Geologists study the Earth, its resources and its activity.
Geologists use a critical eye to look at the Earth and learn more about its past, present and future. From inspecting materials such as oil and water to tracking activities including volcanic eruptions and tsunamis, geologists combine a passion for science and history to understand our planet. With the wide variety of work geologists undertake, understanding compensation levels can better equip those entering the field.
National Averages
According to PayScale's collection of data from nearly 1,000 geologists, a national average salary ranges from $42,450 to $61,980. This range includes bonus pay and profit-sharing income. These figures are accurate as of December 2010.
Starting Salary
PayScale's data also shows that geologists with less than one year of experience have salaries ranging from $34,530 to $51,901. This figure gives career-seekers an adequate estimate of what to expect as a starting salary. After one to four years in the field, averages range from $40,242 to $53,926.
Location
Whether a geologist is just getting started or is experienced in the profession, location plays a role in terms of compensation. According to PayScale, Texas ranks first with top average salaries $93,863. In a distant second is California, with its highest averages just above $67,000. Pennsylvania, Georgia and New York each have top averages around $57,000.
Benefits
Those considering the starting salaries for geologists must also take non-cash benefits into account. PayScale shows that 91 percent of those working in geology receive medical coverage from their employer. Additionally, 74 percent are given dental care and 57 percent receive vision care.
Diamond drilling is an essential part of mineral exploration.
Diamond drilling is a technique used for mineral exploration. Diamond is a strong material and industrial diamonds, not diamonds used for jewelry, are sometimes used to make tools for the mining industry. Diamond drilling is used to ascertain if a site will be mined or not. A diamond drilling system has a rotary drill, the drill rod and the diamond bit. There are many careers you can pursue related to diamond drilling.
Surface Diamond Driller
Surface drillers tear down and transport drilling materials and supplies. When they get to a new location, they organize the new drill setup. They install safety devices, fences, barriers and other necessary aspects in the field. They keep daily drill logs and reports. Once drilling commences, they check for hazardous gases and conduct operational checks on the drill.
Driller's Assistant
A driller's assistant (also called a driller's offsider) helps the crew set up, operate and move drilling equipment. They connect hoses for water, air and power supplies. Assistants may help obtain mineral core samples, plan and execute mud pits and drains, test drilling fluids and chemicals, help insert casing screens, lend a hand to welders, operate air and water pumps, and fix drill hole problem with tools and equipment. Driller's assistants also do routine maintenance and minor repairs. Maintaining equipment and camp sites may also fall within their responsibilities.
Geologist
Geologists work in the diamond drilling arena because their expertise in minerals is essential. They plan and carry out the diamond drill layouts for exploration. They keep logs about the drilling and the core. They assist the chief geologist and are responsible for whatever accountabilities he has specified. Ideally, geologists would have a degree in geology or geological engineering.
Senior Mining Planning Engineer
A senior mining planning engineer's responsibilities vary from mine site to mine site but they usually prepare budgets and plans, complete conceptual studies, partake in long-term mine planning and forecasting, complete conceptual studies on mineral samples, monitor the engineering systems, keep track of business processes, ascertain make improvements and ensure work safety.
Diamond Drill Foreman
Another career in diamond drilling is the diamond drill foreman. They ensure that all drilling personnel follow safety standards, are properly trained and mentored, and that contractors are working properly. In essence, the foreman offers leadership to the personnel. The foreman minimizes loss and maximizes productivity through preventative maintenance. Foremen make sure the equipment is set up properly and according to prearranged standards, including safety standards. The foreman ensures accurate reporting and current inventory. When it's time to move to a new site, the foreman is responsible for making the move efficient and safe.
Geologic processes affect the landforms on our planet's surface.
Landforms are the natural, physical features of our planet's surface, or landscape. The shape and form (morphology) identifies the various landforms. Geologic processes are natural forces that change landforms, and other areas of the earth's surface. Changes caused by geologic processes constantly happen in both large and small ways. Changes are sometimes so gradual they are noticed only in retrospect
Glaciers
Glaciers are landforms that form when the winter snowfall exceeds the amount that can melt during the summer. The layers of snow turn into ice crystals, and compact into a huge mass of ice. The pressure caused by its enormous weight slowly makes the glacier move over the surface of the land.
Hills
Hills are landforms that rise higher than the land surrounding them, but are not as high as a mountain. Hills form in several ways. One way is when glaciers pushed rock and sand debris as they slowly crept over the land, forming the hills. Volcanoes, faults, disturbances in the earth's crust and erosion are other ways natural hills form.
Mountains
Mountains are landforms of steep land elevations that are higher than hills. Volcanoes, erosion and disturbances of the earth's crust cause mountain formation. Geologists believe most mountains form from plate tectonics, the movement of the earth's crust and changes under the crust caused by heat and pressure.
Plains
Plains are landforms with large areas of mostly flat land. They are typically at a lower elevation than the land surrounding them, but may occur at high elevations.
Plateaus
Plateaus are landforms with large areas of primarily flat land that rise steeply above the surrounding land. They form from lava flow, erosion of nearby areas or an upward lift in the earth's crust.
Valleys
Valleys are elongated, trough-like areas of land. Valleys form because of the geologic process of erosion by rivers or glaciers as they move between higher landforms, such as hills or mountains.
Erosion and Weathering
The geologic process of weathering causes small bits of rock in the surface layer of the earth to break apart. Several natural factors cause weathering, such as plant roots, expansion caused by freezing water, running water, animals that burrow into the ground, extreme temperature variations, wind, salt and natural chemical processes. Erosion carries the small particles and soil away from the area, resulting in a wearing away of the earth's surface. Water causes a powerful erosion process.
Impact Cratering
Impact cratering is a geologic process caused when objects from outside the earth's atmosphere hit our planet's surface and leave a depression.
Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is a geologic process theory that the earth's surface is broken down into 12 plates. The plates move around on the mantle, sometimes pushing against each other, or sliding on top of each other. When this happens, faults appear that cause volcano, earthquake and mountain formations.
Tags: earth crust, geologic process, earth surface, planet surface, with large areas
Rocks, such as stalactites, make creative and interesting science projects.
In middle school, geology is one main focus for science classes and projects. There are a lot of projects that can stem from rocks and minerals. You can use these projects to better educate yourself, your classmates, and your parents about the properties, types, and influence of certain rocks and minerals.
Desert Wash
Explore the particle sizes of a desert wash. If you live in a desert climate, collect samples from different areas of the desert and study the components of each sample. Using a microscope, test whether the size of the particles in the desert wash will decrease as you gather samples from further down in the surface. Another test could inquire as to whether the area in which you obtained the samples affects particle size as well.
Stalactite and Stalagmites
Attempt to recreate the environment in which stalactites and stalagmites are formed. Calcite is commonly formed in caves, and is one of the common ingredients that make up these rock formations. To attempt to form stalactites or stalagmites at home, you should use minerals that resemble calcite, such as baking soda, washing soda, and Epsom salt.
Fill six jars with these solutions mixed with water, two of each mineral, and place them on a windowsill. For your conclusion, study which solution forms the largest stalactites and stalagmites. Bring your rock formations into the class to demonstrate your hard work and enforce your conclusions.
Salinity's Effects
Another creative project that you can perform is to test the affects of various levels of salinity on rocks over time. The levels of salinity should represent the salinity of the waters of the world. Submerge different types of rock into water with 0, 3.5, 7 and 20-percent salinity and leave them on a windowsill for three days. A dietary scale and a ruler can then be used to observe the effects on the various rocks. Record this information and create a display that visualizes your project.
Speleothems
Speleology is the study of caves and their contents, specifically speleothems. Speleothems are secondary mineral formations, similar to stalactites and stalagmites. In this project, you will go to your nearest cave system and study the number of speleothems that are present. As you go further into the cave, note whether the size, color, or formation of the speleothems changes. Take pictures of a variety of these formations and include them in your project. To conclude your project, state whether the depth or temperature of the cave will affect the formation of speleothems.
Tags: stalactites stalagmites, your project, desert wash, formation speleothems, levels salinity, rock formations, rocks minerals
Organize your stones from heaviest to lightest using a scale.
