What Are Native American Arrowheads For Spears Made Out Of

Native Americans used spears as both weapons and status symbols.

Native Americans used spears for hunting, fishing, warfare and as ceremonial objects. A spear ranged from 5 to 10 feet in length, depending on its intended use, with a wooden shaft topped off by an arrowhead or spear point. Most spears were decorated with leather, feathers or animal fur as either a functional necessity (hand grips) or as a sign of the user's rank and accomplishments. The material used for the tip varied depending on the tribe and where the tribe lived, according to Native Net.org. Spear points were most commonly made of copper, flint and obsidian.

Copper

Copper spear points replaced stone in the upper Midwest.

Copper mines in the Great Lakes region provided Native American metalsmiths the opportunity to make sharp weapons like spear points, arrowheads and knives. Mandrils, or molds, allowed the metalsmiths to hammer and shape the copper into its desired form. These copper weapons were more durable than their stone counterparts and often had double-edged blades. While the majority of copper use was in Wisconsin, Michigan and Ohio, evidence of it has been found throughout America, specifically after European exploration.

Flint

Flint was the most popular material used in Indian spear points.

Flint is the common name for dark pieces of chert, a hard sedimentary rock that breaks into sharp edges. Native Americans used a process called flint knapping, which means shaping the rock by hitting it over and over again with another rock and flaking pieces off to form spear points and arrowheads. People throughout the Americas used flint for tools and weapons because of its durability and abundance. It was also useful for its ability to spark when struck, making fire possible.

Obsidian

Indians in the West used obsidian to make sharp spear points.

Obsidian is black, sharp volcanic glass. It's an igneous rock that forms when lava cools too quickly for atoms to form a crystalline structure. Native Americans used it for tools and weapons because it breaks with a "conchoidal fracture," according to Geology.com, that leaves it smooth and razor sharp. Obsidian is found above the Earth's surface in places with recent volcanic activity, such as the Pacific Northwest. In the United States, no obsidian is found east of the Mississippi River.

Atlatl

The invention of the atlatl (at-la-tal) allowed Native American hunters and warriors to engage their prey or enemies from a distance, thus making it safer than using a spear up close. In Aztec, "atlatl" literally means "spear thrower." The weapon combined a spear and a rope at the end so the user could launch it one-handed. The atlatl had an 18-inch spearhead or a traditional arrowhead that was made from the same materials as regular spear points.

Tags: Americans used, Native Americans, Native Americans used, spear points, Native American, Americans used spears

Geologic Dating Definition

Geologic Dating Definition

Geologic dating, or geochronology, is used to obtain the age of such specimens as rocks, fossils and sediments. Built into each dating method is a particular range of uncertainty; thus a specimen age doesn't always equal an exact age. Dating methods can be either absolute or relative.

Types

Dating geological specimens involves an interdisciplinary approach using more than one dating method and cross-validating the results. Absolute dating methods include radiometric, luminescence and incremental dating. Relative dating methods fall under the science of stratigraphy.

Radiometric Dating

Radiometric dating is based on the knowledge that certain naturally occurring radioactive isotopes decay, or transform into a different element, at known rates. Specimen age can then be determined by measuring the proportion of the radioactive materials remaining compared to the proportion of the "decayed" element. The half-life, or amount of time it takes for half of the measured isotope to decay, must agree with age of specimen. In other words, an isotope with a very short half-life can't be used to date very old fossils.

Radiometric dating includes carbon dating, used to date specimens up to about 75,000 years old, and potassium-argon and rubidium-strontium dating, which are used to date much older fossils. Using radiometric dating we know the earth is about 4.5 billion years old.

Luminescence Dating

Geologists and archeologists use luminescence dating by observing photons, or light, emitted from minerals such as quartz, diamond, feldspar and calcite. As radiation from photons is stored in sediment layers, age since last exposure to sunlight can be calculated from this information.

Incremental Dating

Incremental dating incorporates several techniques including dendrochronology, ice cores and varve analysis. Dendrochronology (tree-ring dating) is used to date wood fossils. Shallow ice cores are dated exactly by counting layers; each layer represents a year. Varve analysis is used to date archaeological specimens based on patterns of glacial deposit.

Stratigraphy

This method is based on the assumption that geological layers can provide relative ages for the specimens found within them, provided that the deeper rock layers formed earlier than the shallower ones. Sequences of rock layering reveal the general patterns that describe the geochronology of the planet. Because of the way fossils are formed, fossil specimens found in rock layers must be older than the surrounding rock. Support for evolutionary theories is found in part from the observation that rock layers of similar age contain fossils of similar flora and fauna.

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What Minerals Make Up Pumice

Pumice is a rough and lightweight porous rock formed from magma during volcanic eruptions.

Pumice is an extrusive volcanic rock that spews from erupting volcanoes as magma forms foam when combining with various volatile gasses and water at the surface, trapping air bubbles inside the rock as it rapidly cools, according to the Mineral Information Institute. The pumice stone is extremely rough and very porous and surprisingly light when picked up. This is the only stone that will actually float on water until becoming waterlogged, at which point it will sink. The mineral makeup of pumice depends on the type of magma that composes the pumice foam.

Basalt Minerals

Basalt is a gray to black fine-grained volcanic rock that is often the origin of pumice. This type of rock is rich in iron and magnesium and often contains the minerals olivine, pyroxene and plagioclase, according to the U.S. Geological Survey Cascades Observatory website.

Basalt erupts at temperatures up to 1,250 degrees Celsius and forms the pumice stones often found in Washington, Oregon and Idaho. Basalt is the most abundant rock on earth, making up the majority of the bottom of the sea.

Andesite Minerals

Andesite is another extrusive volcanic rock that is usually light gray and sometimes has red or green color. This fine-grained rock comes primarily from stratovolcanoes such as Mount Fuji in Japan. These are tall, cone-shaped volcanoes also referred to as composite volcanoes. Andesite erupts around 900 to 1,100 degrees Celsius, according to the U.S. Geological Survey Cascades Volcano Observatory website. The lava flows are often very long and thick. The rock is found commonly in the Andes Mountains in South America.

The composition of andesite includes large amounts of silica and plagioclase feldspar as well as various levels of pyroxene, horneblende and olivine. Andesite may also contain bubbles and quartz.

Dacite Minerals

Dacite is an extrusive volcanic rock made up of two-thirds silica. The rock is light gray in most instances and is named for the Roman province called Dacia, where most of this type of rock comes from near the Danube Rive, according to the U.S. Geological Survey Cascades Volcano Observatory website.

Dacite and the pumice stones it produces are composed of plagioclase feldspar, quartz, biotite and hornblende, according to the Encyclopedia Britannica website. It erupts between 800 and 1,000 degrees Celsius and is most commonly associated with the devastating eruptions known as Plinians, the type of eruption that occurred at Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD and Krakatoa in 1883.

Rhyolite Minerals

Rhyolite is an extrusive volcanic rock that cools quickly and forms tiny crystals, giving it a glass-like appearance. It is similar to granite and contains the minerals quartz, feldspar and biotite. The rock is typically light gray to pink or red and has very fine grains.

Rhyolitic eruptions are high in viscosity and happen between 700 and 850 degrees Celsius. When gas is present with these eruptions, they can be very violent and throw pumice stones high into the air. One of the largest rhyolitic eruptions happened in New Zealand at Lake Taupo more than 26,000 years ago, according to the GNS Science website on New Zealand's volcanoes.

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Fossil Fuel Projects

Black coal being burned

Fossil fuels are nonrenewable sources of energy, meaning once this source of energy is used up, it cannot be replenished. Fossil fuels were formed beginning millions of years ago, when trees and plants died and layers of mud and rocks covered them, and they were subjected to pressure and high temperatures.

Coal

Coal is a type of fossil fuel; it is a hard, black, rocklike substance. It is use to fuel power plant and factories. In the early days, coals were used for train fuel, domestic heating, stationary steam engines, and smelting iron ore for the iron and steel industry.

There are three main type of coal; anthracite, bituminous and lignite. The anthracite is used primarily for residential and commercial space heating, while bituminous is used to fuel steam-electric power generation and lignite is used to fuel electric power generation.

Coal is mined, either underground or in open pits. Coal mining and the use of coal has an adverse effect on the environment, like acid rain and the release of carbon dioxide, which contributes to the greenhouse effect.

