Geology Science Activities

Creating glue fossils is a fun hands-on science activity.

Geology can be fun and memorable when students create models of geological activities. Educational research has demonstrated that hands-on science activities have many benefits for students including greater motivation, developing an understanding of the scientific process and increased learning and achievement in science, according to North Central Educational Laboratories.

Make an Edible Earth

Primary students will love creating an edible model of the layers of the earth. The ingredients for this activity are: four flavors of ice cream (green, yellow, chocolate, vanilla), graham crackers, nuts, red and green food coloring and a large mixing bowl. Make layers one at a time and freeze them in the mixing bowl. To start, make the crust with green ice cream and crushed graham crackers. Once the crust is frozen, make the mantle with chocolate ice cream and nuts to simulate rocks. Freeze. Use yellow ice cream for the outer core. Freeze this on top of the mantle. The inner core is vanilla ice cream turned gray by adding red and green food coloring. Once this is frozen, take the half-earth out of the mixing bowl and invert it so that the crust is on top. Discuss the layers with your students. Your explanations will vary in complexity based on their age. Once you're finished discussing the earth, eat it.

Create Fossil Molds

Creating fossil molds is suitable for students from kindergarten through grade five. Make molds from clay and the casts with glue. Materials for this activity are: white glue, coins, blades of grass, leaves, shells or other objects suitable for making impressions. This will take one class period. Explain how fossils are made of rock and minerals---not the actual parts of the organism, but rather the impressions made in the earth. (The older the student, the more complex the explanation can be.) In groups, have students take an object and press it into the clay to make an impression. The clay acts as the substitute for sediment. Pull the object out of the clay. Bacteria eat objects in the real world, and you fill the role of the bacteria by pulling the object out of the sediment (clay). Fill the mold with white glue. In the creation of real fossils, the space is filled with minerals that make the fossil. The glue substitutes for the minerals. Peel off the glue shape once it dries. This is the cast---fossils are often preserved as casts. Ask students if hard or soft objects make better casts, leading into a discussion of why hard objects make better fossils. Follow this activity by viewing fossils on the Internet.

Create a Volcano

There's an easy and safe way to create a volcano as a class activity. Materials are: newspaper, smocks, modeling clay or salt dough, small plastic soda bottles, baking pans, red food coloring, liquid detergent, 25 milliliters of baking soda, a funnel and vinegar. Discuss the basics of volcanoes as an introduction. Divide students into groups, in which they mold the clay or dough to make a mountain around the bottles that are placed in the baking pan. Do not cover the top of the bottle or let any of the "mountain" inside the bottle. Fill the bottle to the top with warm water and red food coloring. Add six drops of liquid detergent to the bottle. Use the funnel to add baking soda, and then slowly add vinegar. The "lava" should begin to flow over the top of the volcano. Have students explain how the process of real volcanic eruptions is similar to their model. When the students finish this activity, they will see that a volcano is a cooling vent for the inner core of the earth.

Tags: food coloring, this activity, mixing bowl, baking soda, graham crackers, green food, green food coloring

Dinosaur Museums In Texas

Texas has many dinosaur exhibits in museums.

It's not surprising to find dinosaur remains in Texas. It's one of the few places in the world where rocks from the early Cretaceous period are close to the surface. From the western part of the state to the east, Texas offers several opportunities to see dinosaur exhibits in museums.

Fort Worth Museum

The popular exhibits here are Dinolabs and Dinodig--full articulations of dinosaur skeletons and a site replicating a local paleontogical dig. The Dinolabs exhibit contains examples of Paluxysaurus junesi and Tenontosaurus dossi, as well as an ornithopod dinosaur and fossils and casts of two other dinosaur species. An interactive imaging station allows visitors to reconstruct their own dinosaur. Dinodig allows visitors to become paleontologists for an afternoon by analyzing rock formations that contain fossils.

Fort Worth Museum of Science and History

1600 Gendy St

Fort Worth, TX 76107

817-255-9300

fwmuseum.org/

Houston Museum of Natural Science

The permanent exhibit "Hall of Paleontology" contains more than 450 fossils and fossil replicas. It includes everything from a minor trilobite to a Tyrannosaurus rex.

The Houston Museum of Natural Science

1 Hermann Circle Dr

Houston, TX 77030

713-639-4629

hmns.org/

Texas Memorial Museum

The Hall of Geology and Paleontology at Texas Memorial Museum features fossils of dinosaurs and other prehistoric creatures. Visitors can explore the hands-on exhibit Discover Drawers and visit the on-site Paleo Lab, a working laboratory where visitors can see first-hand how fossils are prepared, catalogued and studied. Visitors can also meet and talk with a paleontologist.

Texas Memorial Museum

2400 Trinity St

The University of Texas at Austin

Austin, TX 78712

512-475-7348

utexas.edu/tmm/

Dallas Museum of Nature and Science

This museum features several dinosaur exhibits, including "Texas Dinosaurs," a hands-on simulated fossil dig in which visitors can unearth fossil casts; a paleontology lab staffed by museum employees and volunteers currently preparing fossil specimens; and the Dino Trail Guide, where visitors can explore the lives of dinosaurs.