Rock collecting can teach children about their environment and may even provide the path to a career in geology or civil engineering. Once your child begins to collect and the collection grows, it's important to organize the rocks so that he knows what they are and where they come from. One way to classify the rocks is by weight, but you'll need a scale to get this measurement.
Instructions
1. Cut two squares out of cardboard that are 3 inches on each side.
2. Glue the squares to opposite ends of the ruler.
3. Lay the PVC pipe on a flat surface and place the ruler across the middle of the pipe.
4. Place a rock on one of the cardboard platforms.
5. Place a stack of pennies, nickels, dimes or quarters on the opposite cardboard platform until the ruler is parallel to the flat surface the PVC pipe is sitting on.
6. Determine the weight of the rock using the weight of the coins. A balanced scale has equal weights on either side. Here are the weights of American coins: dime -- 2.2 grams; penny -- 2.5 grams; nickel -- 5 grams; quarter -- 5.7 grams. For example, if it takes five quarters to balance the scale, then the rock weighs 28.5 grams.
make an Altered Clip Board with Scrapbook Supplies
Scrapbooking supplies can be used to decorate many different items from home décor to school accessories, etc. Clip boards can be embellished with scrapbook paper, ribbons, and other accessories. You can use the decorated clip board to display precious photos or hang it on the wall to decorate your office or bedroom. Better yet give it as a gift to someone special.
Instructions
1. Cover your clip board with scrapbook paper (patterned paper works well).
2. Add decorative accessories to the clip board. Use flat embellishments like stickers, rub-ons and stamps if the clip board is going to be used to write on. If the clip board is just for a decorative purpose then you can use dimensional embellishments like metal charms, brads, buttons, chip board letters and more.
3. Thread some ribbon through the hole in the clip and tie it in knots to add some frills to the item.
4. Once the clip board is decorated the way you want, then you can use other personalized items like photos, postcards, etc if desired.
5. Give the clip board as a gift to a mother, father, teacher, friend, etc.
The tundra is a unique climate region (or biome) on Earth, characterized by its cold, dessicated climate and harshness to living things. Alpine and Antarctic tundra are rarer, and the arctic tundra is considered its own separate biome.
Location
The tundra is found along the nearly unbroken upper margins of Eurasia and North America. This includes parts of Scandinavia, a vast stretch of Siberia, western Alaska, the Northwest Territory, the Canadian territory Nunavut, upper Quebec, and the coastlines of Greenland. Tundra in Antarctica and at high, alpine elevations are often considered their own separate biomes.
Environment
Although the tundra is associated with polar climates, it should not be confused with polar ice regions or the cold coniferous forests of the taiga areas. It is more like a transitional climate between the subarctic regions and the ice caps. The tundra is not quite cold enough to be arctic, but it is also an area mostly devoid of trees, unlike other subarctic regions. Most of the vegetation consists of grass, moss, lichens, and small shrubs.
Temperature
Temperatures in the tundra never rise above 10 degrees Celsius, or 50 degrees Fahrenheit, even during the warmest periods. For nine months of the year, the temperature is below freezing. Permanently frozen ground called permafrost is a prominent feature of the tundra and the reason why trees don't grow there. Layers near the surface may thaw during the warmest months and then freeze the rest of the year.
Seasons
The ocean currents near the coastal areas of tundra create seasonal lag due to the fact that water is denser than air and takes longer to heat up or cool down. The wind that blows in from the ocean will thus have a moderating effect on land temperatures. In eastern North America and western Eurasia, the warmest month is August instead of July. In western Siberia, the coldest month is delayed until March. The summer season is considered unusual because it is the only time of the year when the temperature may climb above freezing. During the rest of the year, it is below freezing. Winter months can reach negative 25 degrees Celsius.
Precipitation
The tundra is so dry that it has a lower absolute humidity than the tropical desert. Most of the tundra will experience less than 250 mm of precipitation a year, but coastal regions may experience slightly more. The height of precipitation usually comes in the warmest months around July or August. Some areas may be susceptible to fog because of maritime air that drifts ashore and is chilled to its dew point.
Wildlife
According to the Alaskan Department of Fish and Game, many animals, such as hares, caribou, foxes, squirrels, lemmings, and shrews make their home on the tundra but require specific adaptations such as heavy coats of fur, short-limbs, heat-efficient bodies, longer reproduction cycles (trout, for instance, take ten years instead of six to reach maturity), camouflage, and the ability to hibernate. Plants in the tundra tend to be perennial. They have also adapted specific features such as hair for warmth and the retention of old leaves for nutrient conservation.
Tags: below freezing, degrees Celsius, during warmest, home tundra, North America
Geotechnical engineers determine if the soil and rock can sustain building.
Geotechnical engineers operate within the realm of the geosciences and civil engineering. They are concerned with how soil and rock behaves from an engineering point of view. For instance, if civil engineers want to build a bridge, the geotechnical engineers will assess the earth where the bridge will be built to make sure that it will sustain a bridge and its traffic. A Bachelor of Engineering is required for an engineer to be licensed in the United States, and postgraduate study is essential if geotechnical engineers want to broaden the scope of their education into the business or university sectors. There are several geotechnical engineering scholarship opportunities available for completing postgraduate work.
Eisenhower Transportation Fellowship Program
The Dwight David Eisenhower Transportation Fellowship Program awards fellowships in transportation-related disciplines, including geotechnical engineering. Between 150 and 200 full or partial fellowships are awarded annually. Non U.S. citizens may apply if they have their Immigration and Naturalization Service granted I-20 or I-551 identification. There are no online applications. The awards program is administered by the Universities and Grants Programs of the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)'s Office of Professional and Corporate Development.
Dwight David Eisenhower Transportation Fellowship Program
FHWA Office of Professional and Corporate Development
Universities and Grants Programs
4600 North Fairfax Drive, Suite 800
Arlington, VA 22203
703-235-0538
fhwa.dot.gov/ugp/#Fellowships
Dames and Moore Fellowship
The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) sponsors the Trent R. Dames and William W. Moore Scholarship. This grant is awarded every other year on a competitive basis to one or two recipients for graduate or postgraduate scientists to study geotechnical engineering or earth science applications as they relate to politics, economics, the earth or society in general. As of 2010, the minimum award is $5,000, the maximum $10,000, averaging $7,500 to graduate students, professors, professional engineers and scientists. The deadline is February 9.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Reston, VA 20191-9743
800 548-2723
aie.org
National Defense Science and Engineering Graduate Fellowship
If you are interested in pursuing a doctoral degree in geotechnical engineering, you can apply for the National Defense Science and Engineering Graduate Fellowship under the geosciences discipline. Accepted fellows must be enrolled in a full-time U.S. graduate program with the intent to pursue a doctorate degree. The Department of Defense pays full tuition, fees exclusive of room and board and a minimum $30,000 stipend for a 12-month tenure. The deadline for applications is early January, so prospective candidates should check the website for specific updates.
National Defense Science and Engineering Graduate Fellowship
The degrees of latitude and longitude lines are broken down into minutes, totaling 60 minutes all together. The simple formatting for pinning latitude and longitude coordinates is in degrees, minutes and seconds. But if you're using a GPS (global positioning system) or GIS (geographic information system) device that accepts only latitude and longitude coordinates in decimal formatting, you can use an online utility to convert them.
Instructions
FCC
1. Convert degree minutes into decimal-based values, using the FCC's online conversion utility (see Resources).
2. Enter your latitude's degree value into the utility's "Enter Degrees Minutes Seconds latitude" field. Type the longitude's value into the "Enter Degrees Minutes Seconds longitude" field.
3. Click on the utility's "Convert to Decimal" button. Your conversion result's will appear in the utility's "Latitude" and "Longitude" fields.
Calculator Cat
4. Convert your degree minutes into decimal-based latitude and longitude coordinates using Calculator Cat's online application (see Resources).
5. Type your latitude's minutes and seconds into the "Degree," "Min" and "Sec" fields under the application's "Latitude" heading. Likewise, type your longitude minutes into the "Degree," "Min" and "Sec" fields beneath the "Longitude" heading.
6. Click on the utility's "Minutes-Seconds to Decimals" button to populate the results into the application's "Latitude" and "Longitude" fields.
North Carolina Geological Survey
7. Use the North Carolina Geological Survey's coordinate converter to generate decimal-based values from your degree minutes (see Resources).
