Measure Water In An Underground Tank

Water in a septic tank can become sludge.

Measuring the capacity of an underground tank is a useful step in figuring out the size of a septic tank, especially if you need to know its size in order to determine whether it can accommodate your household needs. If you are pulling permits on your house for construction, some local governmental agencies will require you to mark the capacity of the septic tank. Does this Spark an idea?

Instructions

1. Open the cover to the underground tank.

2. Insert a dry 1 inch by 3 inch by 8 foot furring strip into the underground tank until it touches the bottom of the tank. A furring strip is a thin piece of wood that is used for framing; it is useful for measuring an underground tank because of its thin size and long length.

3. Place a mark on the furring strip where it touches the top of the tank when the other end of the furring strip is touching the bottom of the tank.

4. Remove the furring strip from the underground tank.

5. Measure the distance from the water mark left on the strip to the line that marked the top of the tank. You can use the water level to find out how many gallons of water are in the tank if you know its total gallon capacity.

6. Measure the amount of water inside the tank by dividing the total capacity of the tank in gallons by the number of feet from the top of the tank to the bottom. For example, 200 gallons total tank capacity divided by four feet of height equals 50 gallons per foot. This will give you the gallons per feet capacity of the tank. Multiply that gallons per feet capacity by the distance from the bottom of the tank to the water mark on the furring strip. This will give you the amount of water in the tank by gallons.

Tags: furring strip, underground tank, bottom tank, septic tank, amount water, capacity tank, distance from

Different Energy Sources That Can Be Used To Generate Electricity

Electricity is produced from many different sources.

Without electricity, modern society would not be possible. And today we produce tremendous amounts of electricity from several different energy sources. Most of our energy comes from fossil fuels, but alternate sources are becoming more popular as nations attempt to move away from oil dependence and toward clean renewable energy.

Fossil Fuels

Over half of the word's electricity is produced from fossil fuels. And over half of that comes from coal, but oil and gas are also used. All produce electricity by burning the fuel to create steam to turn a turbine. Coal is the most heavily used, especially in the United States and China, accounting for over half of their energy production. However, concerns about pollution and the limited reserves of all fossil fuels mean their use in future decades will decrease.

Nuclear Power

Nuclear reactors supply 14 to 15 percent of the world's energy supply. Uranium is used in a fission reaction, which gives off heat, with almost no pollution released into atmosphere. Radiation is a potential hazard and components used in nuclear plants, along with some nuclear waste, must be carefully disposed off to prevent contamination or dangerous accidents like the Chernobyl meltdown in Ukraine.

Hydroelectric

Power is also produced by damming rivers and forcing water through pipes to turn turbines directly. Numerous dams, like the Hoover Dam or China's Three Gorges Dam, create massive man-made lakes that provide recreational areas, water reserves and nearly a sixth of the world's electricity. Apart from environmental impacts, hydroelectric power creates almost no pollution and is renewable provided the source of the river flow is stable.

Other Renewables

A small, but increasing, percentage, of the world's electricity is produced by wind turbines, solar collectors, biomass generators and geothermal power. Solar and wind are experiencing the most growth, especially in the United States, because both solar cells and wind generators can be installed on individual properties. Geothermal is particularly popular in volcanic regions like Iceland, while biomass fuels are produced from recycled agricultural waste or even directly from crops like ethanol.

Tags: produced from, almost pollution, comes from, electricity produced, especially United, especially United States

Jobs For Students With A Bachelor'S Degree In Geology

Geology is the study of the earth. It covers the materials it is made from, the structure of those materials, and the processes acting upon them. Geology students are taught skills to help them search for, analyze, monitor and develop earth components. In essence, geologists work to understand the physical history of the planet. Geology students have several specialty fields to consider. As of 2011, the starting pay for most ranged from $30,000 to $42,000 a year.

Petroleum Geologist

Petroleum geologists explore the ocean and land for possible oil and gas deposits. This job is labor-intensive, and involves sophisticated instruments and advanced computer programs to interpret geological information. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics put the average salary at $127,560 as of 2008.

Engineering Geologist

Engineering geologists commonly work with civil engineers, architects, and developers to ensure the safety of building structures. They are trained to apply geologic principles to actual situations. Engineering geologists will give advice on construction projects, assist with pollution removal, and help with hazard-reduction projects.

Mineralogist

Mineralogists identify the location of minerals through chemical analysis. They study the formation and behavior of minerals and rocks in high and low temperature areas, and classify these in accordance to composition and structure. Mineralogists are often hired as quality control advisers in the mining industry.

Sedimentologist

Sedimentologists study the origin, distribution, and alteration of sediments such as sand, mud and clay. The sedimentologist will use this knowledge to interpret geologic history.

Stratigraphers

Stratigraphers study rock layers and their formation to understand the environment from which they were formed. Stratigraphy's subfields are lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy. Lithostratigraphy deals with the physical characteristics of rock formation, while biostratigraphy is the study of fossil evidence within the rock layers.

Paleontologist

Paleontologists study fossils to trace organisms' evolution, the environment in which they lived, and their interactions with one another, which all contribute to the geologic history of the earth. Paleontologists aim to describe past phenomena and reconstruct its causes.

Hydrologist

Hydrologists study the form and strength of precipitation, the rate at which it infiltrates soil, and how it returns to the sea and atmosphere. Hydrologists use remote sensing technology, data assimilation, and numerical modeling in their work.

Tags: Engineering geologists, geologic history, Geology students, rock layers, which they

The Best Petroleum Engineering Colleges

The best petroleum engineering colleges will land you at the top of the industry.

Petroleum Engineers seek out gas reservoirs and fuel resources all over the planet. They are also trained to find alternative sources of clean energy as well as creating efficient and safe ways to manage petroleum factories and reservoirs. Most petroleum engineers are world travelers since finding new sources of petrol and gas reserves are their main tasks. The US has several Universities and Colleges that offer Petroleum Engineering; some of them are the best in the nation.

Cockrell School of Engineering at the University of Texas

The Cockrell School of Engineering at the University of Texas in Austin offers the Petroleum and Geosystems Engineering degree program. Their degree program covers the essential aspects of petroleum engineering, such as studying the overall status of the current petroleum industry and learning problem-solving techniques on the economic aspect of petroleum. The course also goes deep into the chemical and physical studies of gas and petrol, as well as mathematical lessons about Reservoir Engineering. The Cockrell School of Engineering also offers a Master's degree and a PhD degree related to Petroleum Engineering. Their website is pge.utexas.edu.

Stanford University

The Department of Energy Resources Engineering in Stanford offers a Bachelor of Science in Energy Resources Engineering. This is the basic engineering course for students so they can apply for a Master's Degree in Petroleum Engineering under the same department. The undergraduate program focuses on basic engineering courses such as physics, mathematics and other engineering fundamentals. After these courses, students will study several aspects of energy resources that include the study of alternative sources of energy and how energy is produced through natural gas, oil and renewable energy. The department's official website is pangea.stanford.edu.

Texas A&M University

The Texas A&M University also offers one of the best Petroleum Engineering programs in the US. The university offers a bachelor's degree program in Petroleum Engineering as well as a Master's and PhD degree under the same study. There are two main thrusts covered on their undergraduate program; the study of engineering principles through mathematics, physics and chemistry, and the study of geological conditions and structures related to petroleum energy. Their official website is pe.tamu.edu.

Colorado School of Mines

The Colorado School of Mines is one of the best Petroleum Engineering Colleges in the US. They offer the Bachelor of Science in Petroleum Engineering, as well as a Master's degree of the same program. The undergraduate program also deals with basic engineering concepts as well as specific areas of petroleum engineering that include production operations, reservoir engineering, oil recovery methods, drilling, and well formation and evaluation. It also covers subjects in computer science, physics, chemistry, mathematics, humanities and geology. Their website is petroleum.mines.edu.

Tags: Petroleum Engineering, basic engineering, Cockrell School, Cockrell School Engineering, degree program, Master degree, School Engineering

What Is The Average Pay For An Oceanographer Per Year

Some oceanographers study the ocean's motion and circulation.

Oceanographers study oceans -- their composition and ecosystems -- to learn their effects on weather, to find oil or to resolve environmental problems, for example.Oceanography is traditionally divided into five specializations: biological oceanography, chemical oceanography, geological oceanography, ocean engineering and physical oceanography. Today, oceanographic work sometimes takes a more interdisciplinary approach. A position might require a combined knowledge of geological oceanography and marine chemistry, for example, according to Kent State University. Oceanography careers typically require graduate study.