Petroleum or Crude Oil

Aside from coal, petroleum or crude oil also came from decayed plant and animal buried in the earth millions of years ago. The color of the oil is not always the same; it all depends on the place it came from, and can range from black brown and sometimes near colorless.

Unlike coal, crude oil is recovered by oil drilling. Before it can be used, it is heated and treated by other chemicals at a refinery.

Crude oil contributes to many products, including liquefied petroleum gas, ethane, gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene, jet fuel, plastics, lubricants, wax, sulfur, asphalt and paraffin wax. Like coal, crude oil has a great impact on the environment. Oil spills damage the natural ecosystems by killing the organisms it coats.

Natural Gas

Natural gas is an odorless and colorless gas. It is another type of fossil fuel, and it is formed the same as crude oil. But unlike crude oil, natural gas can form through the transformation of organic matter by using microorganisms.

Natural gas is used in both residential and commercial for heating and cooking. In transportation, it is used to fuel natural gas vehicles. It also fuels gas turbines and combustion engines to generate electricity.

The effect of natural gas extraction on the environment is less compared with coal and crude oil, but it still contributes a small amount of carbon dioxide. Among the other fossil fuels, natural gas is the cleanest and produces the least carbon dioxide.

Tags: carbon dioxide, coal crude, used fuel, came from, fossil fuel

Interactive Planet Games

Planet games tend to be the type of games that leave the user in total control of a large area of land. The player can take the persona of a divine entity, a specific leader, and sometimes no specific character. Some planet games only involve a city or a country, while there are some that have larger scopes that can include an entire planet or even a whole planetary system.

SimEarth

SimEarth was released in 1990 as part of the Sims collection. This game was wider in scope than other Sim's games since the player is in charge of controlling every aspect of the planet. Every decision that the player makes affects how the citizens of the planet called the "Sim Earthlings" will evolve, thrive or die off. Sim Earthlings can be humans, dinosaurs, mollusks or even insects, with one life-form being the most intelligent at a given time. The player can experiment with the weather, natural disasters, and other events to see how everything gets affected.

Evolution: The Game of Intelligent Life

Evolution: The Game of Intelligent Life was released in 1998 by Crossover Technologies. The objective of the game is to evolve the starting creature into the first intelligent life form on the planet. At the start of the game, the player can define the type of creature to start with. The player can also define the geologic era to start the game, set the geology of the planet, as well the as the speed of continental drift. Every five seconds of real time translates to around 30,000 years in the game. The player needs to make sure that the creatures stay safe, well fed, and at times decide what evolutionary characteristics to acquire to defend themselves.

Alpha Centauri

Alpha Centauri was released by Firaxis in 1998. It was developed by Sid Meier, who also developed the Civilization series. This game places the player as one of the faction leaders to make planet-fall on the planet Alpha Centauri. At the start of the game the player can set the geology of the planet as well as the amount of cloud cover. The player can decide to be one with the living planet or go against it with consequences. The objective of the game is to conquer the entire planet with diplomacy, trade or force.

Spore

Spore was released by EA Games in 2008. The player is given a single-celled creature that needs to be guided into five stages of evolution. At the start of the game, the organism needs to survive in a 2-D water environment until it can evolve and become a land-based animal. The next level is the tribal level, where the player now controls a tribe of the evolved creature. Once the civilization stage is reached, the player will now control cities populated by the creatures. During the final stage, the player will control a space-faring civilization that can also seed life on other planets.

Tags: start game, Alpha Centauri, game player, entire planet, Evolution Game, Evolution Game Intelligent

Sell Fiction Books To Middle School Students

Middle school students love to read books on topics that are of interest to them. They also like to read books with dialogue and characters that they can relate to. Here are some steps to sell books to middle school students.

Instructions

1. Choose books that middle school students will enjoy reading. Mysteries and science fiction appeal to middle school students, as do books about teen romance, urban life and adventure . Middle school students also enjoy reading books that feature characters of different ethnic backgrounds.

2. Stock newly released books. Middle school students like to be the first to read popular books, especially books that are based on movies and sequels.

3. Arrange book signings by authors. Middle school students love to meet their favorite authors. They are likely to buy a book if it has been signed by an author they admire.

4. Bring books of interest to their school. If possible, organize a book fair for the students. Include large, colorful displays featuring some of the most popular books.

5. Read excerpts of the books to the students. Grasp their attention by reading selections of the books to the students during fairs or at the bookstore.

6. Offer discounts on the books. If possible, give the middle school students incentives to buy books, such as bargain prices or "buy one get one free."

Tags: school students, books that, books students, enjoy reading, middle school

Four Methods Of Arranging Trees In The Orchard

Straight rows are the easiest to work with equipment.

There are four main methods of arranging trees in an orchard. Depending on terrain, soil conditions, moisture and other conditions, different growers may opt for further variation on the four basic configurations. Tree spacing should be determined by the specific type of tree planted. Don't forget to leave a large turn-around area at the end of your rows for any equipment you may use. Does this Spark an idea?

Square or Rectangle

The square or rectangle layout is the most basic arrangement of orchard trees. A tree stands in each corner of the square or rectangle, essentially forming very regularly spaced rows. The rectangle is a variation on the square that allows more space between the trees in one direction. This layout offers easy access for cultivation.

Quincunx

A quincunx consists of four trees at the corners of a square with one tree in the middle. The tree at the center of the quincunx is a temporary tree, or filler. A temporary tree is planted in an orchard only to cultivate for the first several years, until the permanent trees reach their full production potential, at which time the temporary trees are removed to free up more resources like sun and water for the permanent trees.

Hexagon

In a hexagon configuration, one tree is placed at the center of six more equidistant trees. Arranging orchard trees this way makes maximum use of space. If the trees become overcrowded, some of them must be thinned but the irregular pattern makes it difficult to achieve proper spacing when removing the temporary trees. Also, this arrangement is less accessible to equipment than straight rows so it may be inconvenient for large orchards.

Contour

Contour planting is a technique that growers use in areas that are vulnerable to erosion like hillsides. Trees planted in parallel rows that contour around a landscape help control erosion and retain moisture. Terraces are also a form of contour planting.

Tags: orchard trees, permanent trees, square rectangle, temporary tree, temporary trees, tree planted

Sell A Gold Mine

Gold Mine

Proven gold mines are highly valuable. Once gold is discovered, the mine goes from being a claim that is worth the value of the land, to being a gold investment worth a lot of money—a difference of millions of dollars. If you are considering letting go of your gold mine, follow these easy steps to sell it to a qualified buyer.

Instructions

1. Make certain that you have a clear deed of ownership to the mine and the land the mine is on. This deed should also have clear mineral rights, and allow for the transfer of those rights to a new owner.

2. Obtain a report from a geologist certifying that gold has been found in the mine. The report should also estimate how much gold could potentially be found in the mine. Although this does not guarantee that the amount will be found, it suggests to potential buyers how much of a return they can expect on their investment.

3. Offer to sell the mine to the Gold Prospectors Association of America (GPAA), which owns and operates gold mines and claims across North America. Whether the organization buys it or not will depend on how much money is in its acquisition budget at the time of your offer. If GPAA does not want to buy your mine, place a classified ad in its member newsletter.

4. Place an ad in ICMJ’s Prospecting and Mining Journal. Professional gold miners around the world read every issue of this industry publication. Use the journal's classified section known as the “Mine Market,” where mines and mining equipment are listed for sale. You have a more than reasonable chance of selling your mine through this publication.

Tags: found mine, gold mines, have clear, should also, your mine

Select A Topic For Doing A Phd

The most critical step of the doctoral thesis is narrowing down a topic to an answerable question.

One does not write a doctoral thesis in a vacuum; nor does one choose a PhD dissertation topic alone. The process requires an organized, systematic approach, input from an adviser, guidance from faculty, years of research, sustained passion and finally committee approval. Choosing an effective PhD topic for your dissertation can be more critical than the actual writing process. (Resource 6)

Instructions

1. Compile a file of topics and course materials that interest you. While the material may not lead you directly to a topic, as a generative resource the file may lead you to other topics that pique your interest. (Resource 6) The file should include past seminar papers you've written, syllabuses from prior courses (graduate or undergraduate), newspaper clippings and journal articles. Claremont Graduate University Writing Center recommends you reflect on any patterns that emerge in terms of what you've studied in the past and what you're passionate about. (Reference 2)

2. Sign up for reading courses early in your doctoral program, preferably in the first and second years. Though departmental requirements vary, doctoral candidates at the University of California, San Diego are strongly encouraged to take 4 to 5 reading courses with a variety of faculty members. Take them in a number of subjects--some that you have an interest; others, you know nothing about. Reading courses are opportunities for you to expand your horizons and to study with faculty who have an expertise in areas you're passionate about. (Reference 3) The benefit of reading courses is that, like "speed dating," you have a chance to evaluate faculty members, their personalities, research and teaching styles and how they may function as a mentor.

