orbit since its discovery in 1846.

Methane

The large amounts of methane gas present on Neptune absorb the red spectrum of light and give the planet its blue hue. The clouds in the atmosphere are more than likely methane crystals.

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Enjoy Mud Volcano In Yellowstone National Park

The Mud Volcano area is one of the thermal areas in Yellowstone National Park. It has in the past proven to be one of the more volatile thermal areas in the park. It is composed of mud pots and steam vents, called fumaroles; steam and gasses like hydrogen sulfide—the source of the smell that most people compare to rotten eggs—bubble through the mud. Although there are no proper geysers here, the gasses make the mud appear to boil or even erupt.

Instructions

1. Drive to the Mud Volcano area. It is on the road between Canyon Junction and Yellowstone Lake. As you drive north on this road, it is not far past LeHardy Rapids on the Yellowstone River; as you drive south, it is just past the end of the large, open area called Hayden Valley. The area may be easier to find simply because it is so congested. The speed limit drops from 45 to 25 mph, and the traffic usually thickens. As you creep through the area, look for parking areas on either side of the road.

2. Park in the smaller lot to see Sulphur Caldron; the lot is more like a turnout. Sulphur Caldron itself can act as an introduction to the area. Like many features here, it is a thing of extremes. In this case, it is an extreme of acidity, Sulphur Caldron being among the most acidic of the hot springs in Yellowstone. The pH has been measured at 1.3.

3. Move to the larger parking lot, on the other side of the road and a short distance south. From here, you can set out into the Mud Volcano area proper. A loop trail, with some side trails, begins in the parking lot. You can start at either the north or south end of the trail.

4. Start at the south end, and it will take you up the hill toward Sour Lake, a large pool of acidic water. This loop hike is the only part of the visit that will be challenging for some people, since the trail is steep. It will take you past Cooking Hillside, where a swarm of earthquakes in the late 1970s changed the local geology and allowed greater heat to reach the surface, killing all the vegetation in this area.

5. Descend from Sour Lake on the other side of the loop trail to pass Mud Volcano itself and finish at Dragon’s Mouth Spring, a favorite of many visitors for the rhythmic bursts of water and steam that issue from the cave where the spring has its opening.

Tags: Sulphur Caldron, Volcano area, loop trail, National Park, other side, side road, Sour Lake

Supplies For A Lab In Paleontology

A mosaic of fossil ammonites.

Paleontology labs can be either really interesting or really dull. Part of what can make paleontology more interesting are various supplies and tools that help provide more details and insight into the rocks and fossils that you likely will examine during a lab. Most of these tools are not commonly available in most shops but can be ordered online through science suppliers.

Magnifying Loupe

A magnifying loupe is probably the most important tool in a paleontology lab. They often are called jeweler's loupes, and they appear as an ocular that folds up into a metal case. They are usually either 10x or 30x magnification, commonly threaded by a string and worn as a necklace. Users hold the loupe to the eye and then bring the fossil into focus. The loupe will show you abundant details not easily observed by the naked eye and help you understand tiny things by observing them.

Geology Notebook

While some paleontology classes will have only normal indoor labs, many paleontology classes take field trips to nearby or possibly distant destinations. A geologist field notebook is a special type of notebook is needed for excursions and also very useful for class. They tend to be bound in bright covers, which makes them easy to see if you misplace them on an excursion. Many also have waterproof pages so that the notes you take in class or outdoors won't be lost in the rain. Some even have basic geology information and angle tables in the front pages that are very useful when conducting paleontology in the field.

Mason's Hammer

You most likely will not need your own Mason's Hammer for indoor labs, but they're very important if you go on outdoor paleontology expeditions. Geologists commonly use Mason's Hammers because they are designed with a flat edge on one end of the hammer head that can be used to pry up rocks. If you decide to purchase a Mason's Hammer, make sure you get one that is full metal with a rubber handle; wooden hammers run the risk of breaking.

Diluted Hydrochloric Acid

Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is extremely dangerous and commonly not available. A lab instructor or lab technician should supply it in a diluted form.