Average Annual Salaries

Salaries depend on education, experience, work location and the state of the economy. While oceanographers earn a starting salary of approximately $50,460 annually, the average salary overall of oceanographers is approximately $77,890 and the most-experienced oceanographers, including those with Ph.Ds., make approximately $99,690 annually, according to OceanCareers.com.

In 1999, a closer look at salaries by position and by education shows that laboratory technicians -- these positions tend to be filled by those having only a bachelor's degree -- had an average salary range of approximately $25,000 to $35,000; marine scientists -- those who have a master's or Ph.D. but do not necessarily teach in universities or lead research teams -- had an average salary range of $25,000 to $45,000; and research professors, those having a Ph.D, teaching in universities and leading research teams, had an average annual salary range of $45,000 to $90,000, according to the Virginia Institute of Marine Science.

In Education and Federal Government

In 2005, professors in chemical or physical oceanography made an average annual entry-level salary of $59,181; assistant professors made an average annual salary of $67,718; and associate professors made $95,185, according to Sea Grant Marine Careers.

In 2006, oceanographers working for the federal government, in agencies such as the U.S. Geological Survey, made a median annual salary of $87,007.

Required Education

Careers in oceanography typically require a master's degree or Ph.D. A bachelor's degree in science or math qualifies students for graduate study in oceanography, and also for positions such as lab technicians and positions in non-scientist work, such as in science-related marketing and publishing. Undergraduates interested in graduate work in oceanography typically major in biology, chemistry, geology, physics, mathematics or engineering, according to Kent State University. In fact, the Virginia Institute of Marine Science recommends that students not specialize in marine sciences as undergraduates, but instead focus on fundamental courses in math, chemistry, biology and physics before specializing once in graduate school. Speak with an academic adviser before scheduling courses.

A master's degree qualifies you for more technical work, such as running experiments under an oceanographer's supervision or for becoming involved in public policy. A Ph.D. allows the holder to perform research as a team leader and work as a professor at colleges and universities.

Job Outlook

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics groups oceanographers with geoscientists and hydrologists, and anticipates that employment for these occupations will grow by 18 percent between 2008 and 2018. The need for energy, environmental protection, responsible land and water management, and exploration and production of oil and gas will increase job prospects, according to the bureau, as will growth in technical consulting services. However, it anticipates there will be fewer job opportunities in federal and state government because of budget constraints and the trend among governments toward contracting out to consultants.

Tags: annual salary, average salary, salary range, according Kent, according Kent State, approximately annually

Free Gps Mapping Programs

Travel with a GPS.

A Global Positioning System, GPS, is guided by a cluster of satellites that orbit the earth. These satellites send signals that allow the users of GPS mapping software to access information that details accurate location and estimated time of arrival of a destination.The information is transformed into visual displays that show topography and road maps. This technology was first created by the U.S. Defense Department and was introduced to the consumer market in the 1990s.

NAVIT

NAVIT is a car navigation software that is designed to show vector maps, display multiple maps simultaneously and to create routing and renderings of a displayed map. This program calculates the best route to your destination, provides directions and has a speech interface that works intuitively with directions. Directions are delivered in more than 20 languages ages such as English, Chinese, Danish and Italian. NAVIT works well with touch screens.

Roadnav

Roadnav can be installed on a Linux, Windows or Mac operating system. This street navigation software uses the Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing files from the U.S. Census Bureau to create maps and data from the United States Geological Survey to pinpoint locations. Roadnav can also provide directions in an audio format by using the Mac OS X built in speech interface. Features include customizable skins, on-screen keyboard and a 3-D driver's perspective for viewing.

EasyGPS

EasyGPS is a Global Positioning System software that interfaces between the user’s computer and a GPS device, such as Garmin, Magellan or Lowrance. EasyGPS has a split screen for viewing. The left side of the screen lists all the physical reference points and the right side of the screen displays the GPS data. Routes and way points can be saved on EasyGPS and printed for later use.

Tags: Global Positioning, Global Positioning System, navigation software, Positioning System, side screen

Patagonian Desert Flowers

Daisies are a common flower in the Patagonian desert.

If you take a walk through the Patagonian desert you will spot several types of plant life from simple daisies to exotic flowers, such as the Patagonian fire bush. The Patagonian desert is 260,000 square miles spanning across Argentina and some regions of Chile. Patagonia is a large desert with cold winters. Regardless of the frost, many flowers flourish during the spring and summer months. Does this Spark an idea?

Daisies

Daises are seen throughout the Patagonian desert during the spring and summer months. White daisies are the main flowers seen in this desert, but you may also be able to spot other colors such as pink or red. Daises grow in large field patches across the desert.

Buttercup Flowers

The buttercup flowers found in the Patagonian desert are similar to other buttercups in different regions of the world. These flowers are yellow with thick green stems scattering in patches throughout the desert. Buttercups in Patagonia die during the cold winter months, but soon return in the spring.

Patagonian Fire Bush

The Patagonian fire bush, also called the Chilean fire bush, is a strange-looking flower with red petals that shoot out in every direction simulating a fire. These flower bushes are tall and thick with green leaves that protrude outward from several angles of the stems. The Patagonian fire bush can reach heights of up to 10 feet tall.

Orchids

Orchids are lovely, exotic flowers that are also seen in the spring throughout the Patagonian desert. The color spectrum is wide, featuring yellow, white, red and pink orchids, just to name a few. These flowers enjoy the sun and can grow up to 2 feet tall.

Tags: Patagonian desert, fire bush, Patagonian fire bush, during spring, during spring summer

Schools For Marine Biology In Utah

Most of the ocean's vast biodiversity is still undiscovered.

Marine biology is a diverse interdisciplinary study of salt water ecosystems and their inhabitants. Undergraduate and graduate studies in marine biology may lead to careers in marine research, fisheries, microbiology, systematics, ecology, mathematics, conservation and restoration. Due to specificity within the marine sciences, most positions require an advanced degree, and many marine biology students focus their studies on a particular ecosystem to gain the level of expertise necessary for top positions.

Schools proximate to the ocean rank highest in academic marine biology facilities and curriculum. In fact, only one school in Utah has a marine biology program. For students who must attend school in Utah, think about these biology-based degrees that lay the foundation for advanced study in marine biology.

Brigham Young University

This private university has several degree programs within the Biology Department. Undergraduate marine biology students take a marine biology course every winter semester, as well as participate in spring field semesters at marine research stations on the west coast and in partnership with the University of Oregon. The campus boasts large aquaria that students interact with during wet labs.

Southern Utah University

Southern Utah University students may choose one of four disciplines within biology: zoology, botany, forensics or teaching. In this particular program, zoology is best for a future marine biology student. This emphasis affords the student an opportunity to take specialized biology courses like invertebrate zoology, ichthyology, and bioinformatics. Students are also required to enroll in several chemistry courses, which provides an excellent interdisciplinary foundation before graduate school.

University of Utah

In the past ten years, the University of Utah Biology Department has seen a four-fold increase in enrollment. The University has a breadth of opportunities to meet this student demand. Scholarships are available for undergraduates, as are assistantships available for graduate students. Courses like biological chemistry, mathematical biology, prokaryotic genetics, and biological microscopy prepare the student for future studies in marine biology.

Utah State University

The Biology Department at Utah State University (USU) is a large, research-based department. There are many research opportunities with funding for undergraduates, especially in genetics and microbiology, which are key curricula for marine biology. Enroll in molecular genetics, phylogenetic systematics, cell biology and microbiology to prepare for advanced study in marine biology.

Sea Semester

If you can not find the right marine biology program in Utah, augment your studies with a Sea Semester. Much like a study abroad experience, this academic program will transfer into your undergraduate transcript (arrange this before you go). Sea Semester affords students an interdisciplinary field-based marine biology experience. Students will engage in research as well as learn basic sailing and oceanography skills. There are several programs like Ocean Exploration, Sustainability in Polynesian Island Cultures and Ecosystems, Oceans and Climate, Documenting Change in the Caribbean, and Summer Session.

Tags: marine biology, marine biology, Biology Department, advanced study, advanced study marine, biology program, biology students

What Objects Can Be Carbondated

Anything that contains organic material can be carbon-dated.