3. Choose a topic you feel passionate about, or at least one that generates sustained curiosity. The average dissertation, in terms of coursework, independent research and the final doctoral presentation can consume 4 to 8 years of your life. While there will be periods during the doctoral process when you find it difficult to summon motivation, working on a topic you have a passion for will make easier to refocus.(Resource 6)

4. Pick an adviser and finalize the arrangement. Many doctoral programs require that the adviser/doctoral candidate arrangement be finalized through the university Additionally, many doctoral programs evaluate the seriousness of their applicants by how the student approaches a search for a PhD adviser. (Reference 3) It can make or break a PhD program. The adviser not only guides you in your research; he or she can help you focus your PhD topic and will be a conduit between you and the doctoral committee.

5. Finalize the PhD topic with your adviser. The topic should be narrowed to a specific question, one that's neither too general nor specific. Additionally, the topic should be doable and original. Your adviser may recommend you research previously published PhD theses and studies. (Reference 2)

6. Write the topic proposal according to the format outlined by your doctoral program's guidelines. The Department of Graduate Studies normally has required style guides and makes them available on the university websites. Additionally, you can find past PhD topic submissions through your university's library database system.

7. Submit your PhD topic proposal. Many universities now required electronic submission, but you should store a hard copy in your files and an electronic copy on a thumb drive or external hard drive.

Tags: passionate about, reading courses, about Reference, doctoral program, doctoral programs, doctoral thesis

See The Only Manmade Geyser

Old Faithful is a natural geyser.

Soda Springs, Idaho, is a little town in Caribou County and is home to the only man-made geyser. The geyser, created by accident in 1937, is a carbon dioxide, cold-water geyser now maintained by a timer, and erupts on the hour, every hour. The town is on the historic Oregon Trail, on the other side of the majestic Teton Mountains from Yellowstone National Park. Since the geyser spouts cold water, you can get closer to it than to Old Faithful or any of the other geysers in Yellowstone. There is no charge for viewing the geyser or for parking. Since it is located in downtown Soda Springs, you don't have to worry about wild animals. But you'd better pay attention to which direction the wind is blowing if you don't want to get wet.

Instructions

1. From Pocatello, Idaho, take I-15 South to exit 47. Take a left and follow Highway 30 for 35 miles until you reach Soda Springs, Idaho. If traveling north on I-15, take exit 47 and make a right onto Highway 30.

2. Turn left onto Main Street, and take a left into the parking lot just before the railroad tracks. The actual address is 39 West 1st South.

3. Pick a spot to watch the geyser erupt.

Tags: Soda Springs, Soda Springs Idaho, Springs Idaho

List Of Badges For Webelos

Webelos Scouts graduate to become Boy Scouts upon earning 20 Activity Badges.

The Webelos Scouts are boys transitioning from Cub Scouts to Boy Scouts. For Webelos Scouts, this transitional period consists of earning 20 so-called Activity Badges, which are divided and equally dispersed among five categories. The Physical Skills, Mental Skills, Community, Technology and Outdoor groups each contain four activity sets, and the satisfactory completion of these activities is what earns a Webelos Scout his badges.

Physical Skills Group

The Physical Skills group contains four Activity Badges --- the Aquanaut, Athlete, Fitness and Sportsman badges. The Aquanaut badge is earned when a Webelos Scout completes a series of water- and swimming-related tasks. The Athlete badge is earned when a Webelos Scout completes tasks related to running, jumping and perseverance. The Fitness badge differs from the Athlete Badge in that earning it requires the completion of a diet and exercise log in addition to other tasks related to maintaining one's overall health. The Sportsman badge is earned when a Webelos Scout participates in two competitive team sports.

Mental Skills Group

The Artist, Scholar, Showman and Traveler badges are the Activity Badges in the Mental Skills group. To earn the Artist badge, a Webelos Scout must produce an artistic work and display his knowledge of artistic processes. The Scholar badge is earned when a Webelos does well in school and participates in a school service or activity. For the Showman badge, the scout must put on a puppet show, try a musical instrument, and read, see or take part in a play. For the Traveler badge, the scout must plan and take a trip (with his parents) using maps and similar traveling resources.

Community Group

The Citizen, Communicator, Family Member and Readyman badges comprise the activity sets in the Community group. A Webelos Scout earns the Citizen badge by displaying knowledge of his duties and rights as a citizen and by displaying knowledge about government and law enforcement. For the Communicator badge, a Webelos must learn about and display knowledge of various communication methods. To earn the Family Member badge, the scout must make a household chores list, draft a family budget and plan and attend family meetings. The Readyman badge is earned when the scout displays his knowledge of safety and first aid procedures.

Technology Group

The Technology Groups consists of the Craftsman, Handyman, Engineer and Scientist badges. The Craftsman badge is earned when the Webelos Scout displays knowledge of various tools and use them, and when he builds something, such as a picture frame, from raw materials. A Webelos earns the Handyman badge when he fixes or cleans something, or both --- washing a car, changing a tire, replacing a light bulb, for example. The Engineer badge can be earned when the scout talks with an engineer or construction worker, visits a construction site, and displays knowledge about electricity. A Webelos earns the Scientist badge by learning various laws of science and displaying knowledge about the atmosphere and other various earth science topics, especially those relating to weather.

Outdoor Group

The last group, or Outdoor Group, consists of the Forester, Geologist, Naturalist and Outdoorsman badges. For the Forester badge, a Webelos Scout has to draw a map of the United States and display knowledge of trees and other forest-related topics. The Geologist badge is earned when the scout displays knowledge of geologic processes, including mineral and rock formation, and visits a geological site. A Webelos earns the Naturalist badge when he collects and studies insects, sets up and cares for an aquarium, and learns about and displays knowledge of wild animals. The Outdoorsman badge can be earned when the scout displays his knowledge of camping (or survival) techniques and goes hiking.

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Atv Tours Of Black Rock Desert California

ATV tours of the vast Black Rock Desert of northern Nevada, located near the California border, provide numerous adventures. Managed by the Bureau of Land Management, the landscape, referred to as a playa, features miles of trails that take you along historic emigrant trails. While no fees are required to enjoy the area, knowing the rules will help keep the area open to everyone for years to come.

Guided Tours

A guided ATV tour of some of the Black Rock Desert's trails gives you a chance to become more familiar with the area while leaving the logistics to an experienced guide. Adventures of Reno offers tours ranging from 2-hour trips to full-day events. Some of the guided rides take you along the Applegate and Nobles emigrant trails. Along the way, you may spot wildlife, including wild horses, and pre-historic drawings and interesting geology.

Rentals

Several companies, including High Sierra ATV Tours and Adventures of Reno, rent ATVs for you to tour the area on your own. Adventures of Reno picks up and delivers your rental ATV to an OHV area in Black Rock Desert. As of January 2011, rates for ATVs started at $129 per day. High Sierra ATV Tours offers a choice of rentals ranging from $225 per day for a single-seat ATV to $300 for a two-seater. Trailer rentals to transport your ATVs to Black Rock Desert cost an extra fee. Helmets are included in both company's prices.

Exploring on Your Own

You'll find plenty of trails in Black Rock Desert to keep you busy for days. Before you head out, a visit to the Bureau of Land Management office in Winnemucca provides information about sensitive areas closed to off-road vehicles. Keep in mind that cell phones do not work in the area, and you need to bring your own water. A good starting point to park and get your ATV on the trail lies along the outskirts of Gerlach, a small town located just outside of Black Rock Desert and the host town to the annual Burning Man festival.

Rules

If you plan to camp overnight, you can set up camp up to a maximum of 50 feet from the trail. The site must offer minimal vegetation damage. You cannot disturb or remove vegetation to create your camp or a parking area. In some areas, you cannot camp at all, including High Rock Canyon, Trego Hot Springs and Mud Meadows areas. Copies of the rules are available online or at the Bureau of Land Management office.