Dallas Museum of Nature and Science

1318 S Second Ave

Dallas, TX 75315

241-428-5555

natureandscience.org/default.asp

Tags: dinosaur exhibits, Fort Worth, Memorial Museum, Texas Memorial, Texas Memorial Museum, allows visitors, Dallas Museum

About Active Volcanoes In Washington

About Active Volcanoes in Washington

The very character of the state of Washington is shaped by its majestic volcanoes. The active volcanoes in Washington bring significant benefits to the state for many reasons, yet also pose risks that command respect and vigilance from the citizens around them. Beautiful and often unpredictable, Washington volcanoes and the effects they have on the areas around them--and even the world--have been studied for centuries.

The Facts

Washington State has five active volcanoes, all located in the Cascade mountain range, which runs along the northern Pacific coast. Mount Rainier is the highest at 14,410 feet, followed in order of elevation by Mount Adams, Mount Baker, Glacier Peak and the lowest, Mount St. Helens, at 8,364 feet. All active volcanoes in Washington are composite volcanoes, which geologists distinguish from other types of volcanoes by their layered structure, steep slopes and core craters. Composite volcanoes tend to the majestic, as witnessed by anyone who has stood in the shadow of Mount Rainier.

Features

Active volcanoes in Washington have features and characteristics common to all composite volcanoes. They are formed from layers of rock and lava, and are usually large. They are conically shaped and can have one or more summits. A common characteristic of composite volcanoes is their explosive eruptions. Unlike other volcanoes that vent their lava more often, thick magma and accompanying noxious gases push upward in composite volcanoes and get trapped for longer periods of time in the core vent, building up pressure to an eventual catastrophic explosion.

Effects

The volcanic Cascade mountain range traps a large amount of atmospheric moisture, and consequently rain, in the western part of the state. This, coupled with the mineral-rich volcanic soil in western Washington, produces a lush landscape that fuels timber, agriculture and tourism industries. The eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 affected the surrounding areas in terms of loss of life and loss of resources, having a direct impact on community and industry. This can and will happen again with any one of the Washington volcanoes, requiring diligence from citizens, government and the scientific community.

Risk Factors

The eruption of Mount St. Helens in May of 1980 is a prime example of why people should not dismiss long-quiet volcanoes as benign. The damage caused by composite volcano eruptions is usually catastrophic. Those who live near or are visiting an active volcano need to be aware that there is always a risk. Unusual activity will be reported by local authorities, along with any pertinent instructions. When near an active volcano in Washington, you can minimize your risk by familiarizing yourself with evacuation routes and checking periodically for any warnings.

Benefits

Despite the destructive capabilities of volcanoes, in the long run they help more than they destroy. Washington benefits from its volcanoes in several ways. Volcanic debris enriches the soil as it breaks down; a boost for agriculture. The sheer size and majesty of composite volcanoes make the surrounding areas ideal candidates for resorts, and this means tourism dollars benefiting many businesses. Geothermal energy has many possible uses, and minerals formed from volcanic debris are used in many industries.

Tags: active volcanoes, composite volcanoes, Mount Helens, About Active, About Active Volcanoes

What Is The Difference Between Open & Shared Key

Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) encryption protects computer networks by authentication users. A network administrator sets his WEP encryption to use either shared network keys or open keys, each with its own advantages and drawbacks.

Functions

Open key systems request authorization to join the network by providing a service set identifier (SSID) password and the router responds with success or failure. Shared key systems have users set a password manually on each system. When a client attempts to connect to a network, it encrypts the password and sends it to the router, hoping it matches the password on the router.

Benefits

Shared key authentication systems have less denial-of-service attacks than open key systems since attackers cannot send garbage packets into the network. Open key networks provide greater overall security as users trying to access a WEP network must provide a password each time log-on is attempted.

Warning

Since a network using shared keys assumes that all users are authentic, each station can eavesdrop on another station's traffic. Hackers can observe communications between other systems and steal the encrypted messages. Hackers on open key networks do not have this ability.

Tags: password router, systems have

Earthquake Activities For The 8th Grade

A good earthquake activity for students is to have them find nearby fault lines.

According to the Federal Emergency Management Administration, 45 states and U.S. territories are vulnerable to the hazards of earthquakes and are at very high to moderate risk of damage from earthquakes. Teaching students about earthquakes is a good way to introduce them to geological science and technology. Learning how movement in the earth's crust can cause earthquakes and tremors can be a gateway to even more technical scientific discussions. It also allows the students to learn about emergency preparedness and how disaster relief efforts work.

Locate Nearby Fault Lines

Have your students research and locate fault lines in their area. The United States Geological Survey is a good resource. Have them take a map of their area and draw in the fault lines. For added research, have them make a report about recent earthquakes and tremors that have occurred in their area. Have them also describe the frequency of various types of earthquakes and what factors go into the prediction of future earthquakes.

Earthquake Preparedness

Task the students to create a list of steps that should be taken to prepare for an earthquake. Have them include a list of emergency supplies, evacuation routes, emergency contact and disaster relief information. They should include a detailed list of the steps that can be taken to protect themselves in the event of an earthquake and list the kind of supplies that should be on hand at all times.