The field of archaeology relies heavily upon radiocarbon dating. By looking at carbon found in discovered materials, objects and remains, scientists can approximate how old an item is. According to the BBC, carbon dating may be the most important scientific method utilized in archaeology today.

Basics

Simply, carbon dating can only be applied to objects that were once living or were attached to something that was once living. This includes human and animal body components (such as bones and flesh) and plant matter (such as leaves and wood). It cannot date inorganic material, such as rocks.

Carbon & C14

The backbone of all life on earth, carbon is present in all organisms on earth. One isotope of carbon --- C14 --- comes from the earth's atmosphere and becomes absorbed in plants through photosynthesis. C14, along with other isotopes of carbon, becomes part of the molecular composition of animals when they ingest plants. C14 is not a stable isotope, however, and decays at a relatively constant rate.

Radiocarbon Dating

Levels of C14 remain relatively constant during an organism's lifetime, but start to decay when the animal has died. Comparing the half-life of C14 to the amount present in a sample will determine how old an artifact is. Although accurate, the method of radiocarbon dating does not accurately determine the age of newer artifacts. In addition, according to the University of California, "the practical upper limit is about 50,000 years, because so little C-14 remains after almost 9 half-lives that it may be hard to detect and obtain an accurate reading, regardless of the size of the sample."

Application of Radiocarbon Dating

Beyond archeology, using C14 to date material has proven useful in fields including oceanography, geology, biomedicine, atmospheric science, and palaeoclimatology. Radiocarbon Web Info lists many items that can be carbon dated, including metal casting ores, blood residues, textiles and fabrics, water, leather, hair, iron, corals, paper and parchment, and charcoal. It has allowed professionals to determine historical chronologies of human and natural events.

Tags: carbon dating, once living, radiocarbon dating, relatively constant

Definition Of Irregular Items On An Income Statement

In a corporate income statement, irregular -- or nonrecurring -- items include income or expense from discontinued operations, extraordinary items and cumulative effects of accounting changes. Financial managers report nonrecurring items net of taxes, because these are one-time events that do not affect future operating data, including fiscal payments or refunds.

Income Statement

Investors sift through a company's income statement to make sure financial managers did not write operational fiction, checking that report details match data the business previously reported. For example, financiers may compare prior quarters' performance information to determine whether current-quarter revenues and expenses are reasonable, given the company's financial standing and industry trends. Revenues and expenses -- which are the main components of an income statement -- include items as varied as sales, gains from investment activities, salaries, legal fees and depreciation. Regulators and institutional investors often read income statements in conjunction with balance sheets to verify data correlation and ensure that issuers are not fabricating details or pulling numbers out of thin air. For example, sales numbers go hand in hand with accounts receivable and cash, both of which are balance sheet components. Accounting managers typically report nonrecurring items below the "net income from continuing operations" number.

Discontinued Operations

The "discontinued operations" section is the first irregular item in a properly prepared income statement. This section indicates units or businesses a company sold, or discontinued, over the period under review. For example, a company with a 30 percent effective tax rate sells a profitable unit and reaps a $1 million gain through the deal. At the end of the year, the business would report net income from discontinued operations amounting to $700,000 ($1 million minus a transactional tax charge of $300,000, or $1 million times 30 percent).

Extraordinary Items

In accounting terminology, an extraordinary item is an event that is both unusual in nature and infrequent in occurrence. Examples include snow in sub-Saharan Africa, political expropriations in a country with a long tradition of democracy and respect of private property, and an earthquake in a region that has not encountered geological misfortune in the last 300 years. Economic events that are unusual in nature or infrequent in occurrence do not qualify as extraordinary items and usually end up in the "regular items" section of an income statement.

Cumulative Effects of Accounting Changes

As irregular items, cumulative effects of accounting changes pertain to accounting adjustments a business makes to factor in financial reporting modifications in prior performance data. These adjustments do not call for any monetary transaction -- meaning, the company does not pay for any expense that results from these changes. For example, if a Mexico City-based organization changes its accounting principles from Mexican generally accepted accounting principles to American GAAP, the business would record the cumulative effects of such a change in its income statement.

Tags: cumulative effects, discontinued operations, income statement, income statement, nonrecurring items, accounting changes, accounting principles

Find Out How Close You Live To A Fault Line

Buildings may topple in large earthquakes near a fault line.

Because earthquakes can't be predicted, the only line of defense against this act of nature is preparedness. Knowing how close you are to a fault line may be beneficial when you do prepare for earthquakes. The United States Geological Survey maps out fault lines on a regular map, giving users the ability to see how far they are from fault lines. USGS also provides maps with real-time earthquake results including how big specific earthquakes are.

Instructions

1. Use the United States Geological Survey map in the Resources section. This interactive map allows the user to zoom to where he lives and map out where the fault line is in comparison.

2. Center the map by clicking on it with the left mouse button. Hold the button down and drag the map to roughly over to where you live. For example, if you live in Los Angeles, center Los Angeles in the map screen and zoom close.

3. Click the "+" symbol at the left side of the screen to zoom closer into the map. Continue to center the map as you zoom closer in.

4. Continue until you find where you live on the map. Take note of any fault lines around. Fault lines are depicted with a series of colors depending on how old the fault line is. These colors are located on the right side of the screen.

5. Use the measurement tool at the top left of the map screen, which will give you the scale and mile distance. Take a ruler and match it up to the measurement tool on top. For example, zooming almost all the way in gives you a 2 mile scale, which is a 1/2-inch measurement with the ruler. So for every 1/2-inch, the map is scaled to two miles.

6. Measure the distance from your city to the nearest fault line. For example, if you were measuring for every 1/2-inch which equals two miles, start the ruler at the city and measure out to the nearest fault line. So, Los Angeles is one inch from the nearest fault line, or four miles.

7. Refer to how old the fault line is by looking at the graph on the right side. In the example above, the closest fault line is orange, or between 15,000 and 130,000 years old.

Tags: fault line, fault line, nearest fault, nearest fault line, every 2-inch, fault lines

How Do Sudden Temperature Changes Cause Weathering Of Rock

Weathering can produce strange rock formations.

When rocks decay and break down into smaller pieces, sometimes into unusual shapes, the process is called weathering. It is ordinarily a very gradual process, involving both physical pressures and chemical changes, that takes place over many years or even centuries. However, the sudden temperature change produced by a forest fire can sometimes have a rapid effect on weathering.

Types

The two basic types of weathering are physical and chemical. Physical weathering refers to weathering caused by frost damage, abrasion from contact with other rocks, tree roots growing through cracks in the rock or any other kind of physical pressure. Chemical weathering refers to weathering caused by changes in the chemical structure of the rock. Some types of physical weathering are caused by temperature changes, although under most situations, the effects of this kind of weathering are very gradual.

Water and Ice

When a rock becomes wet -- for example, as a result of a rain storm or a stream flowing over the rock -- the water is able to flow into every tiny crack or hole in the rock's structure. If the temperature drops suddenly before the water evaporates, it will expand as it turns to ice. Ice takes up about 10 percent more space than liquid water, and the sudden expansion of the frozen water in a limited space puts enough pressure on the rock to drive the edges of a small crack apart from each other and make it larger. When the rock gets wet again, even more water can get into the larger crack, and when that water freezes it will make the crack larger still.

Heat

Changes in temperature can affect weathering in a rock indirectly when water freezes, but they can also affect it directly due to changes in the rock itself. When a rock is exposed to sunlight, the temperature of the rock will increase and the rock itself will expand a little. After the sun sets, the rock cools down and contracts back down to its former size. Over a long period of time, this can actually cause the molecules that make up the rock to decay and cause cracks in the rock's structure. Of course, water can then get into those cracks and accelerate the process.

Fire

A sudden change in temperature can contribute to weathering in a rock through either ice damage or expansion and contraction, but the changes caused by a forest fire are both more sudden and more extreme. When a rock is exposed to the high temperatures generated by a fire, it can expand enough to crack the rock. The effect of such a sudden temperature change is much greater than the gradual weathering caused by the daily expansion and contraction of the rock as it heats and cools, which often produces no noticeable changes.

Tags: weathering caused, When rock, cracks rock, expansion contraction, forest fire, refers weathering

Hydrogen Fuel Vs Fossil Fuel

Hydrogen is a high-quality energy and is used to power fuel cell vehicles. Fossil fuels, which mainly include petroleum, coal and natural gas, provide for the major extent of energy needs around the globe today.