Tags: Black Rock, Black Rock Desert, Rock Desert, Adventures Reno, Bureau Land

See The Grand Canyon

See the Grand Canyon

The Grand Canyon, located in the Colorado Plateau of Arizona, is one of the most beautiful and most visited sites in the United States. Seeing the Grand Canyon in person is a dream of many and if you're lucky enough to go to the Grand Canyon, you should know that there are many ways to see the Grand Canyon, ranging from a hike to a helicopter.

Instructions

1. Plan for your visit to the Grand Canyon by getting information from National Park Service website and the Grand Canyon Chamber of Commerce website. Order travel brochures and maps to help you see the Grand Canyon.

2. Stop by a visitor's center once you arrive at the Grand Canyon. For the South Rim, the main visitor's center is Canyon View Information Plaza, located near Mather Point. For the North Rim, the main visitor's center is the North Rim Visitor's Center. Both centers can provide you with maps and literature as well as additional information on visiting the canyon.

3. Drive your car around the Grand Canyon. You can see several parts and scenic spots of the Grand Canyon from the car. Desert View Drive on the South Rim is one location, as is Point Imperial on the North Rim. Find specific details about car routes and scenic viewpoints online.

4. Take a day hike on a trail at the Grand Canyon. There are many trails on both the North and South Rims of the canyon. Some of these are even handicapped accessible. There's a list of trails on the National Park Service website, along with specific information about each trail.

5. Be part of a guided tour of the Grand Canyon. The Grand Canyon Field Institute, a part of the Grand Canyon Association, gives guided tours to visitors and covers topics ranging from canyon history to canyon geology. Find information on choosing a tour or signing up for one on the Grand Canyon Association's website.

6. Experience the Grand Canyon on a mule. Mule Rides are available for canyon visitors on both the North and South Rims. These mule trips can be from 1 hour long to overnight trips, depending on what you're looking for. Schedules and sign ups are on the National Park Service website.

7. Raft the Colorado River in the Grand Canyon. These river trips range from 1 to 25 days and fill up quickly. People interested in a river trip have to enter a lottery on the National Park Service website. Details about this lottery and the types of river trips offered can be found online.

8. Go on a helicopter tour of the canyon. The Grand Canyon Chamber of Commerce has information on helicopter and other air tours of the Grand Canyon.

Tags: Grand Canyon, National Park, National Park Service, Park Service, Park Service website, Service website

Calculate Gradients On A Topographic Map

Calculate Gradients on a Topographic Map

The first thing to remember when you want to calculate the gradient of a topographic map is that the two terms "gradient" and "slope" are interchangeable. The gradient change occurring within a specific area on the map reveals the lay of the land. In turn, this helps geologists and environmentalists determine any affect the gradient of the specified area has on areas around it. Erosion is a good example of why knowing the gradient of specific areas is important. Doing a project such as this is easier with a scientific calculator, or at least one that calculates tangents and arctangents.

Instructions

1. Place the map on a smooth surface and choose the area for which the gradient needs to be calculated. Do not choose an area that goes over a hill or down and then up a valley.

2. Draw a line perpendicular to the lines depicting the contours of the slope with a ruler. Begin your line on one of the contour lines and end on another one. Measure the line and translate that figure into feet, using the map legend.

3. Calculate the gradient by subtracting the elevation of the lowest contour line on the line you drew from the elevation of the contour line at the other end of the line you drew.

4. Divide the answer by the distance in feet represented by the line you drew. Multiply that number by 100 to give you the percent slope of the hill. For example, let's say the number you arrived at was 45. This means that for every 100 feet traveled in the area marked on the map, the elevation changes 45 feet whether going up or down the hill.

5. Determine the angle of the slope by dividing the change in elevation by length represented by the line you drew. This gives you the tangent value of the slope. Use the arctangent function on your scientific calculator to get the angle of the slope.

Tags: line drew, angle slope, Calculate Gradients, Calculate Gradients Topographic, choose area, contour line, Gradients Topographic

Chaparral Soil Types

The Chapparal is a hot dry place in the summertime.

The true western chaparral occurs mostly in southern and central California. It features a highly-contoured landscape characterized by a mixture of grassland and scrub forests. Within this region, the soil of the chaparral differs significantly, and soil type is heavily influenced by rock layers that exist underground. Generally speaking, the soils of the chaparral are shallow and unable to hold much water; erosion is a frequent process.

Serpentine Soil

Serpentine is a mineral that originates within the earth's mantle. Through uplifting of the earth's surface, this mineral forms outcrops along the San Andreas, Hayward and other active faults in California. Soil created from this mineral tends to be high in toxic elements such as magnesium, nickel and chromium, and lacking in some of the more essential elements as calcium and nitrogen. As a result, grasslands have a difficult time growing in a serpentine soil, but certain trees and shrubs, such as the manzanita and Clarkia can thrive in these conditions.

Non-Serpentine Sedimentary Soils

Even in Southern California, soils that have formed from a sedimentary parent rock, such as sandstone, are common and can be found in many chaparral areas. These soils are sandy in nature and contain calcium, but they are not high in nutrients. They do lack the heavy metals of serpentine soils, however. They almost always show a unique type of plant cover that is dominated by Chamise, a native shrub.

Vernal Pools

A vernal pool is a very shallow body of water that forms in a depression or low-lying area for a small part of the year. These temporary wetlands are common in the California chaparral and usually form in the spring, hence the seasonal reference within the name. Soils that are found underneath the pool are impervious to water penetration. This would include the soil types of hard pan, clay pan or volcanic basalt. Vernal pools are characterized by a luxurious spring growth of grass and wildflowers, such as lobelia, clover, daisies, wild mint and monkey flowers. These areas are usually lacking for shrubs or trees due to the hard pan underneath.

Gabbro Soils

Gabbro is an igneous rock that is sometimes worn down and uplifted to form a gabbro soil. This kind of soil is uncommon because the gabbro is usually formed beneath the earth's surface. However, California does support a gabbro soil in some chaparral areas. Gabbro soils are often red-tinted because of a high iron content and may contain higher concentrations of heavy metals such as chromium. Nonetheless, this soil type is nutrient poor and may support an unusual association of cover plants.

Alluvial Soils

Alluvial soils are created from the deposits made by rivers and streams. Alluvial soils tend to be richer in organic material and may have a higher concentration of loam or clay. Within the chaparral ecosystem, these soils usually are found along waterways and support a thick forest that may contain up to a half dozen different species of oaks. These soils can be found in the foothills of the Central Valley of California in places like Mount Diablo State Park.

Tags: Alluvial soils, chaparral areas, created from, earth surface, gabbro soil, heavy metals

Types Of Drainage Basins

A drainage basin often includes a river.

A drainage basin is a portion of land where water from rainfall and snow or ice melt gathers and flows into a body of water. Drainage basins contain streams that funnel water to a larger waterway, such as a river, lake, wetland or ocean. Geographical barriers, such as hills, ridges and mountains separate individual drainage basins. Large basins are comprised of many smaller drainage areas, with the major types of drainage basins categorized by the large body of water that receives the outflow of water.

Ocean Basins

Ocean drainage basins are comprised of large river, lake and other types of basins that ultimately drain into an ocean. Nearly half of all the land on Earth drains through the Atlantic Ocean basin. This ocean basin receives water flow in North America from the Saint Lawrence River, the Great Lakes, the eastern portion of the United States and sections of Canada. Water also flows to this basin from most of South America, central and Western Europe, and Sub-Saharan Africa. The seas of the Mediterranean also are part of the Atlantic Ocean basin. The Pacific Ocean basin receives water from the Western U.S. and Canada, Central America and the Western edge of South America. Additionally, areas bordering the Pacific Ocean also drain into this basin, such as most of China, portions of Russia, Australia and Indonesia. Other ocean drainage basins include the Indian Ocean basin, and the Antarctic Ocean basin, which receives water from Antarctica.

River Basins

A river basin is a section of land drained by a river and its connected tributaries. The largest river of a river basin drains into an ocean or an enclosed section of water located along the ocean coast, known as an estuary. The major river basins of the world based on the land area drained are the Amazon basin in South America, the Congo basin in Africa and the Mississippi River basin in North America. The Amazon basin drains the most water by volume, with the Congo second and the Ganges River basin in Asia third.

Endorheic Basins

Areas of land that drain to an inland lake or sea with no outflow to an ocean are known as endorheic drainage basins. Water only escapes from these types of basins through evaporation. The largest endorheic basin is in central Asia, which drains to the Caspian and Aral seas. The Great Basin, located in the United States, is the largest endorheic drainage basin in North America. Additional endorheic basins include the Sahara Desert and portions of Africa, Australia, the Arabian Peninsula, the Andes Mountains and Mexico.