Hydrochloric acid is very useful for identifying limestone, dolomite and other rocks both in an indoor lab and in the field. HCl will bubble and fizz when it touches a rock that contains carbonate. Rocks heavy in carbonates, such as limestone, will bubble more than low carbonate rocks, such as dolomite. Rocks without carbonates, such as black shale or igneous rocks, will not bubble at all. This helps identify what kind of rock you're examining, which is very important in paleontology.

Field Gear

For outdoor labs or field trips, essential gear includes boots, long pants and a hat. A good pair of hiking boots is important for long hikes through areas with rocks and plants. Long pants provide protection from plants (even some cacti), the sun and insects and softens scratches from rocks. A hat is essential protection from the sun and helps prevent heat stroke; it also provides some protection from rain and insects.

Always drink lots of water during an outdoor field trip to avoid dehydration.

Tags: Mason Hammer, protection from, very useful, will bubble, carbonates such, commonly available, field trips

Does The Type Of Soil Affect The Ph Of Water

A variety of levels, called horizons, lurks below the garden topsoil.

Gardeners match the plant to the soil's pH and texture. The term pH refers to the level of acidity in the soil. Many gardeners do not analyze how the soil itself contributes to its pH. That may be because pH is a function of chemistry rather than compost. Does this Spark an idea?

All Soil Is Not the Same

All soil descends from rock, erosion, dead plants and animals.

The soil in the garden is the result of eons worth of rock erosion, chance collisions with space debris and millions of years of living organism growth and death without people raking up or burying the debris. Beginning as gravel and sand, soil becomes silt and then clay, as its components become ever smaller. Areas rich in organic matter develop quick-draining loam; deserts remain sandy with patches of marginally fertile soil; and riverbeds fill with silt, creating layers of different major types of soil, called series. Soil tests classify soil series and subgroup as well as nutrient content and acidity or alkalinity.

Soil Differences

Water gets minerals, hydrogen and hydroxides from soil.

The geologic and climatological events that shaped soil differed across the shifting continents, leaving differing mixtures of minerals, organic matter, liquid and gases in each eon's layer of soil. The soil created was not a compound but a mixture of compounds, some with unsecured hydrogen ions and others with excess hydroxides. Weather patterns and agricultural chemicals further altered soil types.

Determining pH

Indicators react with acids or alkali suspended in water.

Tests for the level of acidity in the soil begin with a solution of soil in distilled water. Chemicals, called indicators turn colors when added to the solution as they encounter hydrogen ions and hydroxides. The color created by the indicators corresponds to a scale from 0 to 14 representing degree of acidity or alkalinity of the water. This is the test that homeowners rely upon to decide whether to add lime or sulfur to change the soil's pH.

Soil and Water

Adjacent soils contribute to water's pH.

Bodies of water are not insulated from the soils around them, and water travels downward through aquifers, layers of soil and rock. Calcium, sulfur, potassium and other chemicals leach from the soil and aquifer into the water body affecting the water's pH. Smaller bodies of water may acquire more alkalinity or acidity, but larger bodies draw from a larger soil sample. Bodies of water are part of a water cycle. Water evaporates and forms clouds that condense and fall to earth as precipitation. On its way through the evaporation and condensation phases, gases such as sulfur dioxide contribute to water's pH. As the water passes through watersheds and rivers, soil contributes the chemicals that determine the pH of earth's waters.

Tags: acidity alkalinity, acidity soil, contribute water, from soil, hydrogen ions

The Top 10 Dinosaur Museums

There are a number of fine dinosaur museums all over the world.

There are many dinosaur museums throughout the world, but the best are determined here by the number of dinosaurs or other paleontological exhibits that can be viewed, the way in which they are displayed and by the overall experience of the visitor. The entire world is taken into account, making this grouping of dinosaur museums as complete as possible.

Prehistoric World, Ontario

This is an outdoor museum in Morrisburg, Ontario, Canada. There are more than 50 dinosaur exhibits spread throughout the grounds.