Seismic Activity Research

Teach the students about how plate tectonics on the Earth play a part in earthquakes. Instruct the students identify P & S waves (primary and secondary seismic waves), along with what the travel time curve is and what it represents. Supply them with their own seismogram data. Have them take that information and identify the P & S waves on their seismograms, then use that data to determine the difference in the time between the waves. They should also be able to locate the epicenter and how far way it was from the local seismic activity station as well as locate the station using latitude and longitude coordinates.

Historical Earthquakes

Have the students choose randomly or assign to them reports to do on historical earthquakes, such as the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, the 1920 Haiyuan earthquake, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Have them supply all of the geological information, such as latitude and longitude of the seismic center, magnitude, fatalities and relief efforts as well as related graphical data and photos in their reports.

Tags: fault lines, Have them, their area, disaster relief, earthquake Have, earthquake Have them, earthquakes tremors

Denali National Park Physical Features

The largest mountain in North America, Mt. McKinley dominates Denali National Park's landscape.

Encompassing more than six million acres, Alaska's Denali National Park features a complete sub-Arctic ecosystem, filled with wildlife, glaciers, mountains, tundra, and taiga forests. One of the best and only ways to see much of what Denali offers is to take the park shuttle bus from one end of the park to the other, a total of 92 miles one way. Available in the summer, the shuttle bus allows you to get on and off as much as you want, allowing you to explore the park's physical features that appeal to you most.

Mount McKinley

In the midst of the Alaska Range mountains, one mountain stands out far more than any other, the 20,320-foot Mount McKinley, also known as Denali. Although clouds often cover the mountain, obscuring it from view, those lucky enough to see it on their trip to Denali National Park never forget it. The highest mountain in North America, its snowfields, which never melt, cover more than half the mountain with ice that in some spots is hundreds of feet thick.

Yukon-Tanana Rocks

The Yukon-Tanana rocks, found near the entrance of the park, are the oldest in Denali. Volcanic flows created this geological formation more than 400 million years ago, and it extends more than 30,000 square miles between Canada's Yukon territory and the Tanana River, which starts in northeast Alaska.

Muldrow Glacier

If you want to see glaciers up close and personal, get off the bus at the 35-mile long Muldrow glacier. The toe of this massive glacier lies within a half mile of the road. This glacier, along with several others, carries snow and ice off of Mount McKinley. If you prefer to see glaciers form a distance, just look out the window since more than one million acres of the park are covered in glaciers.

Taiga Forests

A Russian word meaning "evergreen forests of the north," taiga are sometimes referred to as boreal forests. The park's taiga forests provide an important food and habitat resource for wildlife. Primarily located along the rivers, they include a variety of trees, such as white spruce, black spruce, aspen, larch, and balsam. The undergrowth of this forest is filled with mosses and lichens while shrubs such as birch, blueberry, and willow provide important food resources. Taiga forest stops growing at about 2,700 feet, where it turns into tundra.

Tundra

Tundra starts where the taiga forest ends. Tundra consists of windswept dwarfed shrubs and plants that adapt to the short, cold growing season. As you go further up the mountain, these hardy plants start getting shorter, growing closer to the ground. Watch these areas for a variety of wildlife and birds that use the tundra's resources for critical food and habitat.

Tags: more than, Denali National, Denali National Park, National Park, more than million, Mount McKinley, than million

Get An Oilfield Job As A Mudlogger In The On Offshore Oil And Gas Drilling Industry

Get an Oilfield Job as a Mudlogger in The On - Offshore Oil and Gas Drilling Industry

Ever wonder how oil and gas drilling companies know if they have hit pay dirt or not on a wildcat well? If you thought that oil went shooting up over the top of the rig, then that's not the preferred way these days. Mudlogging or Mud Logging is a challenging yet lucrative way for a person to make a good living in the industry.

Instructions

1. The first step is to ask yourself if you can handle a job that involves living in a travel trailer on a rig site or sleeping, when you can in crowded crew quarters offshore, yet be rewarded with good compensation at then end of the month. You will be away from home for sometimes weeks at a time, working in dirty, dangerous and harsh environments. Work hours are long and often unpredictable, often in 12 hour increments or tours, pronounced "towers". Salaries for mudloggers range from $50,000 per year plus daily per-diem expenses to $80,000 or more for the top end companies providing multiple logging services such as pore pressure analysis. You are paid by the day, from $175 plus around $35 to $70 per diem and with some companies a modest monthly salary. Since you will be staying on the well site for days on end, with no real expenses and nowhere to spend your money it is a good way to save up several thousand dollars in a couple of years. I have friends who have paid off their homes this way.

2. Second, if you are willing to do the above, then you will want find out what a mud logger or "mudlogger" does on the rig site and if it is something you would be willing to learn to do as a career or a stepping stone to a higher paying oilfield job.

The mudlogger typically works out of a small trailer or skid unit that is transported to the rig site and contains instruments that monitor the gas coming up the well bore as the oil well is drilled, as well as tracking the depth of the bit and analyzing the rock cuttings that come up in the drilling mud, hence the name.

3. The logger may or may not reside as well as work in the small quarters. At times companies allow workers to stay off premises in a motel for their 12 hours off (if that is their shift) if the job is on land. If it is on an offshore drilling rig then service hands such as mudloggers stay in crew quarters with bunks, several men to a room. In addition to 12 hours schedules some companies provide one-man services where one person will work 24 hours, day after day, napping when possible. It is not an easy life but compared to the life of the rig workers it is an easy and good paying job for independent, self driven persons who enjoy working in an exciting and challenging environment.