Production

Hydrogen readily combines with other molecules. The three ways generally used to liberate hydrogen are: using heat and catalysts to "reform" hydrocarbons or carbohydrates; electricity to split (electrolyze) water; experimental processes based typically on sunlight, plasma discharge or microorganisms. Fossil fuels are non-renewable source of energy. They were formed from the organic remains of prehistoric plants and animals and have been transformed into to carbon-containing fuels by geological action over millions of years.

Emissions

Hydrogen-fueled vehicles emit no greenhouse gases or other pollutants. During combustion, hydrogen produces only water vapor. On the other hand, the combustion of fossil fuels is the largest source of atmospheric pollution. Combustion of coal and petroleum are said to be responsible for the release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide into the atmosphere.

Efficiency

Hydrogen fuel is very efficient. More energy is extracted from this fuel source than with conventional power technologies, according to Tobin Smith for Billion Dollar Green. Fossil fuels have a high combustion rate and are capable of releasing tremendous amount of energy.

Cost

Hydrogen is currently expensive because it is difficult to generate, handle and store. Fossil fuels are less expensive in comparison.

Future

Fossil fuels serve as the primary source of energy at present. However, fossil fuel reserves are gradually depleting. Although hydrogen fuel is being used on an experimental level at present, it has great potential for the future.

Tags: Fossil fuels, greenhouse gases, source energy

Make An Easy Volcano Model Without Eruptions

Volcano top peeking through the clouds

Elementary school teachers use volcano models for geology lessons. Students are often assigned to make volcanoes out of modeling clay or dough that show the structure of a mountain that emits lava. The volcano made from clay can be used to illustrate eruptions with vinegar and baking soda, but many teachers simply focus lesson on the characteristics of volcanic structure. Make simple model volcanoes with realistic features to explain these extraordinary geological landmarks.

Instructions

1. Place a 1 lb. clump of clay on a plastic or Styrofoam plate. Use fresh clay or clay dough for pliability.

2. Form the basic upside down volcano mountain cone shape by hand. Give each side of the cone a different slope for realistic shaping. Leave a blunt point on top and press a hole the center with fingers.

3. Make wide indented trails down the lower sides of the volcano with a spoon to show large lava trails. Make some of the gullies deeper than others.

4. Etch smaller lava trails into the upper mountain with a butter knife. Make some of the etchings straight at the top, and then add sharp angles and curves to the lines as they trail down the slopes.

Tags: clay dough, lava trails, Make some

Hunter College Core Requirements

Hunter College Core Requirements

Hunter College of the City University of New York is located on Manhattan's Upper East Side. According to Princeton Review's "Best Value College" category, Hunter is ranked No. 2 in the nation for public schools. There are three stages of the core education requirement at Hunter, followed by a foreign language requirement and a pluralism and diversity requirement. All information is relevant as of 2010; examples of courses do not include the full list of available options.

Academic Foundations

This is the first stage of the Hunter College core requirements. Hunter recommends that this stage be completed as soon as possible in the student's career at Hunter. Specifically, the school recommends that it is done within the first 30 credit hours. The categories of classes are in English composition, quantitative reasoning and U.S. history. English composition is one course, and teaches the basics of writing, style and grammar. Quantitative reasoning is the required basic math course, and there are several calculus and statistics options based on the student's math level. U.S. history also has different options based on the time period studied. A political science course may be take in lieu of a history course.

Broad Exposure

The broad exposure stage has English composition as a prerequisite. The school recommends that these classes be completed within the student's first three semesters. The student is required to take one course in the survey of literature of written language, which can be a secondary English course or one that centers on African and Puerto Rican literature. The student must also take six credits in a social science, such as history, economics, psychology, sociology or geography, and three credits in the humanities, such as philosophy, theater, or classics. Three credits must be taken in visual and performing arts, with options including art, dance, music, and film and media studies. Finally, the student must take a science course that includes a lab component. This course can be in biology, chemistry, geography, geology or physics.

Focused Exposure

The focused exposure stage seeks to increase the depth of the student's knowledge pertaining to the sciences and humanities. This stage requires two courses (six credit hours in total); one course must be beyond the entry level in the humanities, such as religion or philosophy. The second course must be beyond the entry level in either the social or natural sciences. This can be a secondary course in economics, sociology, physics, chemistry or biology.

Foreign Language Requirement

Hunter college offers foreign language classes in Chinese, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, Japanese, Latin, Polish, Russian, Spanish, Swahili, Ukrainian and Yoruba. The requirement entails four semesters of a foreign language, all in the same language. This requirement is often bypassed. If the student has completed two to four years of a foreign language in high school, he may apply for partial or full exemption from this credit. The student can also take a proficiency exam in any of the languages. If test show that the student is proficient, he will be given credit for this requirement. Courses taken at other colleges may also transfer over and take the place of Hunter's foreign language classes.

Pluralism and Diversity Requirement

Hunter College has compiled this category to achieve an understanding and respect for diversity among its students. This combination of courses requires that the student study several different cultures from around the world to broaden his horizons on different world experiences and beliefs. The total number of credit hours that must be taken is 12. This entails four courses of three credits each. The broad categories of these courses are practical and theoretical issues in non-European societies, women and/or issues of gender or sexual orientation.

Tags: Hunter College, credit hours, English composition, foreign language, recommends that, also take

What Types Of Landforms Are There

Great river gorges are some of the world's most impressive landforms.

A great suite of landforms comprises the planet's topography. Taken on a variety of scales, they include everything from the continents and the oceans to small kettle ponds and playas. Derived from layers of rock and sediment sculpted by geologic forces, erosion, weathering and other natural agents, they exert major ecological and climatic influence.

Hills and Mountains

The world's highest topographic points are mountains: whether the soaring seamounts and exposed volcanic islands of the oceans or the great terrestrial summits. Collisions of tectonic plates crumple them into existence, as do the violent, chronic releases of magma from under the Earth's crust that form volcanoes. Some mountains may simply be masses of resistant rock that have been revealed by erosion stripping away more yielding surrounding layers. The lower and more subdued landforms roughly classified as "hills" may represent ancient mountain ranges heavily weathered and eroded; old sand dunes stabilized by vegetation; mesas or buttes molded by differential erosion; or any number of other origins.

Plains

By contrast to the ruggedness of mountains and hills, the world's plains are level and sometimes nearly featureless. Vast accumulations of sediment build the mysterious, little-known abyssal plains of the ocean bottom that trend between marine trenches or ridges and the rims of the continental shelves. On land, broad flats mark the former basins of lakes or inland seas now vanished. Big rivers build floodplains by spilling their banks during high-flow events. The sediments deposited during these inundations grant the floodplain rich, fertile soils.

Defiles

The active burrowing of high-gradient streams and rivers creates the narrow valleys called canyons, gorges, ravines, gulches, arroyos and a host of other geographic monikers. These rends in the landscape constitute some of the most impressive terrain on the planet: gorges like the Grand Canyon in Arizona, Hells Canyon in Oregon-Idaho, Copper Canyon in Mexico, Fish River Canyon in Namibia and the Kali Gandaki Gorge in Nepal are renowned for their wildness and scenery.

Glacial Landforms

Glaciers are masses of ice that accumulate in high mountains and latitudes where cold temperatures and generous precipitation encourage the accumulation of large amounts of snow. Extreme pressure and slope inclinations encourage glacier movement, and their advances and retreats bulldoze the terrain and form distinctive landforms. These include teardrop-shaped hills called drumlins, sinuous ridges called eskers, great rubble piles called moraines that mark glacial fringes and scoured-out depressions called kettles. Mountain glaciers also significantly shape alpine landscapes, carving peaks into sharp conical horns and excavating huge slope-side amphitheaters called cirques.

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Fun Science Riddles

Science riddles make learning fun.

Learning about science is fun when riddles are used to introduce scientific concepts. Riddles are motivating by nature. They grab the interest and spark the curiosity of people of all ages. Riddles are puzzles that people cannot stop thinking about until they are solved; for this reason, fun science riddles are an ideal teaching tool.