8. Type your latitude degree, minute and second values into the converter's "DMS latitude" field. Type your longitude values into the "DMS longitude" field.
9. Click on the "Convert" button. Your results will be displayed into the cells adjacent to the "DMS Latitude" and "DMS longitude" fields.
Tags: latitude longitude coordinates, longitude coordinates, minutes into, Type your, your latitude
Polished mineral hematite and magnetic hematite are visually very similar.
It is easy to confuse the mineral hematite with the man-made material that goes by the name "magnetic hematite." In certain forms, both share a very similar silvery appearance. In addition, both are often confused with the mineral magnetite. Hematite and magnetite are both iron oxide minerals, but magnetic hematite, though containing iron, is a manufactured ceramic material that is marketed and sold for its silvery appearance and magnetic properties.
The Mineral Hematite
Hematite-rich soils are reddish in color.
Hematite is a reddish iron oxide. It can be variable in appearance, and colors range from deep red to reddish-brown and even grayish-silver. However, it leaves a reddish streak when abraded or powdered. It is usually found in sedimentary deposits, but it can also occur as a metamorphic rock. Reddish soil is due to a high hematite content. On the Moh's scale of hardness, hematite is around 5.5, which means you can scratch it with a steel nail.
Magnetic Hematite
Magnetic hematite is not a true hematite in terms of its mineral content. Actually a man-made magnetic material, the content of magnetic hematite varies between manufacturers. The Mineralogy Database found that one sample was a "synthetic ceramic barium-strontium ferrite magnet." Companies that produce magnetic hematite keep their formulas a trade secret, but they all share a silvery appearance and have magnetic properties.
"Magnetizing" Hematite
People might assume that magnetic hematite is simply "magnetized" hematite. True hematite, though iron-containing, actually has a weak magnetic field because of the way its iron atoms are aligned. On the other hand, the mineral magnetite is highly magnetic, and many often erroneously assume it is magnetic hematite (the artificial material). Like true hematite, magnetite is also an iron oxide, but its iron atoms are arranged in a manner that make it magnetic.
Uses of Mineral Hematite
Polished hematite is a deep silver and popular for inexpensive jewelry.
Hematite is the primary ore of iron, and thus massive amounts of hematite are mined for their iron content. People have used it throughout the world and throughout history as a source of red pigment or paint in its powdered form. Some forms of polished and rock-tumbled hematite have a silvery appearance; this form of hematite has been a popular material for jewelry, effigies and other decorative objects.
Uses of Magnetic Hematite
Magnetic hematite is mainly produced for novelty jewelry and magnets. Controversial health products using magnetic fields are also marketed and sold as magnetic hematite. These items consists of necklaces, bracelets, belts and anklets. Claims are made that the magnetic fields created by these products can relieve arthritic pain and aching joints. Magnetic healing products made of magnetite also sell as magnetic hematite.
Tags: magnetic hematite, silvery appearance, iron oxide, magnetic hematite, Hematite Magnetic, Hematite Magnetic hematite
The ASVAB can help you determine your career path in the Armed Forces.
The Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Test Battery (ASVAB) is an approximately three-hour-long series of tests given to individuals interested in joining the military. Traditionally offered to high school seniors, results are used by military recruiters to judge a candidate's strengths and weaknesses. The test, which is divided into eight subject areas, is available at more than 14,000 schools, and is also offered at military entrance processing sites. Knowing ahead of time what kinds of questions are on the test can help an applicant better prepare for the ASVAB.
ASVAB Components
Applicants will find the ASVAB divided into eight areas, or sub-tests. Each of these sub-tests is timed and consists of between 15 and 35 questions. All tests are in a multiple choice format. The ASVAB has a shelf life of two years, so students who take the test as sophomores will be required to take it again before they are accepted into the military.
Science and Math
The general science sub-test assesses knowledge of both physical and biological science. The test contains 25 questions and applicants have 11 minutes to complete it. Questions cover life sciences, such as biology and human nutrition; physical science, such as general chemistry; and earth sciences, such as geology and astronomy.
The arithmetic reasoningtest consists of 30 questions, and the applicant has 36 minutes to answer them. The questions in this sub-test are structured as word problems and cover a variety of concepts including averaging, converting fractions to percentages, elapsed time, discounts and ratios.
The mathematics knowledge test contains 25 questions and has 24 minutes allotted to it. This sub-test assesses the knowledge of mathematics principles taught in high school. It can include problems involving adding and subtracting fractions, factoring, multiplication and division, percentages and powers and exponents.
Vocabulary and Reading
The vocabulary, or word knowledge, test records the ability to correctly define words and identify synonyms. The test consists of 35 underlined words, presented in context, and the applicant must choose which of the four offered definitions is correct. Applicants have 11 minutes to answer these questions.
The reading comprehension portion of the ASVAB presents the applicant with written passages of one or more paragraphs, followed by a series of incomplete statements. Applicants read the passage, then choose which of the lettered answers would best complete each statement. There is a 13-minute time limit to answer 15 questions.
Vocational
The auto and shop sub-test measures how well the applicant knows his way around vehicles and workshops, including knowledge of tools and terminology. The test consists of 25 questions, with an 11-minute time period. The test measures knowledge of engines and drive trains and how the various systems of a vehicle, like electrical and suspension, operate.
The mechanical comprehension sub-test includes 25 questions. Applicants are given 19 minutes for this sub-test. The test assesses the applicant's general understanding of mechanical and physical properties and how well he is able to visualize the workings of various objects. Test questions can include drawings used to illustrate specific principles.
Electronics information testing consists of 20 questions in 9 minutes and covers the basic principles of electricity and electronics. Test questions can cover areas such as Ohm's Law, circuitry, electrical generators and motors, types of current and basic theory.
Scoring
While the applicant receives an overall score on the test, the five branches of the service--Army, Air Force, Navy, Marines and Coast Guard--each look at a set of core qualifications to determine whether that applicant meets basic enlistment requirements. This composite score, known as the Armed Forces Qualifying Test (AFQT) is derived from scores in arithmetic reasoning, math knowledge, vocabulary and reading comprehension. Results from the remainder of the sub-tests are used to assess an applicant's aptitude for a variety of military occupations.
To qualify for the military, applicants need to score between 31 and 45 on the AFQT portion of the ASVAB. Each branch of the armed forces has established its own minimum score, with the Coast Guard and U.S. Air Force requiring the highest scores.
Put up a sparrow birdhouse to attract them to your backyard.
Small, active and musical, sparrows (families Passeridae and Emberizidae) are common songbirds across North America. Different species live in every possible habitat, from city streets to isolated salt marshes to scrubby chaparral country. A few---fox, white-throated, song, chipping and the ubiquitous house sparrows---will appear in backyards, city parks and suburbs. While many species prefer to build loose nests of twigs and soft plant fibers in the forks of trees or bushes, they may be tempted to nest in a handmade sparrow birdhouse.
Sparrow houses resemble bluebird houses in construction, with a small boxy shape, entrance hole and swinging door on one side to allow seasonal cleaning. If you don't want to attract house sparrows, don't place a perch on the house: The house sparrow is one of the few species that use them.
Instructions
Drill Entrance and Ventilation Holes
1. Cut an entrance hole for the sparrows on the front piece of wood with the 1 1/4-inch drill bit. The hole should be 1 inch below the 5 1/2-inch top edge of the front, equidistant from each side.
2. Drill two ventilation holes with the 1/4-inch drill bit in each side piece. The holes should be positioned in the top left and right corners.
3. Drill four ventilation holes in the floor piece with the 1/4-inch drill bit, one in each corner.
Assemble the Sparrow House
4. Lay the floor piece on a work surface. Position the 5 1/2-inch edge of a side piece (opposite the ventilation holes) perpendicular to a 5 1/2-inch edge of the floor piece. Nail the side to the floor.
5. Position the front piece along a 4-inch edge of the floor, flush with the side piece's edge. The floor will be slightly shorter than the front piece to allow for the other side to pivot open. Nail the front into place.
6. Lay the roof piece flat on top of the side and front pieces. Make sure the back edge of the roof (opposite the front of the birdhouse) is flush with the back edge of the side. This creates a flat surface on which to attach the back piece in the next step. The front edge of the roof overhangs the entrance of the birdhouse. Nail the roof onto the house.