Importance

Drainage basins often form boundaries of territory. Drainage basins are used in the study of hydrology, which is the examination of water movement, distribution and quality. These basins also provide a means to study ecology and provide an opportunity for federal, state and local governments to manage water resources through watershed districts.

Tags: Ocean basin, drainage basin, drainage basins, North America, receives water, South America

What Are Subglacial Tunnels

The immense forces exerted by glaciers cause melted water to create tunnels.

A subglacial tunnel is a form of valley that occurs beneath the flow of a glacier. They generally occur near the fringes of large continental ice sheets, where the temperature has become sufficient to create large amounts of melted water. These valleys are often vast, extending up to 60 miles in length and 2.5 miles in width. The sides of subglacial tunnels are often asymmetric, unusual for something formed by erosion.

Formation of Subglacial Tunnels

Subglacial tunnel valleys form when ice at the edge of a glacial moraine begins to melt and the melted water has nowhere to go. This water, along with debris, which accelerates erosion, drains away into the land below the glacier, creating a tunnel extending back along the course of the glacier. This tunnel is where the glacier's waste water and sediment are deposited. Studies of subglacial tunnels formed thousands of years ago have shown they were created by water and debris flowing uphill, which could only have been formed in the presence of the immense force of a glacier (see Reference 4).

Anastomosis

These tunnel valleys have been shown by studies to form anastomosing networks as opposed to dendritic ones, which means subglacial channels are created in multiple locations and intersect each other, rather than growing out from one location like a tree. This is expected behavior considering that the valleys begin at the bottom of the glacier, which is the thick end of the wedge. Melted water produced at that point will be spread over a large area and will create numerous, independent channels.

Buried Subglacial Tunnels

The immense pressure subjected on water flow beneath a glacier means that water and debris are immensely pressurized. When this enormously pressurized water comes into contact with soft bedrock, it erodes down into the rock sharply, which causes a sharp spike in the depth of the valley, out of sync with the broad flat-bottomed valleys usually created by this process. Because debris and till are being deposited over a smaller area in these narrow valleys, they often become semi- or totally buried by debris.

Open Subglacial Tunnels

If the water and debris flow across a landmass of uniform resistance to erosion, a more standard broad U-shaped valley will be created. As till and sediment are deposited over a much wider area in these valleys, they are much less likely to become buried by debris. Instead, the debris left forms sedimentary layers that becomes part of the landscape. The forces pushing the melted water and debris along are often so great that these sedimentary layers are disrupted, as was evidenced in studies conducted on tunnel valleys in the Stony Brook and Port Jefferson areas of New York State.

Tags: water debris, tunnel valleys, area these, buried debris, deposited over

Convert 90 Degrees To Radians

Angles are measured in both radians and degrees. Radians refer to the relationship between the radius of a circle and a segment of that circle's circumference, and radians are measured in relation to π or pi, which is a nonrepeating and nonterminating mathematical constant that begins 3.14. A full rotation around a circle is 2π, which is also 360 degrees. The relationship between π and degrees allows a 90-degree angle to be converted to radians.

Instructions

1. Divide the angle in degrees by 180 degrees. Dividing 90 degrees by 180 degrees results in 1/2.

2. Multiply the product of the previous step by π. 1/2 multiplied by π equals 1.571. 90 degrees equals 1.571 radians.

3. Browse to an online converter, such as the University of Texas radians and degrees page, to check your work. Enter "90" in the text box under the "Degrees" label and then click "Calculate." The amount in radians will appear in the text box under the "Radians" label.

Tags: degrees degrees, radians degrees, relationship between, text under

Experiments For Mineral Crystals

Calcite crystals will fizz when you place acid on the surface.

Minerals are naturally forming solids that are homogeneous, have a specific chemical composition and an ordered atomic arrangement. Each mineral has a unique set of physical and chemical properties that allow geologists to identify the crystal. You can perform many tests at home or in a school setting to identify the minerals crystals in your collection. Most geological tests require only household items that you can purchase at a grocery or home improvement store.

Acid Fizz Test

Crystals of calcite will effervesce, or fizz, in the presence of an acid. Calcite is a very common soft mineral that forms in many colors. Because it can look like several other minerals, the acid fizz test is useful in providing a positive identification of your sample. To perform the test you need dilute hydrochloric acid, lemon juice or vinegar. The stronger the acid, the easier you will see the fizz; however, if you are using this test with children the lemon juice or vinegar are optimal. Simply place a few drops of acid on the crystal surface. If the mineral is calcite, you will observe bubbles forming. For dilute acids, a hand magnifier will help you see the bubbles.

Fluorescent Test

Mineral crystals such as aragonite, diamond, calcite and fluorite will luminesce under an ultraviolet, or black, light. You can test your mineral crystals in a dark room. Place your samples on a table and then shine a black light on each crystal individually. If the crystal glows a new color, it is fluorescent. For example, fluorite will glow a blue color while calcite may glow in shades or red, yellow, pink or blue. The glow will disappear once the light is turned off in fluorescent minerals. Crystals that continue to glow once the black light is off are phosphorescent.

Magnetic Test

Magnetism is an important clue in the identification of a crystal. Only a few minerals such as magnetite, pyrrhotite, hematite, platinum and franklinite show strong to weak magnetism. Minerals that are magnetic will show an attraction to a magnet and will attract household items such as iron nails and paperclips. Test your minerals by holding each sample up to a magnet. Samples that show an attraction are magnetic. Alternately, you can use the sample to pick up a nail or paperclip from a tabletop.

Fracture and Cleavage Test

Minerals with cleavage will break along definite crystal plane surfaces. For example, the mineral galena has cubic cleavage and will break into smaller cubes each time it is broken. Minerals that do not have cleavage will fracture, or break unevenly. Quartz is a common mineral that fractures. Often, a swirling pattern, known as a conchoidal fracture, will appear on the surface of minerals without cleavage when the crystal breaks. However, some minerals that fracture will show splintery or uneven surfaces. To test your crystal for fracture and cleavage, gently break the sample with a hammer and observe the result. If you see flat surfaces after the break, your sample has cleavage. A swirl pattern or uneven edges are indicative of a fractured crystal.

Tags: black light, cleavage will, calcite will, cleavage will break, fluorite will, fracture will, household items

Ancient Dinosaurs Of The Deccan Plateau

A rich array of wildlife inhabits areas once populated by dinosaurs.

Lying south of the Indo-Gangetic plain, the densely forested Deccan plateau makes up 43 percent of India's land mass. Scientists from the Geological Survey of India have discovered large amounts of fossilized dinosaur eggs in the region, which indicate that the plateau was a popular habitat for a diverse array of dinosaurs 65 million years ago, before they were wiped out by Deccan volcanism.

Dinosaurs in India

During the Mesozoic era, India and Madagascar were joined, although they are far apart today. This accounts for the types of dinosaur fauna that were common to both and different from those found in the rest of Asia and Africa. These included the rajasaurus, the indosaurus, the majungasaurus, the indosuchus and the rahonavis.

Rajasaurus

Rajasaurus narmadensis, more commonly known as the regal dinosaur from the Narmada, was identified by paleontologists when bones of the species were discovered during a 1983 excavation in the Narmada Valley area. They described the dinosaur as being 25 to 30 feet long, stocky and carnivorous. Examinations of skull fragments indicate that it also had a horn. Having dated the bones, rajasaurus existed at the end of the Cretaceous era, 63 million years ago.

Indosaurus

Indosaurus matleyi, commonly known as the Indian lizard, is another species that existed in the late Cretaceous era. It was first identified by German paleontologists Friedrich Von Heune and Charles Matley in the 1930s, and its name is a derivation of Matley. The carnivorous creature would have weighed approximately 1,500 lbs., but little has been found to determine its height or length.

Majungasaurus

Also in this region at the end of the Cretaceous period was Majungasaurus, or the Mahajanga lizard, a bipedal predator with a short snout. It was approximately 25 feet long and would have weighed around 2,500 lbs. Many well-preserved examples of this species have been excavated, although it was French paleontologist Charles Depéret who first identified it in 1896.

Rahonavis

Rahonavis is a bird-like dinosaur from the late Cretaceous era. A small predator of just 2 to 3 feet in length, it possessed the raised sickle claw on its second toes, which are typical of velociraptors. The first fossilized remains of rahonavis were discovered in 1995. It has not been confirmed for certain that the creature could fly.