Prehistoric World

Upper Canada Road

Morrisburg, Ontario, Canada

613-543-2503

c360.ca/morrisburg/pw

The Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County

Hundreds of dinosaur parts can be examined here, including a rare dinosaur footprint. Particularly interesting about this museum is the fact that visitors can watch paleontologists at work cleaning and setting the bones for display.

The Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County

900 Exposition Blvd.

Los Angeles, CA 90007

213-763-DINO

nhm.org

Peabody Museum of Natural History, New Haven, Connecticut

This museum is on the campus of Yale University and was founded by philanthropist George Peabody. This is one of the oldest dinosaur museums in the world where some of the earliest and most historic finds in paleontology are on display.

Peabody Museum of Natural History

Yale University

P.O. Box 208118

New Haven, CT 06520-8118

peabody.yale.edu

Page Museum, Los Angeles, California

Page Museum holds the fossils taken from the La Brea Tar Pits. Not only are the Tar Pits located directly outside the museum but visitors can watch as new additions are made to the exhibits each day.

Page Museum at the La Brea Tar Pits

5801 Wilshire Blvd.

Los Angeles, CA 90036

323-934-7243

tarpits.org

American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York

There are almost a million fossil exhibits here, and among them are two large dinosaur halls. Impressively, about 80 percent of the displays are made of genuine bones rather than casts.

American Museum of Natural History

Central Park West at 79th St.

New York, NY 10024

212-769-5606

newyorkjourney.com

Museum of the Rockies, Bozeman, Montana

Located in western Montana, the museum is in the midst of modern day hunting grounds for dinosaur remains. Its director, Dr. Jack Horner had been advisor to the Jurassic Park movies and has built an impressive paleontological display here. While there are not a lot of physical specimens at this site, there are many displays giving crucial insight into dinosaur activity.

Museum of the Rockies

600 W. Kagy Blvd.

Bozeman, MT 59717-2730

406-994-2251

museumoftherockies.org

Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

This is the oldest natural history museum in the United States. It is home to the largest dinosaur fossil yet discovered, Gigantosaurus. Along with the newly designed dinosaur hall, visitors will find interactive displays in which to take part and gain firsthand knowledge of paleontology.

Academy of Natural Sciences

1900 Benjamin Franklin Parkway

Philadelphia, PA 19103-1101

215-299-1000

ansp.org/museum

Wyoming Dinosaur Center, Thermopolis, Wyoming

This museum is right in the middle of an active dig site. There are over 50 locations visitors can explore where dinosaur bones are being actively unearthed. Inside the nearby indoor museum there are many displays to show what becomes of the specimens once they are taken out of the ground.

Wyoming Dinosaur Center

110 Carter Ranch Road

Thermopolis, WY 82443

307-864-2997

wyodino.org

Smithsonian's National Musem of Natural History , Washington, DC

This is a historic site whose collection of dinosaur specimens is also historic. The fossils on display include many that had been unearthed during the earliest days of dinosaur hunting. The site has also recently been renovated to add to the enjoyment of discovery. Located in the nation's capital, it is within easy reach of all forms of public transportation.

Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History

10th Street & Constitution Ave. NW

Washington, DC 20560

202-633-1000

mnh.si.edu

Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois

The collection highlight is the great skeleton of the Brachiosaurus. This museum strikes a visitor with its sheer vertical height, which seems like a natural setting for such huge monsters of the past. The large selection of dinosaurs seems at home in this setting as if they had been captured and set loose in these great halls.

Field Museum of Natural History

1400 South Lake Shore Drive

Chicago, IL 60605

312-922-9410

fieldmuseum.org

Tags: Natural History, Museum Natural, Museum Natural History, dinosaur museums, Museum Angeles, Page Museum, Academy Natural

Get A Paleontology Degree

Paleontologists can study fossilized remains.

Paleontology is the study of fossil organisms and other types of historical remains. This includes fossils of dinosaurs, but there is much more to a career in paleontology than searching for dinosaur bones. Paleontology is a broad scientific discipline that requires knowledge of other areas of science, including biology, physics and geology.