7. Attach the back piece. The house currently has a floor, front, roof and one side. Lay the house on its front with the entrance hole facing down. Place the back piece onto it with the open side of the house flush with the edge of the back piece (you will attach a hinge here to connect the door in the next section). Nail the back piece to the house along the side, floor and roof edges.
8. Turn the house right-side up so the back is vertical, the floor is parallel to the ground and the entrance hole faces forward.
Attach the Hinged Door and Perch
9. Place the second side piece against the birdhouse to create a door. The bottom edge should be flush with the underside of the floor, while the back edge of the side should be perpendicular against the back piece.
10. Nail the 1-inch hinge to the back piece and to the side piece to create a movable door.
11. Nail the latch to the underside of the birdhouse so the door is connected to the floor. Unhook this latch and open the side door when you wish to clean the birdhouse.
12. Create a sparrow perch by nailing the 3-inch nail into the front of the birdhouse, about an inch below the entrance hole.
Tags: back piece, entrance hole, side piece, flush with, 2-inch edge
Find geodes at Dugway Geode Beds near Vernton, Utah.
Not much can match the thrill of finding and taking home your very own gemstones. If you're a novice, pick up a guidebook such as "Gem Identification Made Easy" or "Collecting Rocks, Gems and Minerals: Easy Identification." You might also want to take a class in gemology at your local community college or through an area club. Finding semi-precious stones in Utah, where gemstones abound throughout much of the state, is just a matter of knowing where to look.
Instructions
1. Look for geodes at Dugway Geode Beds, near Vernon, Utah, in Juab County. Visitors have removed most prime specimens from the surface, but if you dig a bit you'll find a wealth of geodes. The beds feature deep pits where visitors hop in and dig for gems. Be careful not to dig too far into the walls of any pit, as dangerous cave-ins can happen.
2. Spend a day at Topaz Mountain, also in Juab County, where you can find a variety of gemstones, including red beryl, garnet, hematite, calcite, chalcedony, amethyst, flourite, cassiterite, durangite, bixbyite, pseudobrookite and topaz, Utah's state gemstone. The topaz here is naturally amber but becomes clear after exposure to light. These gems formed within the cavities of an area volcano that erupted six to seven million years ago. You may have to spend some time searching for topaz crystals that are of excellent shape, size and quality.
3. Visit the world-famous Wheeler Amphitheater in Antelope Springs, 54 miles west of Delta, Utah. Here you can find sunstone (also known as yellow labradorite) and aragonite. You can also find fossils, although visitors are prohibited from removing fossils from the rock face of the quarry.
4. Search for agate, jasper chert---varieties of microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline quartz---as well as petrified wood near Capitol Reef National Park in Wayne County, one of the state's prime rock-hounding areas. To get there, drive 8.5 miles west on Utah Highway 24 to where the road crests. Along the north side of the road, you'll find agate, chert, jasper, and petrified wood and enormous ancient black boulders. The chert and agate here are white, green, gray, orange, purple, and red, while the jasper is usually red and the petrified wood is tan.
5. Join a rock hound or gemstone club by visiting the website of the Utah Geological Society and browsing their directory of state and local organizations. Experienced members can teach about native gemstones and methods of finding, removing and polishing them.
A marine science career is challenging and rewarding.
A degree in marine science affords many career opportunities. You could become a marine biologist and study the behaviors of marine animals, or an oceanographer using geology, chemistry and physics to increase the world's general understanding of the ocean and its importance to all life. Or, become an ocean engineer and design instruments that make studying the ocean easier. As a woman pursuing a career in marine science, you have access to several scholarships that are tailored to your needs.
Dr. Nancy Foster Scholarship Program
Offered by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the Dr. Nancy Foster Scholarship is designed to encourage and assist minority and women students in pursuing a higher degree in oceanography, marine biology or maritime archeology. The scholarship is meant specifically to help students interested in doing independent research as part of their graduate studies. To be eligible for this scholarship, applicants must maintain a record of academic excellence. The NOAA awards multiple Dr. Nancy Foster scholarships each year, and the amounts vary.
Dr. Nancy Foster Scholarship Program
NOAA Office of Education
SSMC3, Room 10725
1315 East West Highway
Silver Spring, MD 20910
301-713-0926
fosterscholars.noaa.gov
National Physical Science Consortium
The National Physical Science Consortium works with member businesses to provide financial support to students pursuing a higher degree in physical sciences, including geology, chemistry and physics---all of which can be applied to marine sciences. A business sponsors the student during her doctoral research and studies. The program puts an emphasis on serving women and minority students. It looks for students with a good grade point average who are currently enrolled in a master's program at a university that does not offer a doctoral program in the same discipline.
National Physical Science Consortium
USC - RAN
3716 S. Hope, Suite 348
Los Angeles, CA 90007-4344
213-743-2409
www.npsc.org
Renate W. Chasman Scholarship
The Chasman Scholarship awards $2,000 to women pursuing a career in natural sciences, engineering or mathematics. Women pursuing marine sciences qualify. This scholarship is specifically for women who have completed some college, been forced to take a break and are trying to return to their studies. You must be entering your junior or senior year of undergraduate studies, or be ready to pursue your first year of graduate school.
Agates are semiprecious gems that can be found all over the world. Throughout history, they have been valued as stones of impressive beauty and charm. Most people recognize agate as a highly polished, banded stone, but recognizing unpolished agate on a lake or in a freshly plowed field is a little tougher. Identifying unpolished agate is something that any amateur geologist can learn to do.
Instructions
1. Look for translucence in the stone. If the stone has been broken and you can see telltale traces of a quartzlike mineral along with the red, brown and orange color that comes with many types of agate, there is a good chance that you have an unpolished agate.
2. Determine whether there is banding. If the rocky exterior of the stone is broken or worn away, look for banding, which occurs in most types of agate. The banding is a factor that is sought by many collectors and jewelry makers, states the Keweenaw Traveler website.
3. Measure the stone. In most cases, the average agate is less than 3 inches in diameter.
4. Heft the stone. Most agate pebbles feel heavier than they look due to their dense composition. You may wish to compare them with other stones that are lying close by.
5. Look for a pit-marked surface on the rough stone. Agates can be formed in igneous rock, and they can also be surrounded by softer rock that has since eroded away. Both of these features can leave the agate with some pitting.
6. Feel for any waxiness in the revealed stone. When you see a crack in the stone or a place where the rocky exterior has worn away, slide your fingers across it. Waxiness is a sign that you might have an agate.
7. Look for conchoidal fractures, which are irregular fractures that occur in fine-grained materials such as glass and obsidian. These fractures are often curved, with a wavelike pattern, and they result in a very irregular profile to the rock itself. Agates are prone to conchoidal fractures, and seeing a rock with a distinct profile can alert you to an agate's presence.
Normally, organic material decays before fossilization occurs, leaving only the hard body parts, such as teeth and bones.
A fossil is any preserved evidence, including the remains or impressions, of an ancient organism. This includes footprints, casts of the body or burrows. Although it is extremely rare to find fossilized remains of soft-bodied organisms due to decomposition, fossil discoveries of human and shark remains have been found.
Age
While the oldest human fossils discoveries date to 195,000 years old, ancient shark remains date to more than 400 million years old. As reported by National Geographic, the 1967 discovery of two human skull fossils, dubbed Omo I and Omo II, along Ethiopia's Omo River pushed mankind to 195,000 years old--more than 35,000 years older than previously thought.
On the other hand, a dig in October 2003 uncovered the world's oldest, intact shark fossil near New Brunswick, Canada. The 409-million-year-old species, known as Doliodus prolematicus, measures 9 inches long and has scissor-like teeth in the upper and lower jaws, large fin spines and scales. This discovery predates other fossilized shark finds by 15 million years.
Preservation
Intact shark fossils are extremely rare. Conditions of oxygen depletion and rapid burial are required to suppress the decaying process and allow the preservation of the soft tissue. A 2009 National Geographic article entitled "Shark Picture: Most Complete Great White Fossil Yet" details the discovery by paleontologists in 1988 of a nearly complete fossil of a great white shark in southwestern Peru. This four-million-year-old fossil contained the spinal column, head, jaws and 222 teeth of the ancient shark.