Tags: commonly known, dinosaur from, feet long, first identified, have weighed

Oklahoma State Colleges

Oklahoma has several state colleges for prospective students.

Oklahoma, in the South Central region of the United States, is commonly known as The Sooner State. Oklahoma City is the state's largest city. Oklahoma has several colleges and universities for prospective college students to choose from, including state-sponsored schools. With a population of more than three million people, Oklahoma has a diverse ethnic makeup, making it ideal for prospective students.

Murray State College

Murray State College is in Tishomingo, one of the oldest towns in the state. The two-year community college, established in 1908, is funded by the state. Murray State College offers certificate programs in gunsmith technology and secretarial/office administration, as well as associate degrees in art, child development, prelaw, history, English, business, chemistry, mathematics, computer science, predental, premedicine, prepharmacy, science, graphic arts, nursing, business management, physical therapy assistant and occupational therapy assistant.

Oklahoma State University

Oklahoma State University is a public, four-year state-sponsored university in Oklahoma City. The school offers online, day and evening classes as well as campuses in Okmulgee, Stillwater and Tulsa. Programs offered include aerospace studies, art, mathematics, music, physics, chemistry, English, computer science, foreign languages, political science, psychology, botany, history, geology, theater, zoology, economics, media and strategic communication, statistics, biochemistry and molecular biology.

Seminole State College

Seminole State College, not to be confused with the one in Florida, is a state-sponsored community college in Seminole. The school provides an "open door" admission policy, which basically means every high school graduate is eligible. However, certain degree programs require additional standards. Degree programs include applied technology, nursing, medical lab technology, applied business, business and information studies, language arts and humanities, health, physical education and recreation, social sciences, math, science and engineering, and child development.

Western Oklahoma State College

Western Oklahoma State College is a two-year, state-funded institution in Altus. The school was established in 1926 and is the oldest original municipal two-year college still in existence in Oklahoma. Students can take day, evening and online classes in art, social science, biology, early childhood, mathematics, business administration, religion, liberal arts, fire technology, computer information systems, agriculture sciences, criminal justice, agronomy, aviation, applied technology, nursing, livestock management and radiologic technology, among others.

The school also offers residence halls, caf -style meals, free local phone service and basic cable, as well as on-site laundry facilities and dorm security.

Tags: State College, Oklahoma State, Murray State, Murray State College, applied technology, applied technology nursing, child development

Fossil Facts For Elementary Students

Fossil facts can be fun to learn.

There are a lot of fun fossil facts that can intrigue elementary school students. With more effective dating technology, scientists can pinpoint the age of fossils more exactly. From plant, animal and trace fossils, students will enjoy learning about these fossil discoveries.

Defining the Fossil

Fossils are the naturally preserved remains of organisms that were once alive. Plants and animals are often destroyed by decay or by another animal that chooses it for a meal. But sometimes, an animal is buried before it is destroyed and it becomes fossilized. Plant and animal remains can be trapped in rock, much of the time beneath the sea.

The Oldest Fossils

Scientists have found evidence of microscopic life forms that are around 3,700 million years old in Greenland.Only two places in the world have the oldest fossils of animals with more than one cell. The Chengjiang Deposits in the Yunnan Province of China are thought to be around 545 million years old, and a close second is the Burgess Shale in Canada, created approximately 530 million years ago in the Cambrian period.

Fossils without a Body

Paleontologists can learn a lot about an organism form trace fossils or signs that organisms were once present. Even if the body of the plant or animal is absent, there is a lot to be learned from tracks, trails, burrows, eggs, footprints and leaf impressions.

Gecko Fossil Found in Amber

Amber is considered a decorative "stone" for jewelry, but in reality, it is solidified sap that oozed from a tree. Often, amber traps insects and preserves them for millions of years for us to inspect. Amazingly, the oldest fossil of a gecko found to date was entombed in amber 100 million years ago. The details of the remains of the gecko include the tiny sticky "toe hairs" that allow both ancient and modern geckos to cling to surfaces and even cross a ceiling upside down.

The Biggest Bug Fossil

A huge fossil claw that belonged to a giant insect was discovered in Germany. The claw was 390 million years old, and the sea scorpion it belonged to was the size of a large crocodile.

Fossilized Dinosaur Eggs

Three amateur explorers found over a hundred dinosaur eggs, thought to be laid by sauropod dinosaurs. These dinosaurs ate plants and had long necks and tails. They are considered among the biggest dinosaurs ever to have walked the Earth.

Tags: million years, around million, around million years, trace fossils, were once

Recover Scrap Gold From Circuit Boards

Many connectors inside a computer are plated in pure gold which can be recovered.

There is as much as 1 oz. of gold in every ton of scrap circuit boards from older computers and electronics that have been discarded. Obtaining this gold is a matter of separating the gold bearing material from the plastic and other metals and then chemically recovering the gold and refining it to a reasonable purity level. Gold recovery and refining on a small scale can be performed in the back yard with some specialized equipment and some widely available chemicals.

Instructions

1. Remove the gold bearing connections and edges from scrap circuit boards using pliers and a strong back and forth motion to break the gold "fingers" from the edge of circuit boards. Be careful not to scrape the gold off the connectors in the process.

2. Place the gold connectors into a glass Pyrex container.

3. Mix nitric acid and hydrochloric acid together slowly, in a 1:3 ratio, in a separate glass Pyrex container in a ratio that makes the desired proportion of "aqua regia." The ratio will vary significantly according to the concentration of each acid used.

4. Pour the acid mixture over the gold connectors so that they are completely submerged in the acid, and allow the mixture to stand for one hour.

5. Pour the acid off into another glass Pyrex container, using a coffee filter to trap any contaminants or undissolved particles.

6. Introduce a precipitant such as zinc into the mixture slowly, watching as the material gets dissolved in the acid until it is no longer absorbed and then test the acid for gold using the gold detection liquid and following the instructions that are included with the liquid. Add more precipitant if necessary until no gold is detected in the mixture.

7. Add approximately a teaspoon of baking soda for every cup of acid being used to neutralize the remaining acid. Allow the mixture to settle for an hour.

8. Decant the acid from the top slowly without disturbing the precipitant (brown mud) on the bottom of the container using a small plastic tubing as a syphon. Add some distilled water and stir into the brown mud. Allow this to settle for an hour and decant the water into the same container as the discarded acid.

9. Place the mud into the kiln and bring the temperature up to approximately 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit and allow the gold to melt. Power off the kiln and pour the molten gold into a mold.

Tags: circuit boards, glass Pyrex, glass Pyrex container, gold connectors, Pyrex container, container using

Recognize Shocked Quartz

Quartz is a part of almost all geological environments on Earth.

Quartz is the earth's most common mineral. It is a part of most rock -- though it may not be in all metamorphic rock, since that is formed when any given element is exposed to high pressure or heat. Quartz comes in a wide variety of colors and crystalline shapes. When quartz is exposed to sudden, extremely high pressure --- such as from an atom bomb or meteoric impact --- the quartz's lattice structure shifts slightly, and the quartz grains become misaligned. The misalignment causes dark lines, called "shock lamellae" to run through the impacted quartz's sand grains. Quartz that has these shock lamellae is called "shocked quartz."

Instructions

1. Document where the quartz sample came from. Mark the section of your sample you will cut for viewing under the microscope. Cut off a 1.5 x 1.0 x 0.5 inch section of your sample using a masonry saw.

2. Sprinkle 200-grit silicon carbide onto the lapidary wheel. Grind the section using the lapidary until the section feels as though it has stopped giving resistance against the grit --- the sample is as smooth as the 200-grit can make it. Repeat the grinding process using 400-grit and 600-grit silicon carbide, rinsing the sample off with water and drying it before using the 600-grit. Feel the edge of the sample --- though the sample should still be roughly 0.5 inches thick, the edge should be smooth.

3. Place the sample and the glass slide on a hot plate specially made for geological use. Heat the sample and glass slide to 340 degrees.

4. Remove the sample and glass slide from the hot plate. Spread thermoplastic quartz cement (which will not affect the visual integrity of your sample) onto the quartz sample, as you would spread glue from a glue stick. Spread the cement onto a glass slide the same way. Press the cement-covered side of the quartz sample against the glue-covered side of the glass slide.