His duties will involve setting up the logging trailer's equipment, running small diameter plastic hose to the rig's mud tanks (where the drilling mud is returned to after being pumped down the drill pipe, back up the unlined hole and through the shakers which separate liquid from solid). The plastic tubing is attached to an agitator sitting down in the first tank the mud returns to. The mud, being also full of gas, gives off this gas in the agitator. It is sucked up by the tube, drawn into the trailer under vacuum and analyzed for it's component parts, such as methane, propane, etc. The amount and quantities of different gasses are drawn by a chart recorder onto a log of the well, correlated with depth. Depth is derived from a wire up to the drill floor, connected to the draw works or geolograph. These two parts of the log are automatic, but require constant calibration and inspection for clogs, shorts, etc. The other part of the mudlogger's job is not automatic. It requires that he take a sieve and collect cuttings as they come over the "shakers" or solid separators, fresh from the bowels of the earth. The mud logger washes them off, and after proper training, inspects and classifies what the cutting are after looking at them through a microscope. Typically the cuttings will be either limestone, shale or sand with quantities of dolomite, chert and other rocks mixed in. In addition he may be required to save bags of samples, wet or dried from certain depths. He will be in constant communication over speaker system with the driller on the rig floor as well as the r company man and also by phone to geologists at company headquarters, and to whom he will send logs. Job training can take around four to six weeks before a logger can work unsupervised.

4. If the condensed description of the job as described thus far sounds like something you would like to try then get your resume together, highlight the skills that pertain to this job, even if you do not have an oilfield background. Some smaller mudlogging companies will hire you. Jobs that show a history of self direction, leadership, military and mechanically related and technical jobs are a plus. What employers look for is knowledge of computers but nothing extreme, an ability to troubleshoot and solve problems independently and work with a minimum of direction as well as tolerate long hours and travel. Check out books from your local library such as "A Primer of Oil Well Drilling" and books on field geology and mineral identification. A basic understanding of geology is required. A degree in Geology and Earth Science is a sure way to land a job with the top Oil and Gas Logging companies such as Sperry Sun, a division of Halliburton. Smaller, mom and pop companies will hire anyone with a desire to learn so that is a good way to get a foot in the industry.

While mud logging jobs for the smaller land based companies can top out in the $50,000 range there is potential for much higher income working offshore and overseas for the majors once you have some experience. It is also a good way to get a foot in the door of the oil and gas drilling industry and work your way up the ranks to a job with a salary of $150,000 or more a year. Companies that hire mud logger trainees include Horizon Well Logging, Warren Logging, Selman and Associates, Geosearch Logging, Analog Services, Precision Well Logging and more. Get a good resume together, don't be afraid to call or cold call on these companies directly since they are alway hiring in todays busy drilling market. For more information on mudlogging and for oilfield job listings see the sites in the resources section below. The book "A Nontechnical Guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling and Production" is an excellent starter book.

Tags: companies will, companies will hire, crew quarters, good foot, Mudlogger Offshore, Mudlogger Offshore Drilling

Make A Model Of The Volcano Of Paricutin

Make an erupting model of the volcano of Paricutín.

In February 1943, the farmland outside the small Mexican village of San Salvador Paricutín experienced a strange phenomenon. Within a matter of days, a massive volcano arose from indigenous farmer Dionisio Pulido's cornfield. Over the next nine years, the volcano of Paricutin intermittently spewed ash and lava over the surrounding countryside. The volcano of Paricutin offers educators an opportunity to address both Mexican history and geological landforms in one lesson. Build an erupting model of the volcano of Paricutín to engage student interest in the subject matter.

Instructions

1. Attach the bottom of a 6-inch plastic bowl to one end of a 10-inch piece of 4-inch-diameter cardboard shipping tube with hot glue. Glue the other end of the tube to the center of a 36-inch square of 3/8-inch thick plywood.

2. Draw an oval on the plywood around the tube measuring approximately 14 inches by 7-½ inches. This is the volcano's footprint.

3. Use hot glue and masking tape to attach pieces of tightly crumpled newspaper around the tube and bowl. Build up the newspaper to resemble the volcano of Paricutin (see Resources). Do not cover the plastic bowl on top of the volcano with newspaper.

4. Mix 2 quarts of plaster of Paris according to the manufacturer's directions. Apply a thin layer of the plaster to the volcano with the putty knife. Allow the plaster to dry for one hour. Sand off any rough edges with a fine to medium grit sanding sponge. Repeat this process until the volcano is the desired shape.

5. Paint the volcano and surrounding landscape with tempera paint. Apply a thin layer of water-based, clear polyurethane once the paint is completely dry.

6. An hour before you begin your lesson, place 1/2 cup of baking soda into the plastic dish crater of your volcano. In a separate container, mix 10 oz of white vinegar with 6 drops of red food coloring. Place the volcano in a prominent position in your classroom.

7. Begin your lesson with an account of the events leading up to the formation of the volcano of Paricutin. As you begin to describe the volcano's first eruption, pour the vinegar solution over the baking soda. The resulting "eruption" will grab your students' attention and spark interest in your lesson.