Human fossils containing both soft and hard body parts include the mummies of ancient Egypt and the preserved human fossils in the stagnant swamps of Denmark, which included skin, internal organs and even the remains of a last meal.
Dating Process
The dating process for both human and shark fossils is similar. To determine a fossils age commonly requires dating the rocks and strata in which the specimen was found; however, this may not be possible, especially if the exact fossil location is unknown. When this occurs, geological maps of the area as well as comparative or relative dating (comparing the fossil with other known fossil finds) are utilized. If any organic material exists, scientists use carbon-14 or potassium-argon dating techniques.
Living Fossils
Palomar College describes a living fossil as any species that adapts and survives a changing environment. With each generation, bodies and behaviors change. Organisms pass these changes on to their offspring, enabling the species to survive. Living fossils are essentially today's living organisms that exhibit the same characteristics as their ancestors. The shark is classified as a living fossil, while humans are not commonly labeled as such.
Fossil Hunting
Amateur fossil hunters are more likely to find fossilized shark teeth than human fossilized remains, according to National Geographic. Sharks have existed for millions of years and shed many teeth during a lifetime, making fossilized teeth abundant. Human fossil hunting may be more difficult due to the short geological time span as well as governmental restrictions on digs.
Tags: National Geographic, ancient shark, body parts, extremely rare, find fossilized, fossilized remains
Graduate programs around the country offering a Ph.D. in Media.
A Ph.D in Media teaches students how media is developed, produced and distributed. The program also offers students an understanding of how media affects the social, political and cultural landscapes. Students gain a broad understanding of the operating principles and strategies that drive the entertainment and news industries. Graduates with a Ph.D. in Media can find career opportunities in higher education, consulting and research.
New York University
New York University offers a Ph.D. in Media, Culture and Communication. The five-year program teaches students about the communication processes and global flaws of the media. The curriculum covers topics in cultural theory and criticism, media, institutions and technologies,and rhetoric, politics and public advocacy. Students must also participate in doctoral seminars that focus on research methods and the approaches to use in their dissertations.
New York University
239 Greene Street
7th Floor
New York, NY 10003
212-998-5191
nyu.edu
Northwestern University
The Ph.D. in Media, Technology and Society at Northwestern University offers students opportunities to study and research the media and other communication technologies. While most applicants have a master's degree, those without this degree must complete nine additional courses. In addition to focusing on core media courses, students are also encouraged to take courses from other departments to widen their educational depth. Much of the curriculum consists of seminars that require students to perform research and to write critical reviews of different topics.
Northwestern University
2240 Campus Drive
Evanston, IL 60208
847-491-7023
northwestern.edu
University of Texas at Austin
The University of Texas at Austin's Ph.D. in Media Studies focuses on media technology, global media, film and television studies, media literacy and new media. Students must complete 48 hours of study and are guaranteed four years of funding in a teaching or research assistantship. The program combines the methodological and theoretical approaches of cultural studies, humanities and social sciences, and students learn about the role and impact that media have on culture. Students are also required to present a dissertation on a media-related topic to a committee of five faculty members.
University of Texas at Austin
1 University Station A0800
Austin, TX 78712
512-471-4071
utexas.edu
Tags: Texas Austin, University Texas, University Texas Austin, York University, Austin University
Middle school science projects often include rulers and protractors.
Select middle school science fair projects consist of minimal materials and easy to follow steps, yet nonetheless carry important implications and demonstrate significance well beyond their small scale. Such projects include testing electrical charges in fruits and vegetables, comparing combustibility among household fabrics, studying soil erosion and determining the best way to maximize solar cell efficiency.
Electrical Charges
Students demonstrate how fruits and vegetables generate electric charges through the use of an amp meter, additionally demonstrating the strongest and weakest charges in each. Current flow is initially identified in each of the fruits and vegetables. Resistance is measured in each by placing the sensors at varying distances apart from one another in the fruit or vegetable and using the ohms scale on the meter. Results are recorded in writing, graphed and charted, indicating the orders of strength of current flow and resistance. The project is easy, requires minimal materials and presents many opportunities for valid data analysis.
Combustible Fabrics
Students learn about combustibility and safety of common household fabrics, comparing various fabrics, documenting test results and evaluating the findings. Materials needed include samples of fabrics, such as silk, cotton, polyester, rayon and types of cotton mixtures. Fabrics are cut into small, equal-size squares, each square being individually burned. How long it takes each square to burn is timed and documented. Average burn-times for each fabric are established, enabling students to draw conclusions about the combustibility and safety implications for each fabric.
Soil Erosion
The effect of slope angle on the amount of soil eroded by water is determined by using materials including a box, bucket, timer and soil. Students construct a box that holds varying amounts of soil, subject the soil to measured amounts of water and determine that gravity and running water are principle agents of erosion. The angle of the box is progressively increased, showing that an increase in erosion results when the angle of a slope is increased.
Solar Cell Efficiency
Students establish that solar cells facing the sun directly at a 90-degree angle are most efficient for generating energy. A source of white light, solar cell, music rack, protractor and a multimeter that measures milliwatts are required materials. The solar cell is placed on the music rack and adjusted to various angles, each measured and documented. The multimeter tests the energy efficiency of the solar cell at each angle, demonstrating that the solar cell is most efficient when directly facing its light source.
Tags: solar cell, fruits vegetables, about combustibility, about combustibility safety, combustibility safety, each fabric, each square
Everyone has seen images of oil spurting from the ground while oil-soaked workers battle to control the powerful geyser. But it's not always that easy to get oil out of the ground. Oil reservoirs can be thousands of feet below the surface, trapped in pockets of hard rock. Petroleum engineers are in charge of finding those pockets and then getting as much oil out of them as possible. It is a difficult job requiring years of education and training.
The Facts
The oil we have today is the result of dead organic matter spending millions of years being compressed by geological forces. After dying long ago, the organic matter fell to the bottom of the sea, forming layers. These layers of organic material slowly mixed with the mud at the bottom of the sea. The combination of the pressure of the new layers above them and the lack of oxygen caused a series of chemical changes. First, the organic matter solidified, becoming shale or "source rock." Then the source rock was liquefied and became oil and natural gas. Over time, geological changes shifted the ground, creating pockets of oil.
Function
Petroleum engineers find these pockets of oil. This may sound simple, but it is not. Petroleum engineers need to have an extensive knowledge of subsurface geology in order to seek out the most likely locations of oil reservoirs. Once an oil reservoir has been located, petroleum engineers have to find a way to access the oil and pump it out. To do this, they team up with geologists and other engineers in order to design the necessary equipment and to implement strategies that will maximize the amount of oil retrieved.
Methods of Finding Oil
Petroleum engineers and petroleum geologists work together to find oil reservoirs. One of the techniques they use is a "seismic survey." A seismic survey is a method of determining the structure of subsurface geology by creating shock waves and then reading the results. Because sound travels at different speeds depending on the substance it is passing through, the petroleum scientists are able to read the reflections of the shock waves and use that data to create maps of subsurface geology. They use these maps to figure out where oil pockets are likely to be found.
Methods of Extracting Oil
Although there are times when oil is under natural pressure and easy to get to the surface, very often petroleum engineers need to find a way to access oil deep below the surface that is not under pressure. One of their methods is to inject another substance (such as water or chemicals) into the oil reservoir in order to force the oil out. Another is drilling a deep hole and pumping out the oil. At times, petroleum engineers will even try to alter subsurface geology by breaking up rocks so that oil can flow into a single well.
Goals
Oil reservoirs are rarely completely drained due to the difficulty of getting the remaining oil to the surface. For this reason, petroleum engineers often focus on maximizing the amount of oil obtained from a single reservoir. When old wells run dry, petroleum engineers are often called in to try to find a new way to access any remaining oil. This means that petroleum engineers need to be able to adapt to new and complex situations all the time.
Tags: subsurface geology, engineers need, find access, organic matter, About Petroleum, About Petroleum Engineering, below surface
The outer surface of the Earth, or crust, is made of a variety of substances formed by a complex series of forces. Understanding the geology of the Earth's surface is important, since it makes up so much of what we see and most of the materials we use in our civilization. Even so, the rocks of the crust make up less than a third of the actual surface area of the Earth, with the rest being water.