Earth Science Riddles

Riddles:

1. What is neither water nor land, and is always soaking wet?

2. What kind of tree can you carry in your hand?

3. What looks like a star, falls off a tail and burns in the air?

Answers:

1. Wetlands.

2. A palm tree.

3. Dust and gravel from comet tails.

Human Body Riddles

Riddles:

1. What swirls, loops, and circles on your fingertips, yet never moves?

2. What is the last thing you take off before bed?

3. Where can an insect land on your body and not really "bug" you?

Answers:

1. Fingerprints.

2. Your feet off of the floor.

3. The middle of the back.

Life Science

Riddles:

1. What's half a meter long, sticky and bad news for insects?

2. What has four legs in the morning, two legs in the afternoon and three legs at night?

3. What washes its ears with its tongue and uses its head to discipline its kids?

Answers:

1. A giant anteater's tongue.

2. A person. As a baby you crawl on all four, as an adult you walk on two, and when you are older you use a cane.

3. A giraffe

Tags: Riddles What, Riddles Riddles, Riddles Riddles What, Science Riddles

What Is Greensand Fertilizer

Greensand carries minerals from the ocean to your garden.

Greensand is a collection of minerals from ocean sediments deposited long ago. The primary constituent is glauconite, which incorporates potassium, magnesium, iron and aluminum in its structure. If enough glauconite is present in the sediment, a greenish color occurs, which is why greensand is so named. Because greensand is rich in potassium and magnesium, it's been used as an organic fertilizer since the 1760s. Does this Spark an idea?

Source

The only U.S. location with a greensand mining operation still in production is New Jersey. This state features 325,000 acres of greensand-bearing soil in a 100-mile strip of land. These concentrations of greensand exist along the coastal plain.

Formation and Composition

When greensand deposits are mined, the glauconite exists as pellets with a diameter of 0.5 to 4 mm. Some glauconite is also found in a form resembling mica flakes. In addition to glauconite, greensand can contain up to 30 other substances, including phosphorus, silicon, chromium, calcium, potash and lime. The additional materials aren't necessarily part of the glauconite complex, but tag-along substances that were incorporated into the soil alongside the glauconite.

Fertilizer

As a fertilizer, greensand provides slow-release potassium and magnesium for plants. Potassium deficiency turns leaves yellow and causes them to develop brown edges. Older leaves may cup downward, while new leaves curl upward. Stems grow hard, and fruit yields decrease. Magnesium deficiencies cause similar effects in leaves, although the veins remain green and the leaves curl upward. Once plants show signs that they're low in potassium or magnesium, greensand won't work fast enough to remedy the situation. In this case, it's best to add greensand to the soil in fall and allow it to provide long-term benefits.

Application

Many soils are already high in potassium, so perform a soil test before adding greensand to your garden. If a test shows a need for potassium, add 4 pounds of greensand per 100 square feet to your garden soil. Mineral fertilizers such as greensand aren't highly soluble, so they release their nutrients slowly, taking several years before they deplete their reserves. Greensand releases minerals over a period of 5 to 7 years. You can apply greensand to your garden before planting in spring, or at the end of the growing season in fall.

Soil Conditioner

In addition to its use as an organic fertilizer, greensand is an excellent soil conditioner. It has the ability to absorb up to 10 times more water than generic sand, which allows it to bind sandy soils. Greensand also conditions clay soils by breaking up the sticky particles and facilitating drainage.

Tags: potassium magnesium, your garden, curl upward, fertilizer greensand, from ocean

Harmful Effects Of Bottom Trawl Fishing In Alaska

Bottom trawl fishing destroys vast expanses of complex seafloor habitat off Alaksa's coastline.

Oceana North America reports that bottom trawl fishing is banned in about 180,000 square miles of the Bering Sea around Alaska's Aleutian Islands as of July, 2008. (reference 3) In 2009, the North Pacific Fishery Management Council banned industrial fishing in U.S. waters north of the Bering Strait. (reference 3) The Marine Conservation Biology Institute (MCBI) reports that bottom trawling, "damages and destroys structurally complex habitats," including recently discovered deep sea coral beds, fish and sponge habitats and geological structures on the seafloor. (reference 1,2)

Deep Sea Coral Damage

Bottom trawl fishing is banned on about 180,000 square miles of the Bering Sea around Alaska.

The Alaska Oceans Program (AOP) reports that a Gulf of Alaska research trawl in 1990 removed 2000 pounds of corals from the seafloor. About 27 percent of corals in the path of the trawling net were detached from the seabed. Seven years later, the damaged coral beds had not yet been repopulated with young corals. (reference 1) In 2002, Bob Stone and Jon Heifetz of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) discovered that heavily trawled areas on the bottom of the Bering Sea revealed destroyed corals and areas devoid of corals entirely. (reference 1) A host of other studies over the past 12 years confirm a correlation between significant coral reduction and extensive bottom trawl fishing in areas around Alaska. (resource 1, reference 1)

Impacts on Biodiversity

The huge dragnets used for bottom trawling scrape the seafloor clean of coral and sponges and negatively impact the life support networks of every species in the immediate and surrounding areas. AOP reports that a single trawl in the Gulf of Alaska damages over half of the vase sponges and sea whips in its wake. The trawl also destroys 20 percent of brittle stars and 13 percent of finger sponges in just one pass over the ocean floor. (Reference 1) MCBI reports that bottom trawling in the Bering Sea reduces the complexity of ocean habitat and has the potential to permanently alter the types and amounts of species dependent upon complex seafloor structures. (reference 2)

Bycatch Issues

One of the largest destructive elements of bottom trawl fishing off the coast of Alaska consists of massive bycatch of non-targeted species. Fishing companies aim for specific animals such as, shrimp, crab, cod, orange roughy, snappers, mackeral, pollock and rockfish. (reference 4) However, AOP reports that up to 17 pounds or more of non-targeted species including corals, sponges, and chinook salmon get caught in the net for every one pound of the targeted marketable species. (reference 1) Save Corals reports that over a million pounds of Alaskan corals and sponges are caught up in dragnets as bycatch each year. (reference 5)

Tags: reports that, trawl fishing, around Alaska, bottom trawling, reports that bottom, that bottom, about square

Locate Vacancies Of Teaching Jobs In Saudi Arabia Universities

locate vacancies of teaching jobs in Saudi Arabia universities

If you are looking for a job in one of Saudi Arabia universities, there are many universities announce vacancies in their web sites. The following steps guide you through and the below resource section has the related links.

Instructions

1. Check Al-Imam Muhammad ibn Saud Islamic University, it has many colleges such as languages and translation college, social sciences college and college of medicine. On the university website, scroll down and click on 'job opportunities' button. Browse the opening jobs of the current academic year and on the bottom of the page you will find the required documents and fax number for application.

2. Follow openings in King Abdullah University of Science and Technology. It is targeting engineering and life science field. On the website , go to 'employment' in the top bar. Career page details compensation and benefits, to find current openings, on the left menu select search/find job.

3. Consider Alfaisal University, it always has openings, in their website, employment page, you can browse positions by colleges and find more details about the requirements and apply.

4. See website of Prince Sultan University, it is a private university where the English language is required in all academic position, on the employment page you can find openings by colleges.

5. Try Prince Mohammad University, it lists vacancies on employment page in the university's website. Jobs are classified to academic and non academic, click on the title of the job to see the requirement and use the online application to submit your information.

Tags: employment page, Saudi Arabia, Arabia universities, Saudi Arabia universities, university website, website employment

Fun Earth Science Projects

A model volcano is a classic earth science project.

Earth science is the study of natural materials and conditions found in and around the earth, such as rocks and minerals, solar power, weather and plants. Earth science projects are enjoyable for children because they are hands-on and easy to do. A young student can learn a lot about earth science from projects.

Tornado

Use this earth science project for a child who is new to the world of science projects. First, the child can hypothesize about the different factors that make a tornado. Build a model tornado to test the theory and record results. Glue a deli cup to the middle of a 10-by-12-inch piece of wood. Glue the short side of a 9-by-10-inch vinyl sheet to half of the cup. Glue the rest of the sheet to the wood base in a spiral around the cup. Do not allow the rest of the vinyl to touch the cup. Glue a second vinyl sheet to the cup and around the cup like the first sheet. The two sheets should make a spiral pattern around the cup without touching each other. Fill the cup halfway with water. Place a few blocks of dry ice in the cup. Place a plastic plant saucer with a two-inch hole in the middle over the vinyl sheets. Stick a hand-held fan in the hole and angle the fan upward. Turn on the fan and watch the tornado emerge above the fan.