Tags: volcano Paricutin, your lesson, Apply thin, Apply thin layer, around tube

Classroom Activities For The Geologic Time Scale

Earth's history is divided into time periods.

The history of the planet is divided into time periods, called the geologic time scale by geologists, scientists who study the earth. From Paleozoic to Cenozoic, and the eons in between, the periods are based on rock sequences and are measured by years. Learning the relationships and differences of these periods, and the long-lasting historical impact of the periods, leads to investigative activities in the earth science classroom.

The Beginning

The clouds appeared 3 billion years ago.

Tape 46 sheets of white paper along the top of a whiteboard. Hang the papers so that they are not overlapping and there are no gaps. Explain to the students that Earth is 4.6 billion years old. Each of the white papers represents 100 million years of Earth's history. Starting with the paper that is the farthest to the left, write on the paper, "4.6 billion years ago," on the next paper write, "4.5 billion years ago," and continue until the last paper says, ".1 billion years ago." Give each pair of students a different milestone of Earth to research to place on the time line you have just made. Milestones that are important to the time line include formation of the moon, appearance of plants, clouds formed, oceans formed, land animals appeared and humanoids appeared. Place these important events on the time line by their proper dates.

How the Rocks Line Up

Layers of rocks are full of Earth's history.

Divide students into groups of three. Each group excavates a 5cm layer of the trash can. Scientists study layers of rocks to understand the history of Earth. The students study layers of trash to learn what they can about the history of the classroom. Students sketch the items they pull out of the trash can. The class discovers the oldest trash is deposited at the bottom of the can, similar to how the oldest rock layer is deposited with layers on top of it. The trash can is a changing record of the history of the classroom, just like the rock layers are a changing history of the Earth.

Age of the Dinosaurs

Dinosaurs were part of the Mesozoic Era.

Assign the groups of three a dinosaur from the Mesozoic Era to research. The students find the diet, habitat, scientists' explanation for extinction and physical appearance. Give the students time in class to do the research on the Internet. The students draw the dinosaur to a scale of 1 inch equals 1 foot on a piece of butcher paper. If their dinosaur is 10 feet tall, they would draw it 10 inches tall. Cut out the dinosaurs and place them on a bulletin board in your classroom. The students work on making the proper habitat for the dinosaur by creating the proper foliage out of colored butcher paper, according to the dinosaur's diet.

Earth's Layers

Draw and label the three layers of the Earth on the whiteboard: the core, the mantle and the crust. Explain to students that the crust is made up of tectonic plates, about 20 huge slabs of rock. These plates are moving and scraping against each other, causing earthquakes. Give each student a boiled egg, a plastic knife and a paper plate. They will use the egg as a model of the Earth. Instruct the students to tap the egg lightly. The cracked shell will represent the crust. Show the students manipulate the moving and scraping of the eggshell to represent the crust. Use the knife to cut the egg in half vertically. The white part of the egg is a model of the mantle. The yolk represents the core. The students draw on white art paper a cross-section of the Earth with the three parts labeled.

Tags: billion years, Earth history, time line, butcher paper, divided into, divided into time

Make Clay Molds For Bronze Art

With clay molds for bronze casting, you can make a wide variety of bronze art.

Bronze casting has been around since the early Bronze Age. According to professor Richard Cowen at UC Davis, bronze artifacts have been found at Ur and other Mesopotamian cities dating from about 3000 BC. Back then, bronze was primarily cast for weapons and tools. Now bronze is cast for art and collectibles as well as machinery. The process hasn't changed much; the method of lost wax casting using wax and clay molds remains a time-honored method for casting bronze.

Instructions

Making the Clay Mold

1. Lay the original sculpture for reproduction down on a flat surface. Use clay to build a barrier around the original halfway up its sides so that only the top half of the sculpture is visible.

2. Paint on the rubber to create a negative. Paint several layers of silicone rubber over the half of the original. Allow rubber to dry according to its manufacturer's directions before applying the next coat. Continue until all the areas of the original are covered with a 1/4-inch thickness of rubber.

3. Paint rubber on the other side. Lay the first half of rubber aside, flip the original over and follow Step 2 for the other side. The whole process should take about a week depending on drying time and size of the piece.

4. Create the mother mold. The rubber negatives need a stiff carrier so they can hold the form once the original is removed. Build up a casing over the rubber by applying plaster in layers over the rubber to form a thick shell. Allow the plaster to dry between layers. The plaster shell should completely encase the rubber negative. When the shell is dry, remove the original sculpture and rejoin the two sections of the mother mold.

5. Make the wax positive. Flip the plaster mother mold upside down to expose the pouring channel. Melt the wax according to its manufacturer's instructions and pour enough into the negative mother mold to give a single coating. Allow the wax to dry. Repeat the process until the wax layer is 1/4 inch thick.

6. Check the wax for accuracy. Remove the mother mold and rubber negative to reveal the wax positive. Remove any imperfections in the wax duplicate of the sculpture that formed during pouring with your clay or wax modeling tools.

7. Create the negative clay mold. Use small pieces of clay to completely cover the wax copy. Make sure to push and fill every space on the copy to produce an accurate negative. Allow drying time for the clay mold and drill out small holes in the backside of the mold. These holes allow wax and air to escape during the firing process.