Geography
The rocky surface of the Earth is called the lithosphere, with the outer surface being called the crust. However, the visible crust only comprises 29% of the Earth's surface. The remainder is water, either in the form of liquid ocean or frozen ice.
Types
The lithosphere is divided into two categories: the continental lithosphere and the oceanic lithosphere. The former is on the surface and exposed directly to the atmosphere. The latter lies under the Earth's oceans. The crust of the continental lithosphere is thought to be 30- to 50-km thick, while the oceanic crust is much thinner, at an estimated 5- to 10-km thick. Beneath the crust is the mantle, an area of solid matter which is hotter and softer than the crust and thus has a more plastic nature.
Features
The crust is composed of a wide ranging variety of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. The continental crust and oceanic crust differ in what types of these rocks are present. Granite, for example, which comprises much of the stone present in the continental crust, is rare in the oceanic crust. Basalt, on the other hand, is common beneath the oceans, but rare on land. Furthermore, most of the rocks that are visible on the surface of the Earth are sedimentary, even though they comprise only a small part of the crust as a whole.
Identification
Igneous rocks are all formed by the cooling of volcanic magma. Granite is a common example of this kind of rock. They make up over 95 percent of the lithosphere, but this fact is hidden from direct human observation. That is because of the presence of virtually all of the sedimentary and metamorphic rock on or near the Earth's surface.
Sedimentary rock is created by the overpressure placed on sediment by the material that has formed above it.--often more sediment. The result of the sustained pressure is the solidification into layers of sedimentary rock. Limestone, sandstone and shale are examples of this type of rock. Much of the visible rock on the surface of the Earth is of this type.
Metamorphic rocks are the result of one of the previous two types of rock being subjected to conditions severe enough to transform them. Sedimentary or igneous rocks that are buried or pressed by tectonic forces are placed under enormous pressure and heat. Likewise, some rocks are altered by direct contact with an intrusion of molten magma from the Earth's core. Examples include slate, marble and quartz.
Considerations
All three types of rocks contain ores--minerals, metals, gems and other substances. Most of the substances we take for granted--gold, iron, copper, uranium--do not exist in usable forms in nature. Instead, they exist in the diluted form of ore. These ores are mined and processed.
Seismic exploration is the use of artificially generated sound waves to explore the uppermost crust of the Earth for economically important deposits of oil, natural gas, and minerals.
Seismic Basics
Sound waves are generated at the surface of the ground or water using sources such as dynamite, air cannons (in water), and heavy-duty vibrators. The sound waves reflect off the subsurface layers and return to an array of receivers. The data is combined and processed to create an approximate image of the layers of rock below the surface.
3D Seismic
The first seismic surveys were two-dimensional records, recorded along a single line of shot points. As technology improved, three-dimensional seismic surveys have become more common. A 3D survey is an array of many closely-spaced 2D lines.
4D Seismic
In 4D seismic, the fourth dimension is time. This 4D seismic is the comparison of 3D seismic surveys taken at different points in time over the same area, typically a producing field. If processed correctly, such surveys can be compared to evaluate the effects of hydrocarbon production and injection of fluids in secondary recovery operations.
Stratovolanos produce slow-moving lava and ash, resulting in sloped sides. This type of volcano is also called a composite volcano. American stratovolcanos include Mt. Hood in Oregon and Mt. St. Helen's in Washington state. A stratovolcano model serves as a working model, demonstrating the volcano's features, including its characteristic shape and an active eruption. This model requires only common materials and is suitable for most age groups.
Instructions
1. Center a 1-liter plastic bottle on a piece of heavy cardboard to serve as the lava tube for the stratovolcano model. Apply 4-inch strips of tape to the base of the container, sticking half of the tape strip to the tube and half to the cardboard to hold the container securely in place. Apply the tape all the way around the bottom of the container to make it solid. This will protect your volcano from damage.
2. Wad up newspaper into balls the size of your fist and the size of baseballs. Squeeze craft glue in zigzags around the base of the lava tube in an area the desired size of the volcano's base, for example, in an uneven 8 to 10 inch circle. Volcanoes tend to have irregular shapes. A stratovolcano forms from repeated lava flows over time.
3. Stick the largest balls of newspaper in the glue around the lava tube to form the volcano's base. Drizzle glue on the tops of these balls of newspaper. Stick some smaller balls of newspaper on top of them. Continuing gluing smaller balls of newspaper on top of the each layer until you reach the top of the lava tube.
4. Cover the volcano model with foil, using a sheet that will reach from the base on one side over the top of the lava tube and down to the base on the other side. If any newspaper is left exposed, add a second sheet of foil crosswise to the first piece of foil, so that the volcano is covered to the base all the way around. Squeeze the foil and newspaper with both hands to shape the volcano. The foil takes on folds and ridges like the surface of an actual volcano, and you can use the pressure of your hands to make the top of the volcano taper to a narrower shape if it looks thick at the top.
5. Take the model outside. Pour glue in a can or paper cup and apply it to the stratovolcano with a paint brush. Pour sand or ash over the volcano to give it a natural texture. Allow the model to dry for at least 30 minutes.
6. Pour 1 cup water, 1 tbsp. baking soda and 1 tbsp. dish soap in a pitcher. Add 10 to 12 drops of red food coloring if desired, to make the lava mixture the color of molten lava. Pour the mixture into the lava tube.
7. Pour 1 cup of vinegar into the lava tube. The chemical reaction of the acidic vinegar with the baking soda forms carbon dioxide gas and causes the eruption. The soap gives the lava some thickness and froth for a realistic effect.
Tags: lava tube, balls newspaper, baking soda, into lava, into lava tube, smaller balls, smaller balls newspaper
Write a recommendation only if you can put the person in a positive light.
Recommendation letters are confidential evaluations. Usually, teachers and counselors write the letters on behalf of the student to help college admissions or scholarship committees in the selection process. Effective letters use specific examples, such as class assignments, to describe how and why the student is a suitable candidate. Learn to write a letter that presents your student in the best light. Feel free to include your contact info, which will most likely never be used.
Instructions
1. Request that the student provide you with application information. Help the student understand what you are looking for by creating a master worksheet that lists the items necessary for you to write recommendation letters. Make duplicate copies of the worksheet and distribute to students as needed. Include these items on the worksheet: address, application deadline, a resume, an academic paper written for your class, copies of the student's personal statement, recommendation form and waiver form. (The waiver form indicates whether the student agrees to surrender her rights to read your letters.)
2. Address recommendation letters to the appropriate party, especially when you write a letter on a separate sheet of paper. If you cannot locate the contact information on the student application form, use "Dear College Admissions Representative" or "Dear Scholarship Selection Committee."
3. Establish your credibility and relationship to the student. Tell the reader your position and how you know the student; for instance, "I served as the student's language arts teacher during his junior year."
4. Respond to the questions posed on the application form. Some applications will ask specific questions about the student; for example, "How do you rate the student's academic performance?" Other applications suggest topics for you to address in relation to the student--for instance, character, leadership or intellectual capabilities.
5. Close letters with your contact information. Indicate that you are available to answer additional questions, then add your name, department, school email and phone number.
6. Proofread recommendation letters. Read each letter for spelling and punctuation errors.
7. Seal the letter officially with a school stamp, or unofficially with your signature and date across the envelope flap. Send the letter directly to the college or return it to the student to forward with other application materials.
Tags: application form, contact information, form waiver, form waiver form, waiver form
A gorge and a canyon are basically the same thing: a valley marked by steep cliffs with a watercourse running along its bottom. The simple answer to how a gorge is formed is by water erosion, but in actual practice, a number of factors come together to make a gorge possible.
Flooding
One potential source of gorge formation is major, systematic flooding. Geologists believe that during the last ice age, rapid melting of the great glaciers caused catastrophic flooding that carved out several gorges and canyons along already existing waterways. The same pattern can be seen today, albeit in a much less violent form. Spring thawing regularly causes river flooding in areas where rivers are fed primarily by glaciers. The gorges formed when the erosive power of the flooding was slowed down upon harder strata of rock, causing cliffs to form and the flooding to dig down, rather than out.