5. Cut the sample down to roughly 0.125-inch thick using the masonry saw. Sprinkle 600-grit silicon carbide onto the lapidary wheel and grind the sample until it is roughly (1/1000) 0.001 inch or about 30 microns thick (thinner than the width of a strand of human hair), and looks smooth and clear.

6. Place the slide under the petrographic microscope's cross-polarized light, which shines upwards from below and through the quartz sample. Verify that the quartz sample is thin enough by determining if the light shining through it is light yellow to grey and does not contain too many colors. Grind the sample down further, if necessary, and replace it under the microscope's cross-polarized light.

7. Focus the microscope so you can clearly see individual grains of the quartz sand that makes up your sample. Look for dark lines that intersect each other through any of the grains of quartz sand. Find at least two of the dark lines on a single grain of the sand. Search for as many as 9 sets of these dark lines --- called "shock lamellae" --- in just one individual grain. Recognize that if there is at least one set of shock lamellae in the sample, you are looking at a sample of shocked quartz.

Tags: glass slide, quartz sample, dark lines, shock lamellae, your sample, quartz sand, sample glass

Recognize Horoscope Earth Sign

It takes practice to recognize someone's astrological sign.

The 12 astrological signs are divided into broader elemental categories of air, fire, water and earth. Taurus the bull, Virgo the maiden and Capricorn the goat, are the three earth signs. Earth-sign people are generally described as well-grounded, stable and determined; however, understanding more about individual astrological signs will help you recognize an earth-sign person when you meet one. One sure way to discover if a person has an earth sign is to find out his birthday. People born under the sign of Taurus were born between April 21 and May 21; Virgos celebrate their birthdays between August 23 and September 22; and Capricorns between December 23 and January 21.

Instructions

Recognize a Taurus

1. Look for the physical characteristics of being strong and well-built. Taureans often enjoy participating in sports or other outdoor activities that require endurance. Pay attention to the colors in a person's wardrobe as that may also be a hint about her astrological sign. Taureans are often drawn to shades of brown, emerald, turquoise and russet.

2. Listen to the person's singing voice. Taureans are known for a powerful voice and are often musically inclined.

3. Ask about the person's career plans. Taureans enjoy creative careers in the arts, but their practical side is often called to a career in banking or accounting. An accountant who plays in a band on weekends is a good candidate for a Taurean.

4. Write down the person's strengths and weaknesses as you notice them. A person born under the earth sign of Taurus may be loving and determined, but often jealous and rigid. "Stable" may be the number one word to describe a Taurean.

Recognize a Virgo

5. Ask if the person enjoys books, writing, or other forms of communication. Virgos are known for being interested in all forms of communication.

6. Look for signs of helpfulness and intellect. Virgos are often interested in helping careers, especially medicine, veterinary medicine and science.

7. Ask about the person's physical fitness routine. A Virgo will most likely be physically fit, and prefer individual sports like tennis or swimming over competitive team sports.

Recognize a Capricorn

8. Look for the personality traits of leadership and conservatism. Though Capricorns have strong emotions, they can often appear cold and business-like.

9. Ask about the person's favorite sports activities. Capricorns enjoy excelling and competition, so they often engage in activities at which they can win; however, they may also channel their drive to succeed into endurance sports such as cross-country running, martial arts or body-building.

10. Find out about the person's career. The natural leadership and business abilities of a Capricorn will often steer him into a career as a lawyer, politician or executive. Experiencing success and maturation at an early age is another trait considered to be representative of a Capricorn.

11. Pay attention to the person's color preferences. Capricorns may often wear deep shades of brown, blue or green.

Tags: about person, about person career, astrological sign, astrological signs, born under, earth sign

Get A Kentucky Oil Drilling Permit

You can get an application online for a state-issued permit to drill an oil well in Kentucky.

Oil and gas supply depletion worldwide has led to increased interest in exploiting untapped hydrocarbon reservoirs. People who own property situated over hydrocarbon deposits in Kentucky can apply to the state for a permit to drill a well to tap this resource.

According to the University of Kentucky, the Kentucky Division of Oil and Gas is the agency responsible for dispensing these permits. The agency specifies that a permit application must be submitted and approved before you can dig any well. You can find the application online, and must submit it with several other documents.

Instructions

1. Complete the application form to obtain a permit to drill or widen an oil well. Fill it out completely, or the state may reject it.

2. Obtain a valid plat map of the area around the planned well from a licensed surveyor. The surveyor must stamp the plat map as valid or supply a statement attesting to its validity.

3. Take the completed drilling permit application to an authorized notary to have it notarized. It will not be accepted without notarization.

4. Submit the notarized permit application; one original and two copies of the plat map; an application fee, which varies, payable to the Kentucky State Treasurer; and appropriate bonding to finance damage control operations in case of an accident. The Division of Oil and Gas reviews completed, valid forms.

Tags: permit application, permit drill, application online, drill well, permit drill well

Recommended Courses For Medical School

Science courses are recommended for medical school applicants.

A foundation in the sciences is recommended for medical school. Courses that relate to the study of organisms, matter and chemical changes are all areas that are acceptable. Getting in to medical school can be difficult, even with a high grade point average along with volunteer and research experience, so having a high-quality scientific studies background is important.

Biology

Two semesters of biology are generally required by medical schools. Biology is the study of science that includes the life cycle of living organisms and their growth, origin and evolution. Biology courses are offered in several branches. Biochemistry studies the structure and function of cellular components, such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. Immunobiology offers courses in the structure and function of the immune system, which deals with antibodies and antigens. The zoology branch of biology deals with animals and animal life.

Human Anatomy and Physiology

Human anatomy is the study of the human body and its systems, including the circulatory, digestive, immune, respiratory, endocrine, reproductive and integumentary systems.

Physiology examines the fundamental processes that occur in all cells as well as specific cell processes. Physiology also focuses on how different systems integrate and work together, such as the circulatory and respiratory systems, and on how organisms feed and change to adapt to their environment.

Chemistry

Chemisty is the science of matter and the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions. General and organic chemistry are recommended courses for medical school. Chemistry includes lectures as well as laboratory sessions, where students learn how atoms, molecules and ions combine and react. Both organic and inorganic substances are studied in chemistry courses; course titles may include Covalent Bonding and Chemical Kinetics.

Physics

The study of physics involves matter and how it reacts to energy. Biology and chemistry both relate to the study of physics. According to the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Science, "Physics is the foundation of all the physical sciences," such as material science,chemistry and geology, and it is important for many other fields including biology, medicine and computing. Areas of studies included in physics are mechanics, electromagnetism, relativity, thermodynamics, astrophysics, optics and geophysics.

Basic Courses

Mathematics is also a standard requirement for entry into medical school. English and literature courses may also be required. A writing class is also highly recommended for entry into most medical schools, according to the University of Pennsylvania.

Tags: medical school, deals with, entry into, medical school, medical schools, recommended medical, recommended medical school

Awardwinning Science Projects Ideas

A model displays a large scientific phenomenon on a small scale.

Science projects are typically open-ended. However, if you wish to enter your project in a science fair and receive an award, you should follow one of the basic science project skeleton ideas. These skeleton ideas will give you the guidelines that can help you create an award-winning science project. There are four types of suitable science projects: experiment, investigation, model and collection.

Experiment

An experiment as a science project starts with a question about the relationship of two variables. The variable that you are primarily interested in is called the dependent variable. The dependent variable relies on the independent variable, the variable that you have the freedom to change. An experiment investigates how changing the independent variable affects the dependent variable. An example of an experiment science project is answering the question "How does temperature affect the amount of bubbles in cola?" by varying the temperature of cola cans, then opening them and measuring the amount of bubbles. In the end, you should find a relationship between temperature and the amount of bubbles in the cola.

Investigation

An investigation requires you to do research, but without having to create an experiment. You start by asking a question that you believe you can find the answer through reading books, watching documentaries and performing interviews. For example, perhaps you are wondering how a student's algebra grade affects her future choices of math courses. You could answer this question by interviewing teachers and students who have taken algebra. You then present your results through a report or visual aids.

Model

A model is a display or representation of something scientifically interesting. This type of project should also answer a question, but the model answers a question by showing instead of explaining. A common model science fair project is a model volcano. The model is displayed so that viewers can see on a small scale how volcanoes erupt. Since the volcano model is well-known, if your goal is to create an award-winning project, you will need to think creatively about what novel ideas you can present to people.