Instructions

1. Find a list of schools that have paleontology programs through a resource, such as uscollegesearch.org. Keep in mind that just because a school offers paleontology courses, it doesn't mean that you can earn a degree in paleontology. When researching specific schools, read over the list of various courses available, and if possible, locate the published work of the school's paleontology professors. This will give you some insight as to what each school's program specializes in, whether it's dinosaur fossils, plant fossils or something else. It is also important to ask professors whether the majority of the learning will take place in the classroom setting, in museums or out in the field.

2. Know what to expect in terms of time. A bachelor's program will take four to five years, a master's program will take another two or three years, and a Ph.D. program, if desired, will take another year or two. Since many paleontologists earn a Ph.D., find out whether universities offer the chance to get your master's degree and your Ph.D. within the same extended program.

3. Learn more about the individual interests of each paleontology program you're considering. Visit the departments and talk with academic advisers, as well as the professors who head up the program. You can also read published works by the professors to get an idea of what they focus on within the field of paleontology.

4. Apply for the programs you might want to attend. Applications to graduate programs are highly competitive. You should apply to as many schools as you can to give yourself options when it comes time to choose a program.

5. Complete the requirements for the paleontology degree program you're accepted to and decide to attend. The requirements for this type of program are much more than just coursework. You will likely have field work as well. Internships, extracurricular activities and research can also be expected of program participants. You may be required to publish work before you can receive your paleontology degree.

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Create A Flash Map Online

The famed line "If you build it, he will come" from the 1989 film "Field of Dreams," might not have played so well in the Internet age. If you want website visitors to find your physical business or organization, you need to show them find you. Sending potential clients or contacts to an outside source like MapQuest or Google Maps adds just one more step to the task of finding your location. Make it easy for people to come to you by creating a Flash map online to add to your website.

Instructions

1. Make a flash map at MapsAlive (see Resources). This online map creation site offers a free 12-month membership to try out the service as well as paid memberships with more features and the ability to load your maps to your computer or server.

2. Use iMapBuilder Online to create a Flash map (see Resources). The Interactive Image Map Making Tool runs from your browser and allows you to customize premade maps or import a custom image. iMapBuilder Online offers a free trial, after which you can choose from a range of membership plans.

3. Create a flash map online with UMapper (see Resources). This website offers a free basic membership with limited features and two paid levels of membership. You can embed and distribute UMapper maps to blogs and social networks as well as websites.

Tags: offers free, iMapBuilder Online, Resources This

Fossil Dating Techniques

The most common fossil dating techniques are radiometric dating techniques. Radiometric dating uses knowledge of the decay rates of unstable (radioactive) nuclei to determine, by comparison with the proportion of stable nuclei in a fossil sample, the date of the introduction of the radioactive material into the live organism, especially if the isotope was ingested while the organism was alive.

Carbon dating is the commonly known dating technique, but only dates accurately back to 60,000 years. Isotopes with longer half-lives must be employed to date older fossils. Therefore potassium-argon is the most used technique for dating fossils.

Carbon dating

The radioactive isotope carbon-14 is renewed in the upper atmosphere by cosmic neutrons striking nitrogen gas. Living organisms ingest the atmospheric ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-14, and the ratio of C-14 to C-12 drops within fossils as the C-14 decays radioactively.

The atmospheric ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-14 has varied over the millennia; therefore, calibration is required. Layers of ice in glacial ice sheet samples contain bubbles of ancient atmosphere dating back thousands of years. Using the gas bubbles to determine the isotopic ratios in ancient atmospheres, one can carbon-date organic remains, including fossils, as far back as 60,000 years.

Potassium-argon dating

Since the half-life of carbon-14 is only 5,730 years, carbon dating can be used on only the youngest fossils. The half-life of potassium-40 is 1.3 million years. And since potassium is an essential mineral ingested by organisms, it exists in animals' fossil remains.