Waterfalls
Another source of gorge formation is a waterfall. Waterfalls themselves are usually the product of geologic uplift. When there is geologic uplift in an area that is already home to a watercourse, the resulting change in elevation creates a waterfall. That waterfall creates accelerated water flow and erosion, which over time will cut back on itself, creating a gorge. Even if the watercourse lacks the power to carve the hard rock in its own bed away, if softer rock has been exposed below by geologic uplift, that will be eroded and washed away. This undermines the original river bed, causing eventual and successive collapse, forming a gorge.
Diesel fuel spills can cause unacceptable levels of soil contamination.
In the United States, soil limits for contaminants of concern, such as diesel fuel, are determined by the individual states. These limits, generally referred to as "cleanup levels," tend to vary, and can depend on whether the land will be used for industrial or residential purposes. Does this Spark an idea?
Diesel Range Organics
Diesel fuel should be stored in bunded containers to prevent spills.
Diesel fuel is classified as a "diesel range organic" (DRO) for laboratory-testing purposes, and for the purpose of determining cleanup levels. Other DROs include kerosene, heating oil, and jet fuel.
Examples of Cleanup Levels
Cleanup levels vary from state to state.
Cleanup levels for diesel range organics in Oklahoma, for example, can vary from 50 mg/kg (milligrams per kilogram) for residential soil, to 2,500 mg/kg for industrial site soil. In Wisconsin, DRO levels of 250 mg/kg are permitted on sites where there is little chance of contaminants migrating into groundwater, and 100 mg/kg on sites where groundwater is at risk. In Washington State, cleanup levels for DROs are as high as 2,000 mg/kg for all sites.
Cleanup Levels Based on Site-Specific Assessments
Environmental scientists examine contaminated sites to see what parts of the environment (including people, plants and animals) could be affected.
Most states also allow individual sites to set their own cleanup levels based on site-specific assessments. This involves checking whether there are any source-pathway-receptor linkages present. An example would be the contaminated soil (the source) leaching into groundwater, and then into a nearby lake (a pathway), affecting aquatic organisms (receptors). If there are no such linkages present, a site may be permitted to work to higher cleanup levels than the generic levels set by the state.
Tags: cleanup levels, Diesel fuel, into groundwater, linkages present, sites where
Earth science is the scientific analysis of the Earth and the different features that make up the planet. Because the Earth is a very dynamic and complex planet that features a thick atmosphere, vibrant oceans and interesting geologic activity, multiple branches exist within Earth science. A variety of activities are available for students to simultaneously learn Earth sciences and have fun.
Geology
Geology is the study of Earth's physical properties, its substance, as well as its history and the forces that affect it over time. Geologists study Earth's mineral and chemical makeup, rocks that make up its crust and the changing and shifting of these materials. A fun activity would be to take a field trip to a geologic hotspot, such as a place that is known for having exposed fossils, or that features numerous rock types and formations, and have students record what they observe.
Meteorology
Meteorology is the study of the Earth's atmosphere, and how shifting conditions change weather patterns. A fun outside activity would be to take simple meteorological readings using a barometer, a thermometer, an evaporimeter and a wind vane, on different days over the span of a semester or school year. Students could then record and compare this information to track how the atmosphere shifts during seasons. For a more complicated activity, students could build and use a weather balloon.
Oceanography
Oceanography analyzes the composition of Earth's oceans, their history, the forces acting upon them and the creatures that live there. A fun activity would be to take water samples from an ocean. Students could then look at these samples under a microscope and record what they see, or conduct tests on oxygen, pollution and acidity levels of the samples. Another outside activity could feature a detailed study of a sea creature, like a starfish, in its native habitat. Each student could then make a presentation to the class about marine topic observations.
Astronomy
Astronomy is the study of space. Because Earth and space are intricately tied together, astronomy can also explain occurrences on Earth; for example, the moon drives the tides, and a meteor that hits the Earth deposits materials. Fun outside activities would be to watch a meteor shower, look at the surface of the moon through a telescope, or safely observe a solar or lunar eclipse. Students could then research and create a project about their observations.
Tags: could then, activity would, activity would take, Students could then, study Earth
It's not necessary to be physically present at a university to learn mining. You can attend classes online through a distance learning program. You will obtain a degree at your own pace, working on assignments when convenient for you.
Instructions
1. Sign up for a distance learning program at a school. For example, you might study at Atlantic International University with the objective of obtaining a Bachelor of Mining Engineering, or at the University of Pittsburgh to get a Certificate in Mining Engineering (see Resources).
2. Go online and log in to your university's distance learning page. Sign up for courses such as Geology for Engineers, Engineering Mechanics, Mining Engineering, Mine Design and Feasibility, and Mine Ventilation.
3. Obtain orientation materials, and take note of any special instructions for proceeding with your mining lessons. Print out instructions and course syllabuses and put them on the wall in your study area so you can refer to them as you go through lessons.
4. Maintain a calendar for your mining assignments, noting when you plan to complete them. For example, you may have to write a paper on "rock breakage," or do a mining research project. Make sure you complete your assignments on time, so you can progress to the next item on your calendar.
5. Listen to audio and watch video of your professors giving lectures on mining, taking note of the safety issues of going deep underground to work in an environment subject to cave-ins and explosions. Learn about the psychological effects of being so far below the earth's surface, where it is pitch black should the artificial lighting go out.
6. Read course materials and study guides. Your mining textbooks will cover topics such as "Economics and Mine Technology," "Strength of Materials," and "Geotechnical Engineering."
7. Participate in online class discussions by using text chatting and video conferencing with the microphone and camera on your computer system. Engage in "what-if" thought experiments with your classmates about avoid a mining disaster, or improve a mining ventilation system.
Tags: distance learning, Mining Engineering, distance learning program, learn mining, learning program, through distance learning, with your
Most of the world's volcanos are part of archipelagos.
Archipelagos are island chains formed by the shifting of tectonic plates. Many archipelagic islands are huge mountains extending from the ocean floor, and are rife with volcanic activity. Constantly shifting, archipelagic islands tend to have extreme landscapes including rocky beaches, hot springs, waterfalls and lava flow. East Asia, the Caribbean, and the Arctic contain the earth's largest archipelagos.
Japanese Archipelago
The Japanese Archipelago has 6,852 islands, including the four main islands of Japan, spanning over 475 square miles. 73 percent of Japan is mountainous, with a mountain range running through each of the main islands. Located on a seismic hot spot, minor earthquakes are frequently felt in Japan.
The Phillipine Archipelago
The country of the Philippines consists of 7,107 islands and spans 116,000 square miles. Most of these islands are covered in tropical forest. The highest island mountain is Mount Apo, reaching 9,692 feet. The Philippines are located on an active seismic region and its islands have frequent volcanic eruptions and an average of 20 earthquakes per day, though most are too weak to be felt. Its volcanoes are responsible for some of the largest mineral deposits in the world, and much of the earth's gold and copper is found in the Philippines.
Canadian Arctic Archipelago
The Arctic Archipelago is north of Canada, in the arctic, and consists of 36,563 islands spanning about 550,000 square miles. The islands are divided from each other, and from the Canadian mainland by waterways known as the Northwest Passages. Although the Arctic Archipelago has the second largest Arctic land mass after Greenland, its islands are mostly uninhabited, except for a few Inuit settlements on the southern islands.
Caribbean Archipelago
The Caribbean Archipelago consists of 7,000 islands, islets, reefs and cays. Some of its islands are flat and non-volcanic, including Aruba, Barbados, The Bahamas and Antigua. Others are active or inactive volcanic mountains, including Cuba, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, Saint Thomas, Saint Kitts and Trinidad and Tobago.
Indonesian Archipelago
Indonesia is an archipelago of 17,508 islands, over 6,000 of which are inhabited. It has five main islands, and contains 60 smaller archipelagos. Most of the larger islands are mountains, including Java, Bali and Sumatra. A string of 400 volcanoes is situated between these main islands, 150 of which are active. The two most destructive volcano eruptions recorded in modern times were both in Indonesia.
Stockholm Archipelago
The Stockholm Archipelago has about 24,000 islands and islets extending from and including Stockholm, Sweden. These islands are in a very active area, tectonically, and still rise about 5 millimeters per year. The Stockholm Archipelago was once known for its fishing villages, and is now a popular tourist destination.