Collection

Collections are also means of answering scientific questions. If your question is about differences or similarities, you may consider using a collection to complete your project. The idea of a collection is to represent a variety of items from a specific topic. For example, you may be interested in the hearts of animals. By collecting their hearts and displaying them, you can show viewers the similarities and differences of animal hearts, thereby answering questions such as, "Do all hearts have two ventricles"" and "How do the aortas of different animals differ?"

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Enjoy Glacier National Park With The Kids

Modern amusements are rare in or around Glacier National Park, but that's the beauty of it. This is a great place for kids to learn about nature, geology, glaciers and Native Americans. In the end, they probably won't miss civilization at all, and will have lots of stories to tell their friends.

Instructions

1. See "Enjoy Glacier National Park," under Related eHows, for general information on the park. Many activities are appropriate for children as well as adults.

2. Discuss the concept of an International Peace Park with your kids. Talk about peace among the nations of the world and how the park is symbolic of this.

3. Go hiking. There are five self-guided trails with brochures and signs that help hikers learn about the natural history of the area. If your children aren't experienced hikers, opt for one of the shorter trails intended for easy hiking.

4. Take advantage of naturalist-led day programs and evening campfire talks, which are offered June through September. Pick up a schedule at a visitors center or from a park ranger.

5. Enroll your kids in the Junior Ranger program. Children 6 to 12 can pick up the Junior Ranger newspaper at the visitors center, complete five of the seven activities listed, return a completed form to the visitors center and then become Junior Rangers.

6. Take a boat tour. The Glacier Park Boat Company (glacierparkboats.com) offers guided tours from several locations within the park. Kids will love this method of seeing the sites - it's more fun than sitting in the car.

7. Stop at the Apgar visitors center to see the education cabin, which has exhibits designed especially for kids.

8. Teach children about Native Americans at the Blackfeet Indian Reservation, east of the park, and go to the associated Museum of the Plains Indian.

9. Take the video camera. Kids will want to relive this vacation over and over.

Tags: visitors center, Glacier National, Glacier National Park, National Park, Enjoy Glacier

Convert Latitude/Longitude To Grid Reference

Latitude-longitude maps are not square because lines of longitude come together at the poles.

If you have ever unsuccessfully attempted to flatten an orange peel, you've encountered the mapmaker's dilemma: displaying a sphere on a flat surface requires either distortion or a pair of scissors. Cartographers have addressed this problem with techniques called projections, the most familiar of which is the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system. Instead of plotting latitude-longitude coordinates on a grid, the locations are mathematically converted to a reference grid of rectangular coordinates in meters.

Although the mathematics of conversion are quite complex, computer programs and websites that convert between latitude-longitude and a reference grid are widely available.

Instructions

1. Obtain the latitude and longitude of the point of interest. The values may be expressed in either degrees-minutes-seconds (for example, 39° 17' 23.4") or decimal degrees (for example, 42.44543°).

2. Enter the latitude-longitude pair in a computer program or website that provides the conversion and process (see References). By convention, west longitudes and south latitudes are negative numbers and east longitudes and north latitudes are positive.

3. Read the grid reference position in X (east) and Y (north). Make a note of the UTM zone, which is needed to locate the point on a projected map.

Tags: reference grid

How Does Topography Influence Weather

Changes in elevation are one factor that determines where rain and snow falls.

The topography of Earth's surface is one of the primary factors that causes our daily weather. Changes in elevation, especially around high mountain ranges, determine the distribution of precipitation on our planet. Bodies of water, especially Earth's oceans, shape our climates and create the high- and low-pressure systems that cause weather events. Does this Spark an idea?

Water vs. Land: Differential Heating of Surface Materials

Differential heating of surface materials helps to create weather systems. Water heats up and cools down much more slowly than land. As the sun shines, air masses over land become warmer than air masses over water. This creates "hot spots" and "cold spots," or areas of low and high pressure. These areas--the edges of which are referred to as warm and cold fronts--are moved around the planet by prevailing winds, creating such aspects of weather as level of precipitation, the speed and direction of winds, temperature and degree of cloud cover.

Water vs. Land: Climate and Temperature

The topography of an area also helps determine the climate. This is because of ocean currents that carry masses of warm or cool air to coastal locations. Much of the U.S.' eastern coast, for instance, experiences warmer temperatures because of the Gulf Stream, a warm ocean current. In contrast, Maine experiences colder temperatures because the Gulf Stream doesn't reach that far north. Instead, Maine is affected by the Labrador current, which carries cold air masses from the north. Areas near oceans and large lakes have smaller temperature ranges than landlocked, or continental, areas.

Water vs. Land: Precipitation

Coastal areas are more likely to have more precipitation than continental areas because there's more water vapor in air masses above water. When these air masses move over land, they heat and rise. As the air rises, it cools and the water vapor condenses, forming clouds and precipitation. Daily weather such as a rain or snow often has a nearby body of water as its root cause. Similarly, desert environments receive little rainfall.

Elevation: Windward Side

Rates of precipitation are also influenced by elevation. When an air mass hits a mountain range, it's forced to rise. As it rises, it cools and the water molecules within condense--a process known as adiabatic cooling. The condensing water vapor forms clouds and water droplets, resulting in precipitation. The side of a mountain range that receives wind and air masses, called the windward side, experiences large amounts of precipitation. An example in the United States is Seattle, Washington, which experiences high levels of precipitation because it's on the windward side of the Cascade Mountains.

Elevation: Leeward Side

Just as mountain ranges help create large amounts of precipitation on windward sides, there's usually little precipitation on the opposite, or leeward, sides because the air masses moving over the mountains have dropped moisture on the windward side of the range. Leeward sides of mountain ranges are said to be in a "rain shadow." Many areas to the east of the Rocky Mountains receive little precipitation because of the nearby topography.

Tags: mountain ranges, Water Land, water vapor, windward side, amounts precipitation, because Gulf, because Gulf Stream

Elements In Seawater

There is more to seawater than H2O and sodium chloride.

Facts surrounding seawater are fascinating. The water of our oceans is often called saltwater due to the large percentage of dissolved salts found there. By far the most common salt is sodium chloride, but other compounds are also present. The salinity of saltwater varies around the globe, with the lowest concentrations found near the two poles, and the densest solutions occurring near the equator. Seventy-one percent of the Earth's surface is covered by oceans, and saltwater accounts for 99 percent of the world's water reserve.

Most Common Elements

The most common elements of seawater occur in water and salt. Water, also known as hydrogen oxide, contains hydrogen and oxygen. Alternatively, "salt" is a general term for a substance that is created by mixing an acidic and basic compound. More specifically, acid-base reactions create a positive cation, or positively charged ion, and a negative anion, or negatively charged ion, which after combining to form a new substance are precipitated in the form of a solid salt. In seawater, sodium chloride is by far the most common salt, but other positive ions such as magnesium, potassium and calcium are present along with the negative ion of sulfate (SO4). These ions can form in various combinations to create other types of salts. Other less common ions might consist of borate (BO3), fluoride, strontium, bromide and bicarbonate (HCO3).

Dissolved Gases

Several dissolved gases are present in seawater. These are oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen and argon. When in the gaseous state, oxygen and carbon dioxide are available for use by both plant and animal life. Oxygen is vital for respiration in animals, while photosynthesis cannot take place in green plants without the presence of carbon dioxide. Oxygen can be utilized by animal life only when it bonds with another oxygen atom to form a gaseous molecule, which is chemically expressed as O2. Carbon dioxide occurs when two atoms of oxygen bond to one atom of carbon.

Trace elements

Every natural element known to man has a presence in the planet's seawater. This even includes rare metals such as gold, silver, platinum and titanium. Nonetheless, these elements occur in such minute quantities that mining the ocean water for precious elements is not economically feasible. Outside of water and the basic salts and organic compounds, the most common elements in seawater are silicon, phosphorous, lithium, rubidium, iodine and barium.

Carbon

The carbon cycle produces many kinds of compounds that find their way into seawater. Of course, the element carbon is the major part of this chain, and it is released into the aquatic environment in a variety of ways. Excretion produces numerous complex carbon compounds along with many nitrates. Decay of living material is also another biological mechanism that adds carbon material to the seven seas. Additionally occurring are the secretion of various proteins and pheromones, which although small still adds some carbon-based material. And last but not least is the exchange of gases among living organisms, in which carbon dioxide is an integral part.

Tags: carbon dioxide, sodium chloride, along with, animal life, common elements, common elements seawater, common salt