Potassium-40 decays to argon-40, a gas, but fortunately the argon gas remains trapped in the rock until heated tremendously, e.g. by vulcanism. The ratio of the parent nuclide to daughter nuclide indicates how long ago the potassium has been solidified in rock.

Unfortunately, only 11 of 100 decayed K-40 atoms become argon-40, and only one of every 10,000 potassium atoms is the K-40 isotope; fortunately, potassium is one of the most abundant minerals on the Earth's surface.

Argon-argon dating

Argon contamination can reduce the accuracy of potassium-argon dating. Argon-39 is a decay element of potassium-39, and the ratio of potassium isotopes is known. Therefore, an alternative method is to find the relative amounts of argon-40 and argon-39, to determine and subtract out exogenous argon.

Furthermore, having to determine absolute amounts of argon entails heating to over a thousand degrees, making accuracy difficult to achieve. Equipment determining the isotope ratios has avoided the problem, via laser heating and mass spectrometry.

Tags: atmospheric ratio, atmospheric ratio carbon-12, back years, Carbon dating, carbon-12 carbon-14

How Is A Garnet Made

Garnets are mined in North America, Australia and Asia and are often used to make jewelry.

The term "garnet" actually describes a large family of minerals that are chemically related. While most people are familiar with the red garnet gemstone found in jewelry, natural garnets may actually be any color except blue and have been used for other purposes including sandpaper. Garnets are made through natural processes over thousands of years, though recent technologies have allowed for the production of synthetic garnets that may be designed in any color. Does this Spark an idea?

Natural Processes

The word "garnet" comes from the Latin granatus, or "like a grain". This describes the way grain-like crystals are embedded in the stone. Garnets come from silicate based stones and are related due to their chemical properties. Garnets, like other minerals, are formed from natural forces wearing away at stones. These forces include wind, water and the natural shifts of the Earth's plates. Garnets in particular are often found in river beds, indicating that water is a particularly important force in the creation of this precious mineral. The stone is worn away to reveal and polish the garnet, which is then harvested and processed.

Chemical Make-up

Garnets all share the same basic chemical formula: A3, B2 (SiO4)3, though this formula may lead to different variations. "A" either stands in for calcium, magnesium, ferrous iron or manganese and "B" represents aluminum, ferric iron, chromium or even titanium (rare). The SiO represents the silicate component of the mineral and the non-variable that relates the garnet family.

Types

There are six types of common garnets that may be divided into two groups, Pyralspite and Ugrandite. Pyralspite garnets are those with Aluminum as their second element and include Pyrope, Almandine and Spessartine. Ugrandite garnets have Calcium as their first element and include Uvarovite, Grossular and Andradite. Pyrope is perhaps the most well-known type of garnet and has that deep red color the garnet gemstone is famous for. Most of the Pyralspite garnets are variations of red, brown and orange. Ugrandite garnets have a wider range of colors, from colorless to green, yellow, pink, white, brown and even black. The variations in chemical formulas allow for garnets of different types of beauty but all garnets retain their silicate properties and crystalline structure.

Where Garnets Are Made

Garnets are naturally made all over the world but the largest and highest quality garnet deposits are found in North America, Australia, East Africa and Asia (specifically India and Russia). Garnets have different characteristics depending on their natural region. For example, the star garnet has been mined in Idaho and India but is very rare anywhere else. Garnet deposits are primarily found in river beds and mountain regions of these countries.

Synthetic Garnets

In the 1970s, geologist John Wiley of the University of Wisconsin developed a method of creating synthetic garnets, which he called "Gadolinium Gallium Garnets". These garnets can take on properties that a natural garnet does not have, including magnetic properties. They can be any color and can be produced without imperfections. Wiley used a data-storage tactic he called "bubble memory" in which magnetic spots within the matrix of the garnet could be used to physically grow the garnet. While the making of synthetic garnets is not a widespread practice, it is interesting to note that technology may now be used to synthetically grow minerals and precious stones.

Tags: America Australia, element include, found river, found river beds, garnet gemstone, garnets have