Solar Cooker

This is a project about solar heating. The student should determine ahead of time if he thinks the box will cook a hot dog enough to eat. Cut a curve into both the sides of a shoe box to make a shape that looks similar to a skateboarding half pipe. Tape a piece of poser board to the open portion of the shoebox matching the curvature of the sides of the box. Cover the entire box in aluminum foil, with the shiny side up. Take the box outdoors on a sunny day. Mark the placement of the brightest reflection from the sun on the foil with markers. Cut two cardboard rectangles and glue them to the sides of the box near the marked spots. Punch a hole in each cardboard rectangle and slide a skewer through the holes to make a small cooking spit. Stick a hot dog on the skewer and place in the sun to cook. Students should record how long it takes to heat the hot dog, how bright the sun has to be to cook it and if it is a viable replacement for indoor cooking.

Trash Bag Degradation

This is a project that explores which type of trash bag is best for the environment. Fill up different kinds of trash bags with compost materials. Make sure to use the same amounts of trash for each bag. Don't use meat, which can attract animals. Bury the bags in a hole one foot deep and five feet wide. Place the bags inside and cover them with dirt. You can use a board placed over the bags to prevent animals from eating the trash. Dig up part of the bag every two or three weeks for two or three months. Record the results of the investigation to determine which bag degrades the fastest.

Volcano

The volcano project is a science project standard that students really enjoy. Use the project to show how different materials create a reaction when used together and how a volcano works by building up pressure. Build a clay volcano around a soda bottle. Fill the bottle with ¼ cup of water, a few drops of dish soap, some red food coloring and ¼ of a cup of vinegar. Wrap one tablespoon of baking soda in a square of toilet paper. Drop the baking soda packet in the volcano to make it erupt.

Tags: science project, baking soda, earth science, earth science project, foil with

What Materials Are Found In Deltas That Are In A River

Rivers deposit sediments at their mouths to form deltas.

Deltas form where a river enters a larger body of water or a broad basin. Losing some of its capacity to carry sediments as its gradient decreases and its channel widens, the river deposits its load, building deltas of various shape from these materials. The existence of a delta attests to a substantial enough rate of river deposition to counteract erosion by ocean or lake waves.

Sediments

Delta sediments are diverse, dependent on the loads that their constituent rivers transport. The largest are rock fragments derived from weathering and erosion in the drainage system. A stream in full flood easily has the capacity to drag and tumble large rocks along its channel; even big boulders too massive to transport can be worn down by the abrasion of smaller rocks and sediments in the flow, thus rendering them into mobile fragments. Granular sand might be composed of any kind of material but most often stems from the weathering of granite into quartz crystals. Smaller yet are particles of silt (between 1/16 and 1/256 millimeters) and clay (smaller than 1/256 millimeters). The origin of these river sediments varies from the simple abrasion of channel-edge rocks to volcanic deposits drained from mudflows called lahars that are associated with volcanic eruptions.

Debris

All manner of nongeological debris can accumulate in a delta, washed out from points upstream. Large rivers draining forested areas tend to carry a substantial burden of woody materials, from twigs and branches to huge logs. The delta of the Mackenzie River, Canada's lengthiest, contributes tree trunks and branches to the Beaufort Sea, whose currents wash such driftwood along the Arctic coast.

Structure

Often a basic gradient of deposition is distinct in a delta, with large, coarse gravels deposited first, then progressively finer-grained particles throughout the delta and beyond. Coastal deltas are often divided into three sections: an upper delta plain at their head, dominated mainly by river influence; a lower delta plain occasionally submerged in brackish tidal waters and thus impacted both by freshwater and marine currents; and a subaqueous zone beneath sea level. Materials deposited in the lower delta plain may not all be riverine in origin: For example, a mangrove swamp occupying such a delta zone might be awash in nutrients and flotsam from the ocean that cycle in during high tide.

Types

Deltas are classified by their shape and formation, which depend greatly on coastal topography, river characteristics and coastal wave energy. The Mississippi River each year deposits more than 200 million tons of sediment at its mouth in the Gulf of Mexico, creating a distinctive, ever-shifting "bird's-foot" delta. The delta of the Nile is arcuate, or curved, as it's sculpted mainly by wave action. A few large inland deltas exist, forming where a river flows into a broad topographic depression; Mali's Inner Niger Delta and Botswana's Okavango Delta are examples.

Tags: delta plain, from weathering, lower delta, lower delta plain, where river

About The State Stone Of Texas

Petrified palmwood was named the state stone of Texas in 1969. It is found primarily in east Texas near the Gulf Coast. Petrified palmwood is a fossil that was formed millions of years ago when the trees died and fell into the mud below. Over time, the palmwood petrified to stone.

Identification

Petrified palmwood typically has a spotty appearance. The spots on a cross-cut section come from the hollow vascular tubes of the live palm tree. These tubes are usually filled with a darker mineral substance in the fossilized palmwood. The fossil may also have a pattern of lines on the surface parallel to the length of the trunk. It can vary in color from pale pink or yellow to dark brown or black. On some specimens, the bark can still be seen. Petrified palmwood is much heavier than the original wood from which it was formed.

The Facts

The genus of petrified palmwood is Palmoxylon sp. It formed in Texas during the Oligocene Epoch, which took place between 34 and 23 million years ago. The Oligocene Epoch was a time when the earth's temperature cooled. Thickening of the polar ice caps caused the oceans to recede, creating shallow seas with large, gently sloping beaches ideal for the growth of palm trees. Over many years, the palmwood, which had become buried in sediment, was replaced by minerals such as pyrite, dolomite, calcite and silica.

Geography

Petrified palmwood was also declared also the state fossil of Louisiana in 1976. It is common along the western border of Louisiana, which contacts the border of east Texas, especially in the Toledo Bend area. Petrified palmwood is the most common form of petrified wood in Texas.

Function

This fossil is considered a highly collectible item and is available in many stores. When polished, petrified palmwood has a very shiny, smooth surface. The colorful patterns formed by the cylindrical structures and regular grain add to the visual appeal of the stone. It is also made primarily of silica. This makes the stone ideal for jewelry items, such as pendants, brooches, pins, rings, earrings and cuff links. It can also be found on exhibit at the Texas Natural Science Center in Austin.

Benefits

Petrified palmwood polishes to a high shine. It is very hard, and thus can stand up to normal, everyday use. Its beauty and variety of colors makes it a very good decorative item. However, compared to other stones, it is relatively inexpensive.

Tags: Petrified palmwood, Petrified palmwood, east Texas, Oligocene Epoch, palmwood fossil

Where Are The Deposits Of Oil Shale In The Us

Rising oil prices have renewed interest in developing domestic sources of oil.

Rising crude oil prices and concerns about the stability of some oil producing nations have increased interest in developing domestic energy sources in the United States. Many people are surprised to learn the largest deposits of oil on earth are found in the oil shale of the United States. Estimated worldwide reserves of conventional crude oil are 1.3 trillion barrels. Experts estimate the oil shale of the United States holds over 2 trillion barrels of recoverable oil.

Oil Shale Explained

Oil shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock that is rich in organic material called "kerogen," from which liquid hydrocarbons are produced. In geologic terms, oil shale is younger than crude oil deposits. The natural forces of heat and pressure have not yet converted the oil shale into crude oil.

Because the kerogen is trapped within the rock, oil shale must be mined and requires more processing than crude oil. It cannot be substituted directly for crude oil in all applications, but it can be converted into high-quality jet fuel, diesel fuel for power plants and other useful byproducts.

Oil Reserves vs. Resources

Oil shale "resources" represent the estimated total barrels of oil contained in oil shale deposits. There could be more than 6 trillion barrels of oil contained in America's oil shale, but much of that oil is not recoverable.

Oil shale "reserves" represent the estimated quantity of oil that can be recovered economically using current technology. Estimates of current U.S. oil shale reserves are in excess of 2 trillion barrels.

The Green River Formation

The Green River Formation in the western United States contains the richest oil shale deposits on Earth. Covering parts of Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming, the Green River Formation holds an estimated 1.5 to 1.8 trillion barrels of oil shale reserves.

The Piceance Basin in Colorado holds perhaps 80 percent (more than 1 trillion barrels) of the in-place oil shale reserves in the Green River Formation. Oil shale in the Unita Basin in Utah holds perhaps 200 to 240 billion barrels of oil reserves, while the Green River Basin in Wyoming holds an additional 250 to 300 billion barrels.

Some smaller oil shale deposits within the Green River Formation have yet to be fully investigated.