8. Fire the ceramic mold. Place the ceramic mold in the kiln and fire at 1500 to 1600 degrees F. The wax will burn out of the mold and produce a perfect negative.

9. Plug and re-fire the ceramic mold. Use bits of the clay to plug up the holes once the ceramic has cooled. Re-fire the mold at 1500 to 1600 degrees F so the form is hollow and without holes.

10. Remove the mold from the kiln and allow to cool before pouring the bronze.

Tags: mother mold, ceramic mold, 1500 1600, 1500 1600 degrees, 1600 degrees, according manufacturer

Test The Conductivity Of Metal

The electrical conductivity of a metal is a measure of how easily electrons move through that metal. Metals generally have a high electrical conductivity because of their definitive property of sharing electrons. The following steps will allow you to measure and calculate the electrical conductivity of a metal.

Instructions

1. Use an ohmmeter to measure the resistance of a metal sample of known length and area. A basic ohmmeter would use two contacts, one at each end of the sample, to determine resistance.

2. Use a four-contact device to make precision measurements. This type of ohmmeter uses one pair of contacts to measure the current and the other two to measure the voltage. This allows the meter to ignore the resistance of the first pair of contacts.

3. Read the ohmmeter's calculation of resistance. The ohmmeter does this automatically using the equation R=V/I. That is, the ohmmeter divides the voltage (in volts) by the amperage (in amperes) to give us the resistance in ohms.

4. Calculate the resistivity using the following equation: o = l/RA. l is the length of the sample (in meters), R is the resistivity (in ohms) and A is the area of the sample (in square meters). This will give us the conductivity o (in ohm meters^-1). The official unit of measure for electrical conductance is the siemens (S) which is defined as an inverse ohm (ohm^-1).

5. Keep a table of electrical conductivities handy. This can help you determine the purity of your sample. Silver, for instance, has the highest conductivity of any metal at 6.3 x 10^7 S-m^-1.

Tags: conductivity metal, electrical conductivity, electrical conductivity metal, pair contacts

Test Surface Hardness

Use the Mohs Hardness test to find the hardness of unknown minerals.

Testing surface hardness can be done by various methods. The easiest method for testing hardness is the Mohs Hardness test. The Mohs test, developed by Friedrich Mohs, measures the hardness of an unknown mineral by testing it against the hardness of known samples. The known samples used in the test are numbered from 1 to 10. Once the test is completed, you will be able to assign a hardness score to the unknown mineral.

Instructions

1. Clean the unknown mineral with a brush or a clean cloth. Clean enough of the mineral to be able to scratch the surface.

2. Scratch the surface of the unknown mineral firmly with one of the reference samples on the Mohs scale (see Resources). Start with a sample that is low on the scale.

3. Examine the scratch on the unknown sample. You may need to use a magnifying glass to see clearly. If the sample made a scratch, then scratch the mineral again with a sample that is lower on the scale. If it did not leave a scratch, repeat with a sample that is higher on the scale.

4. Continue the scratching process until you have determined the hardest Mohs reference sample that will not scratch the mineral. The unknown mineral will have a Mohs hardness number between the number of the sample that will not scratch the mineral and the next highest number.

Tags: sample that, unknown mineral, with sample that, scratch mineral, with sample, Hardness test

Two Physical Science Careers

Volcanology is only one of many physical sciences.

The science field contains a wide variety of interesting and challenging disciplines, including the physical sciences. While physical science encompasses many areas, two may come to mind more frequently than others. Meteorologists study weather patterns, watch storm fronts and make forecasts to help people plan their day. Volcanologists monitor active and dormant volcanoes for signs of eruption which could cause serious damage to towns situated near them.

What Does a Volcanologist Do?

Hawaii is one of five observatories in the United States for volcanologists.

A volcanologist studies volcanoes, using chemistry and physics to determine the possibility of an eruption. While an active volcano can become a very destructive force, it can take centuries for it to erupt. For the most part, United States volcanologists observe active volcanoes from five permanent observatories around the country. These observatories include: Hawaiian, Cascades, Alaska, Long Valley and Yellowstone.

These observatories show the scientists changes in Earth movement from seismometers, gas emissions and changes, and even minute changes in water tables in the region. Using the data recorded, volcanologists can roughly determine the potential of an eruption within the next decade into the future. Volcanologists also watch an eruption in progress to better understand what can trigger the eruption, what happens to the mountain during such an event and what dangers may occur during the event.

Volcanology Education

Volcanologists study geology, chemistry and physics in college.

The study of volcanoes actually covers several fields and educational disciplines. The study of active volcanoes, considered physical volcanologists, study the volcano's physical structure and processes. Geophysicists have several specializations within the field, including seismology -- in other words the study of earthquakes -- gravity and magnetics. Geodesy studies the changes made to the Earth, such as shape and ground deformation due to volcanic activity. Also, geochemists study the Earth's makeup, including volcanic gasses and rocks created from volcanic activity.

Most volcanologists have a physical science background in chemistry, physics and geology. It's recommended for students to study computer science and math in high school if they wish to pursue a career in this field. A graduate degree -- either an MS or PhD in physics, calculus, geology, seismology, or a combination of these -- gives a student a solid background to enter this career.

What Does a Meteorologist Do?

Meteorologists study cloud formation and atmospheric pressure to determine the weather.