Zhoushan Archipelago
The Zhoushan Archipelago consists of 1,390 islands and almost three times that many coral reefs, and is the largest archipelago of China. One hundred six of its islands are inhabited.
Other Archipelagos
There are many smaller archipelagos, including the eight islands of Hawaii, the Polynesian archipelago of Bora Bora and the South Pacific islands of Fiji. The picturesque beaches, natural hot springs, and other extreme geological phenomena caused by seismic activity make archipelagos popular tourist destinations.
Tags: consists islands, main islands, Arctic Archipelago, square miles, Stockholm Archipelago, archipelagic islands
The National Science Foundation (NSF) awards a wide array of grants under its Research Experiences for Undergraduates (REU) program. The grant is intended to support active research by undergraduate students, and is offered to students who wish to conduct research that has been designed by NSF or independently. The research projects can be inter-disciplinary or discipline-specific. Prospective applicants must be U.S. citizens or permanent residents. Grant recipients will conduct their research at designated REU sites.
Astronomical Sciences
RUE sites for grants in astronomical sciences are housed at institutions like the American Museum of Natural History, Carnegie Institution of Washington, CUNY-Queensboro Community College and Northern Arizona University. The special programs in astronomy grant supports diverse research projects in solar physics, astrophysics and continuing research projects.
Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences
Atmospheric and geospace science REU sites include Cornell University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), City University of New York and the University of Michigan. Research topics in atmospheric and geospace sciences are comprised of topics in global change, ecology, atmospheric chemistry and meteorology.
Biological Sciences
Research sites for REU projects in the biological sciences include Alabama A&M University, the American Museum of Natural History, Harvard University and George Washington University. Project highlights consist of topics such as evolution, wildlife, conservation and neuroscience.
Chemistry
Chemistry departments that house REU programs include Boston University, James Madison University, Johns Hopkins University and Rice University. Undergraduate research programs in chemistry explore themes like physical and environmental chemistry, inorganic chemistry and biochemistry.
Earth Sciences
Earth science REU grant recipients include the University of Florida, Western Kentucky University, Purdue University and Pomona College. Students conduct research in a wide array of earth science-related fields such as paleontology, tectonics, geology and seismic refraction.
Engineering
REU designated engineering programs include California Polytechnic State University, Case Western Reserve University, Drexel University and Duke University. Undergraduate research projects will explore themes such as the environmental implications of nanotechnology, advanced technology, biomedical engineering and biorenewables.
Ethics and Values Studies
REU ethics and values programs are housed at Virginia Tech, Washington University, University of Minnesota and the University of North Texas. Research topics in ethics and values include ethics in anthropology, ethics and values studies and environmental studies
Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences
Academic departments that will administer REU programs in social, behavioral and economic sciences include CUNY Baruch College, Dartmouth College, Towson University and the University of Notre Dame. Students will participate in research projects such as social demography, cognition, archeology and mental health.
Tags: research projects, American Museum, American Museum Natural, conduct research, departments that, ethics values, explore themes
Louisiana is known for Mardi Gras, jazz and Cajun cuisine, but it also has four public university systems made up of several individual colleges. These universities, scattered throughout the state, offer degrees ranging from architecture to zoology, and boast thousands of undergrads and graduate students.
Louisiana State University
Louisiana State University's main campus is in Baton Rouge, with satellite campuses in Alexandria, Eunice, Shreveport, and Health Sciences Centers in New Orleans and Shreveport. As of 2010, the four-year university has 21,000 undergraduate students and 4,000 graduate students. LSU is the state's flagship university. The mascot is the Fighting Tiger.
Louisiana State University
3810 W. Lakeshore Dr.
Baton Rouge, LA 70808
225-578-2111
lsu.edu
Southern University
Four-year public college Southern University is located in Baton Rouge. Satellite universities are in New Orleans, Shreveport, and Southern University Law Center is in Baton Rouge. As of 2010, this traditionally a black college has around 10,000 undergraduate students and about 1,500 post graduate students.
Colleges include Honors College, University College, College of Agriculture, Family, and Consumer Sciences, College of Arts and Humanities, College of Business, College of Education, College of Engineering, College of Sciences, School of Architecture, School of Nursing and The Nelson Mandela School of Public Policy and Urban Affairs.
The mascot is the Jaguar.
Southern University
Baton Rouge, LA 70813
225-771-4500
subr.edu
University of Louisiana
The University of Louisiana is made up of two separate campuses: University of Louisiana at Lafayette and University of Louisiana at Monroe.
University of Louisiana at Lafayette is the second largest university in Louisiana with 15,564 undergraduate students and 1,511 graduate, as of 2010. The school is a Carnegie Research University, which means the university does a prolific amount of research. The university offers majors from 10 colleges ranging from art to engineering.
The mascot is the Ragin' Cajun.
University of Louisiana at Lafayette
104 University Circle
Lafayette, LA 70504
337-482-1000
louisiana.edu
University of Louisiana at Monroe is a four-year university with 7,519 undergraduates and 886 postgraduates, as of 2010. The college of pharmacy offers a master's and doctorate, and offers the only degrees in gerontology and atmospheric science in Louisiana.
The mascot is the Warhawk.
University of Louisiana at Monroe
700 University Ave.
Monroe, LA 71209
318-342-1000
ulm.edu
Southeastern Louisiana University
Southeastern Louisiana University is a four-year college located in Hammond. As of 2010, the school enrolls 14,500 undergraduates and 2,500 postgraduates in five colleges. The university also has a nursing program and boasts a state of the art library.
The mascot is the Lion.
Southeastern Louisiana University
Hammond, LA 70402
985-549-2000
selu.edu
University of New Orleans
The University of New Orleans enrolls approximately 9,000 undergraduates and 3,000 postgraduates in six academic departments, as of 2010. The university houses five colleges: College of Business Administration, College of Education and Human Development, College of Engineering, College of Liberal Arts and College of Science. The university is divided into several small campuses around New Orleans.
The university's mascot is the Privateer.
University of New Orleans
2000 Lakeshore Drive
New Orleans, LA 70148
504-280-6000
888-514-4275
uno.edu
Grambling State University
Grambling State University in Grambling is a traditionally black four-year college. The school enrolls approximately 4,500 undergraduates and 500 postgraduates in several academic departments. It is one of the only schools to offer a Ph.D. in developmental education. The university includes the College of Arts, College of Sciences, College of Business, College of Education, and College of Professional Studies.
The mascot is the Tiger.
Grambling State University
403 Main St.
Grambling, LA 71245
318-247-3811
800-569-4714
gram.edu
Louisana Tech University
Louisiana Tech University in Ruston enrolls around 11,000 undergraduates and 9,000 postgraduates, as of 2010, in several academic departments. The Washington Monthly ranked Louisiana Tech University as the country's best public school in 2009. The school's colleges are Liberal Arts, Engineering and Science, Education, Business and Applied and Natural Sciences.
The mascot is the Bulldog.
Louisiana Tech University
P.O. Box 3178
Ruston, LA 71272
318-257-3036
800-LATECH-1
latech.edu
McNeese State University
McNeese State University in Lake Charles enrolls around 9,000 undergraduates and 1,000 postgraduates, as of 2010. The school was originally a junior college but now is a four-year university. This school is known for its engineering and nursing programs.
The mascot is the Cowboy.
McNeese State University
P.O. Box 92495
Lake Charles, LA 70609
337-475-5000
mcneese.edu
Nicholls State University
Nicholls State University in Thibodaux is a four-year college. As of 2010, enrollment was around 6,000 undergraduates and 600 postgraduates in various academic departments including accounting, marine biology and family services. Nicholls offers an executive MBA program.
The mascot is the Colonel.
Nicholls State University
906 East 1st St.
Thibodaux, LA 70310
1-877-NICHOLLS
nicholls.edu
Northwestern State University
Northwestern State University is located in Natchitoches, with its nursing campus in Shreveport and satellite campuses in Leesville/Fort Polk and Alexandria. Enrollment, as of 2010, is around 10,000 undergraduates and postgraduates. This school offers an Army ROTC program.
The mascot is the Demon.
Northwestern State University
Natchitoches, LA 71497
318-357-6011
nsula.edu
Tags: State University, undergraduates postgraduates, University Louisiana, Baton Rouge, academic departments, around undergraduates