The Devonian Oil Shale Deposits

The Devonian oil shale deposits extend through several eastern states, but over 90 percent of the minable oil shale deposits are in Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio and Indiana. The black Devonian shale has been exploited as a source of natural gas for many years, but long been considered as a potential source of lower-grade shale oil.

The Devonian oil shale yields only about half of the organic matter (kerogan) as the Green River Formation oil shale deposits. Estimated total shale oil resources for the Devonian deposits are 420 million barrels.

Tags: Green River, Green River Formation, River Formation, trillion barrels, shale deposits, shale reserves

Gold Prospecting Tours In Eastern Oregon Or Idaho

Gold prospecting tours are offered in Oregon and Idaho.

Gold prospecting tours are a way for people to experience life the way it was 150 years ago. During these tours, clients are provided with basic prospecting and panning tools and training in the proper techniques that prospectors used back in the 1800s. These tours will take you through some scenic parts of Eastern Oregon and Idaho and are a way for friends and families to strike it rich together.

The Cracker Creek Mining Camp

Located in the mountains along the Cracker Creek in Sumpter, Oregon, this mining camp on Bourne Road has one of the biggest gold veins in North America. Both veteran and novice prospectors will offer instruction on the proper way to search for gold and help find those first few nuggets. The camp provides you with all of the all of the necessary equipment to get started. In addition to mining trips, Cracker Creek Mining Camp has a museum displaying tools and machines miners used.

Cracker Creek Road

Sumpter, OR 97877

541-894-2419

sumpteroregongold.org

Crystal Gold Mine Tour

This is the only genuine 1880s mining town in the northwestern part of Idaho. Guests taking the mining and gold prospecting tour here will learn how miners drill gold, trace gold veins and prospect for gold. With year-round availability, Crystal Gold Mine has become a AAA-approved vacation spot with special areas for RVs and tents. Inside its cave walls, prospectors will see just how rich in gold and other gems this area is. High grade gold with nuggets weighing up to 70 ounces per ton has been discovered throughout the property. Admission rates for adults are $12, while a family rate is also available for $45 as of October 2010.

51931 Silver Valley Rd.

Kellogg, ID 83837

208-783-4653

goldmine-idaho.com

Wines Camp and Emlly Camp

The properties featured by Oregon Gold Trips have produced claims of almost $10 million in gold nuggets and dust. Guests who manage to find a few nuggets get to keep them, as this camp implements the "finders keepers" policy. Oregon Gold Trips offer tours in two different mining grounds: Wines Camp and Emlly Camp. At Wines Camp, cabins and beds with electric lighting are available. Guests have a chance to work with large gold mining equipment. In addition, guests are trained extensively in the art of gold panning, crevicing and metal detecting. Discounts are given for guests bringing their own RV, equipment, tent or trailer trucks. Emlly camp is a mining location deep in the wilderness of the Kalmiopsis forest. Here, guests are offered a 4-day stay in one of their furnished cabins. Training in gold prospecting and gold panning is conducted here by experienced gold hunters.

Oregon Gold Trips, LLC

P.O. Box 285

Grants Pass, OR 97528

877-672-8877

oregongoldtrip.com/

Tags: Cracker Creek, Gold Trips, Oregon Gold, Oregon Gold Trips, Oregon Idaho, Wines Camp, Camp Emlly

What Majors Are Offered At Csusb

Students can choose from a wide range of academic majors at CSUSB.

California State University at San Bernardino, which is located between Los Angeles and Palm Springs, provides higher education for the expansive region comprising San Bernardino and Riverside counties. CSUSB students can choose from an extensive selection of undergraduate, graduate degree and certificate programs, as the university offers more than 70 majors through its five colleges.

Arts and Letters

CSUSB's College of Arts and Letters oversees numerous degree programs through its eight departments: English; philosophy; art; communication studies; liberal studies; music; theater, and world languages and literatures. Students can choose from a wide range of majors within these departments, which may in turn include specific tracks of study. For example, English majors may elect to complete their degree with a focus on literature, linguistics or creative writing. Broadly speaking, degrees from the Arts and Letters College provide students with an education based in the arts, languages, and cultures of the world.

Business and Public Administration

The College of Business and Public Administration prepares students for careers in business or government. The college comprises seven academic departments: accounting and finance; information and decision sciences; management; marketing; public administration; master of business administration, and master of public administration. The college offers various concentrations. For example, there are nine concentrations for students pursuing a bachelor of science degree in administration, including accounting, finance or real estate.

Education

CSUSB's College of Education offers degrees that prepare students to be educators. There are four degree-granting departments within the college, including educational leadership and curriculum; educational psychology and counseling; language, literacy and culture; and science, mathematics and technology education. Majors within the college vary depending on the subject the student would like to teach; the age of children they would like to educate, or whether they are hoping to become an education-related professional such as a counselor.

Natural Sciences

Due to the wide range of topics and fields related to science, the College of Natural Science is made up of many departments, including biology, chemistry and biochemistry, computer science and technology, geology, health science and human ecology, kinesiology, mathematics, physics, nursing and the Water Resources Institute. The college offers over 25 undergraduate and graduate degrees, many of which offer specific tracks of study. For example, computer science majors can concentrate in bioinformatics, computer engineering or computer science.

Social and Behavioral Sciences

The College of Social and Behavioral Sciences provides educations in academic disciplines that use scientific methods to analyze human behavior, society and history. The college comprises nine departments, including anthropology, criminal justice, economics, geography and environmental studies, history, political science, psychology, social work, and sociology. Students can elect a double major, one of these majors in addition to other degrees, such as a bachelor of arts in human development or human services, which involve completing coursework from various departments.

Tags: Arts Letters, choose from, computer science, wide range, accounting finance, administration master, Behavioral Sciences

List Sources In A Research Paper

Completing the bibliography requires concentration and attention to details.

The standard reference for students from high school to graduate school has been Kate Turabian's Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, which is an adaptation of the Chicago Style Manual. When listing sources in a bibliography at the end of a research paper it is important to be precise and accurate. Keep a copy of your sources close by to refer to as you type your citations.

Instructions

Listing Books: Single Author and Multiple Authors

1. Type the author's surname, then a comma followed by his or her given name. End with a period.

2. Type the title of the book, capitalizing all major words, ending with a period. Highlight the book title and turn it into italic text.

3. Type the name of the city where the book was published, followed by a colon.

4. Type the publisher's name, a comma, and the year of publication. End with a period.

5. Compare to this example: Ehrman, Bart D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. New York: HarperOne, 2005.

6. Entering two authors requires an "and" between the first and second authors' names. The second author's name, however, is written given name, middle initial, if applicable, then surname. End with a period.

7. Entering more than two authors in your source list follows the same pattern with a comma between each author's name.

Listing a Magazine or Journal Article

8. Enter the author's surname followed by a comma, then the given name followed by a period.

9. Enter the title of the article, capitalizing all major words, with a period at the end. Place quotation marks around the title, including the period.

10. Enter the name of the magazine in italic text, followed by a comma.

11. Enter the date in month, day, year format followed by a period. Compare to this example: Oberg, James. "How We'll Probe the Solar System." Astronomy, January 2011.

12. Creating a journal entry follows the same pattern except that after the journal's name, you will type the volume and issue number, the year in parentheses, a colon, the specific page numbers you're referring to and then a period. Compare to this example: Meers, M. B. "Maximum Bite Force and Prey Size of Tyrannosaurus Rex and their Relationships to the Inference of Feeding Behavior." Historical Biology: A Journal of Paleobiology 16 no. 1 (2003): 1-12.

Listing a Website

13. Type the author's surname, a comma, his or her given name, then a period.

14. Enter the title of the web page followed by a period, all enclosed in quotation marks. The first letter of each major word in the title is capitalized.

15. Enter the title of the website followed by a period. The first letter of each major word in the title is capitalized.

16. Type the exact URL. It must include the "http://" element.

17.Type in the word "accessed" followed by the date in month, day, year format, all within parentheses. Compare to this example: Newman, William L. "Radiometric Time Scale." Geologic Time. http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/radiometric.html (accessed March 23, 2011).

Tags: with period, Compare this, Compare this example, followed period, given name, this example, author surname

Science Projects That Have To Do With Pop Rocks

The carbon dioxide in Pop Rocks candy makes for fun experiments.