Most people know a meteorologist by his better-known name of weatherman. A meteorologist compares temperature readings, wind speeds and direction, atmospheric pressure, and precipitation patterns to determine what the local weather might be in any given area. Meteorologists may also use data to determine how the climate and weather patterns might change over time, and how this could affect people's daily lives. These scientists carry out basic research to help figure out how hurricanes form, why tornadoes occur where they do, and why the ozone layer has thinned over certain areas of the atmosphere.

Meteorology Education

Students take physics, chemistry, engineering and mathematics to prepare for meteorology studies.

For those wanting to become a meteorologist, high school courses that should be considered include physics and chemistry, math and computer sciences, plus any Earth science courses that the school offers. At the college and university level, students need to enroll in an undergraduate degree program within the environmental science or atmospheric fields.

Many colleges offer specialized programs such as research or agricultural meteorology, but students need to take courses in physics, chemistry, engineering and mathematics for a start. Once a student receives his bachelor's degree, he can move on to graduate courses in atmospheric science. Experts recommend that students achieve either a master's degree or doctorate in atmospheric science to become a meteorologist.

Tags: chemistry physics, physics chemistry, active volcanoes, atmospheric pressure, atmospheric science

Test Specific Gravity

Minerals with a metallic luster are heavier than other minerals.

Specific gravity, also known as SG, is a term that describes the comparison of a substance's density to that of water. SG is typically used in geology to measure the density of a mineral. SG is measured as a comparison ratio. For example, if the SG is 2.1, then the mineral has a density 2.1 times higher than that of water. Specific gravity can vary somewhat within a mineral due to impurity of the mineral's structure.

Instructions

1. Fill the beaker halfway with water. Note the level of the water.

2. Put the mineral into the beaker. Make sure it fully submerges in the water.

3. Note the level of the water once again.

4. Calculate the difference in the amount of water before the mineral was put in and after it was put in.

5. Spill out the water from the beaker.

6. Weigh the empty beaker.

7. Fill the beaker with the amount of water the mineral displaced (calculated in Step 4).

8. Weigh the beaker with the water.

9. Subtract the weight of the empty beaker from the weight of the beaker calculated in Step 8. This is the weight of the water displaced by the mineral. Accordingly, it has the same volume as the mineral.

10. Weigh the mineral.

11. Divide the weight of the mineral by the weight of the water it displaced. This will be the specific gravity of the mineral.

Tags: amount water, beaker with, calculated Step, empty beaker, Fill beaker, level water

What Courses Are Needed For Environmental Science Degree

Whether you want to do more than just recycle and buy carbon offsets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, or you're interested in how the earth's water, mountains and land masses work together, you may want to consider pursuing a college degree in environmental science. Colleges across the country offer environmental sciences majors, starting with bachelor's degrees all the way up to doctoral programs in the field.

Bachelor's in Environmental Science Courses

Students just beginning their education in environmental science may enroll in an environmental science bachelor's degree program, such as the one at the University of Tennessee Chattanooga. The four-year program includes coursework in ecology, maps and mapping, values and the environment, introduction to environmental problems and environmental law and agencies. Students may choose from concentration courses in environmental conservation, fossil fuels, air and water pollution control, oceanography and ecology. All students complete general education courses at the beginning of their bachelor's program, including English, mathematics, sociology, anthropology and communications.

Master of Environmental Science Courses

Master's degrees in environmental studies, such as the one at the University of Pennsylvania, offer programs with core classes such as environmental biology, environmental law, environmental policy, environmental chemistry and environmental geology, plus optional concentration courses in topics such as urban environment, resource management, environmental advocacy and education, environmental health or environmental policy. Some schools, like Penn, require an initial "pro-seminar" course, such as "Contemporary Issues in Environmental Studies," which is a way for students to review undergraduate foundational coursework in environmental science, participate in debates with their classmates and learn about the newest developments in environmental science technology.

PhD in Environmental Science Courses

Although much time spent in a PhD program is dedicated to self-paced research and work on a thesis project, students in environmental doctoral programs also spend time in the classroom. Courses include environmental policy and economics, environmental microbiology, advanced environmental communication, writing skills for environmental professionals, eco-hydrolic modeling, legal issues in environmental problem solving, implementing environmental laws and programs, alternative and renewable energy law and policy and grant writing.

Tags: environmental policy, environmental science, Environmental Science Courses, Science Courses, beginning their, concentration courses, doctoral programs

The Impact Of Natural Disasters

Natural disasters can have a life-altering impact on the individuals and families fortunate enough to survive them. But the effect of natural disasters can be felt at the community, city and state level, or many times can impact an entire country. How well the impact of a disaster event is absorbed has much to do with the intensity of the impact and the level of preparedness and resilience of the subject impacted.

Significance

Even before the industrialization of the modern world, natural disasters have been a fact of life. There are records of the migratory travels of Native Americans away from coastal Florida specifically to avoid seasonal hurricanes. However, with the modernization of many societies worldwide and the changes our industrial activities have brought to the environment, many weather related natural disasters have gained in both frequency and intensity. This translates to in increased global impact of natural disasters at all levels.

Individual Impact

At the individual level, the impact can often be felt physically, mentally and emotionally. Natural disasters cause destruction of property, loss of financial resources, and personal injury or illness. The loss of resources, security and access to shelter can lead to massive population migrations in lesser-developed countries.