Pop Rocks are a hard candy produced by Zeta Manufacturing. According to the company's website, Pop Rocks are similar to other hard candies, with sugar, lactose, corn syrup and flavoring. The difference that gives Pop Rocks their pop comes from the addition of carbon dioxide gas between the boiling and cooling stages. Tiny carbon dioxide bubbles are trapped in the candy during the cooling process. The bubbles pop when the candy is melted.

Basic Pop Rocks Demonstration

Citric acid in lemons reacts with the carbon dioxide in Pop Rocks.

A basic demonstration of the interaction of carbon dioxide bubbles with water, sodium bicarbonate and citric acid uses Pop Rocks, water, baking soda, food coloring, and lemon juice. The Pop Rocks website presents a version of this experiment called "Harry Potter's Pop Rocks Potion." Students start with a small container or test tube half filled with water, and then watch the chemical reactions that take place as each additional ingredient is added. According to the website, the addition of citric acid, the final ingredient, should cause the mixture to bubble and overflow.

Variations on Basic Demonstration

Natural food coloring reacts differently than artificial food dyes.

Students can extend the experiment by varying the amounts of each ingredient and observing the resulting reactions. For example, will more baking soda make a more dramatic display, or does the strength of the reaction depend more on the amount of citric acid? How many Pop Rocks will provide the right amount of carbon dioxide, and does more of the candy in proportion to the other ingredients create a stronger reaction? The Pop Rocks website states that although natural coloring agents such as beet juice or cochineal do not result in colors that are as vivid, the chemical reaction is stronger. Students may wish to experiment to find out whether this is indeed true, and may want to research the reason for the difference.

Pop Rocks, Soda and Balloon Experiment

Contrary to an urban myth that has circulated since Pop Rocks entered the candy market in the 1970s, ingesting Pop Rocks along with soda will not cause a child (or adult) to explode. However, because both Pop Rocks and soda both contain carbon dioxide, mixing the two releases more of the gas. Steve Spangler gives instructions on his website for an experiment using Pop Rocks, soda, and a balloon. Students pour Pop Rocks candy into the balloon, cover the bottle opening with the balloon, and then allow the candy to fall into the soda. The release of carbon dioxide from both the Pop Rocks and the soda causes the release of the gas into the balloon, partially filling it.

Interactions of Pop Rocks and Liquids

An experiment on Stem Planet's website allows students to explore the interactions between Pop Rocks and liquids with varying degrees of acidity. Students pour a small amount of Pop Rocks candy into three bowls, and then add soda (acidic), water (almost neutral), and dishwashing liquid (base). In addition to observing the reaction of the carbon dioxide in Pop Rocks to the different liquids, students can notice which of the reactions seems most similar to the melting of the candy in the human mouth.

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Simple Signs Of Sinkhole Activity

Sinkholes can be small depressions or huge craters that swallow roadways and buildings.

Florida has more sinkholes than any other state in the nation, according to a study prepared by the Florida House of Representatives.The limestone and dolomite layers that form most of the state are just under the topsoil. When rain and water flow through the topsoil and into the limestone or karst layer, collapses called sinkholes naturally occur. Human activity can exacerbate the problem through urbanization of the natural environment and the loss of topsoil and ground covers. The U.S. Geological Survey says most sinkholes occur in Florida, Texas, Alabama, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee and Pennsylvania. Does this Spark an idea?

Legislative Warning Signs

The Florida House of Representatives prepared a study for amendments to an insurance bill that outlines some signs of impending sinkholes. According to the study, sinkholes may occur in the presence of tilting and falling fence posts and trees; slanting foundations; sudden new small ponds or unexplained sudden drainage of a pond; overnight appearance of craters and holes; areas of wilted vegetation; discolored well water; and structural cracks in buildings.

Surface Activity and Acid Rain

A main reason for collapse of the karst formation is the acidity of the water that eats through limestone and other soft stone. Rainfall is slightly acidic, and it picks up more acid when it filters through vegetation. But a healthy cover of topsoil and other geologic materials can filter the rain and remove some acidity so it is less corrosive to limestone. When an unstable area experiences intensive building, vibration, pumping of water and alteration of the natural landscape, the threat of sinkholes increases.

Cracks

Houses settle, and not all signs of settling are preludes to sinkholes. But new or widening cracks may signal a problem. Evaluators who assist homeowners in preparing sinkhole insurance claims list a number of cracks to monitor: separation between walls and ceiling or floors and walls; cracks in interior and garage walls; cracks around corners of door and window frames; cracked floor tiles or popped bathroom tiles; driveway cracks; exterior wall cracks; any building cracks that form a stairstep pattern.

Landscape Irregularities

Some signs of sinkhole activity might include a leaking or mysteriously draining inground pool; dips and depressions in the yard; holes in the yard; dead patches of grass, garden plants or shrubs; increasing yard slope; cracks or shifts in fences or retaining walls; neighborhood sinkholes. Residential sinkhole public adjusters caution that drainage ponds, lakes and canals in the vicinity may be signs that the area has experienced sinkholes in the past and is still vulnerable.

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Why Is It Important For Students To Learn About Weathering & Erosion In Science

The Grand Canyon demonstrates the effects of erosion.

Weathering and erosion are important concepts that are sometimes taught as young as the elementary school level and may be reintroduced in a physical science or geology class. Natural forces that break down rocks and minerals into smaller pieces are called weathering. Weathering elements include water and acid rain. Erosion takes place when rocks and minerals are broken down and moved to a new location. Gravity typically causes mass wasting, such as in the case of landslides, but movement can also be caused by water and air. It is important to understand the effects of weathering and erosion on our environment to understand how it affects us.

Crop Production

Crops can be grown on approximately 1/32nd of the Earth's crust. This is a very small fraction of arable land that the billions of people on Earth rely on for food. Because land where food can be produced must be protected, it is important to learn how weathering and erosion affect our natural resource of soil. Destroying trees, for example, can open soil to the effects of wind and rain, causing it to be washed away due to erosion that wouldn't have occurred without our interference.

Cave Formation

Caves can be formed by water underground that breaks down rock into smaller pieces, or carries it away to a new location. If students did not understand how caves form and locate them, they may risk building a structure on top of a plot of land that is not reinforced by rock. A house built on top of a cave or a place where a cave is likely to form due to erosion or weathering will inevitably collapse.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes occur when large pieces of rock are cracked completely through, and thus move independently of each other. Studying weathering and erosion can help children learn the potential causes of earthquakes, such as natural plate movement, or extensive drilling. By learning more about the causes, it should be easier in the future to predict earthquakes and for people to escape from an area before one occurs.

Landslides

Landslides are a form of erosion where gravity literally pulls land masses downwards, often over existing structures. By understanding the effects of erosion and weathering, a child can grow up to learn avoid living in areas prone to landslides, and preserve the soil structure to help prevent some landslides from occurring.

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Principles Of Sedimentation

This sand on a Florida beach originated as sediment eroded from the Appalachian Mountains.

Sedimentation is the halting of movement of solid particles suspended in a liquid or gas against a barrier. The particles may originate from the erosion of a surface or chemically, by precipitation within a liquid. They move horizontally or vertically. They may be propelled by the current within the body of a gas or liquid or an external force. The most common products of this process are silts, sands and gravels in water courses, lakes and oceans and sedimentary rocks in the Earth's crust.

Sediment Motion

All natural systems tend toward a state of equilibrium that reflects an optimal use of energy. In geology, fluid and sediment gravity flows move from high to low elevations. This path is the most energy-efficient.

Settlement Sequence

Fine-grained particles such as silt and clay are transported in a suspension of air or water. They accumulate in areas where the strength of the air and water currents is low. Coarser-grained sediments are transported as a bed load in water currents or strong winds. As the energy of the air or water transport medium decreases, the coarser-grained particles settle first.

Facies

In geology, facies are the characteristics or a rock particle that demonstrate the condition of its origin or its depositional environment. Alluvial material is made from fine particles of silt and clay deposited by rivers and lakes. Rounded edges indicate water transport and sharp edges indicate wind transport. Shale, chert and chalk originated as sedimentary deposits in the deep seas.

Walther's Law

Swiss geologist Johannes Walther studied how the depositional environments of sediments change with time. He concluded in 1894 that as the depositional environment changes laterally, the sedimentation from each successive environment comes to lie on top of the previous one. A vertical sequence of facies develops that reflects the changes in the depositional environment. In this way, he recognized a landward movement of the shoreline, i.e., transgression, and a seaward movement of the shoreline, or regression. His studies led to the understanding of climate changes over geological time.

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