After experiencing a natural disaster, many individuals develop severe post-traumatic stress disorders or withdraw into states of depression. Others develop negative associations with the environment, in more developed nations; this can also lead to significant population migrations.

Community Impact

Those communities that experience a natural disaster must also absorb the impacts of these destructive events. Many local communities lose so much in economic resources that recovery becomes difficult, if not almost impossible. Some communities find opportunity in the aftermath of a disaster to rebuild better and stronger communities than before. Communities must often recognize population, demographic, and cultural shifts as a result of the impact of the natural disaster on their individual citizens.

Economic Impact

In 2005, Hurricane Katrina devastated New Orleans and the Mississippi gulf coast. In New Orleans alone, more than 200,000 homes were destroyed; over 70 percent of the resident population had to be at least temporarily relocated outside of the greater New Orleans area. In addition, huge sums of federal assistance were necessary to help jump start recovery efforts in the city and surrounding region. Estimates of over $105 to $150 billion in reduced tax revenue, loss of infrastructure, expense of reclamation efforts, and loss of normal revenue were lost to the city. Beyond the economic losses to New Orleans, it is estimated that the United States economy suffered a 2 percent loss of overall gross domestic product within one year of the disaster as a direct result of the hurricane and its impact on this important international port city.

Environment

Just as a natural can change the landscape of our personal lives as well as aspects of our community, so too can different types of disasters drastically alter the natural environment. The cyclones that occurred in Myanmar in 2008, or the wildfires that spread throughout California in 2009 are examples of how areas of land that detail whole ecosystems can be dramatically damaged or transformed from a single disaster event. On a larger scale, the debate regarding address global climate change and the resulting natural impacts is further punctuated by estimates of sea level increases that will completely swamp some island nations. Furthermore, the rapid desalination of salt water oceans caused by melting glaciers could deprive the world of 30 percent or more of its edible fish supply, and the loss of coral reefs from the same cause would put numerous coastal regions in jeopardy of tidal waves and surges.

Tags: disasters have, natural disaster, disaster event, impact natural, natural disasters

List Of California'S Natural Resource Minerals

Gravel is an important component of the California economy.

Minerals are inorganic elements or compounds with a definite chemical composition and specific physical properties. They are solid, crystalline structures formed by geological processes within the Earth. Many minerals are valuable economic commodities that are important to state economies. California contains vast amounts of minerals. According to the California Geological Survey (CGS), California produced $4 billion worth of non-fuel minerals in 2008.

Gold

Gold, one of the earliest metals discovered by humans, resists corrosion and does not disintegrate when exposed to salt, oxygen or water. This durability makes it a valuable commodity. Currently, the electronics, aerospace and armaments industries use gold as components of products, such as computers. Workers at Sutter's Mill in Coloma, California, discovered gold in 1848. The most important gold deposits in California are located in the Mojave Desert, Sierra Nevada Mountains and Klamath Mountains. Unmined, low-grade deposits are scattered across the state. In 2008, California mined 119,300 ounces of gold worth approximately $104 million, according to the CGS.

Benitoite

Benitoite is a rare gem found only in a small area of San Benito County, California. It occurs as a crystal in a variety of colors, including purple, blue, white, pink and colorless. A fluorescent mineral, benitoite turns a bright, deep, sky blue when exposed to x-rays and ultraviolet light. Only found in small quantities, it is a highly valued collector's item due to its scarcity.

Sand and Gravel

California was the top sand and gravel producer in 2008, according the CGS. Sand and gravel are important raw materials in the construction and manufacturing industries. They are the state's leading industrial minerals. The CGS reports that the state produced 108,529,000 tons of construction sand and gravel and 1,940,000 tons of industrial gravel and sand worth approximately $1 million in 2008.

Boron

California contains the largest boron deposits in the United States. Boron forms bright, transparent crystals that are almost as hard as diamonds. It is used in cleaning compounds and fertilizers and also as an abrasive. The CGS reports that California mined about $700,000 worth of boron in 2008.

Tags: approximately million, California contains, California mined, reports that, when exposed, worth approximately, worth approximately million

Become A Spelunker

Spelunking is the middle ground between touring caves and becoming a speleologist. Spelunkers find adventure in exploring caves, while speleologists have backgrounds in geology, biology, climatology and other areas. Theirs is a more systematic method, gathering and recording data. Spelunkers are not beginners; they must have some training and knowledge to safely go caving.

Instructions

1. Begin by taking guided tours to get a feel for what caving is all about. You must find out beforehand whether you are claustrophobic (spelunkers have to squeeze through some tight passages) and whether it you to be far under the surface of the earth. A tour guide also gives you information about caving as you go that may be helpful in spelunking.

2. Join a grotto club. This is a group of cavers who get together to discuss caving and their experiences. They also plan future trips. A caver's club is a great way to learn about caving techniques, caving gear, good caves for spelunking and etiquette.

3. Buy the proper equipment. The basic gear includes a helmet to protect your head and to carry a light, water-proof climbing boots, gloves to grip rocks and ropes, elbow pads, knee pads and a crawl to help hold the rope while you climb. It's also recommended to bring a small pack to hold liquids, snacks, a sweatshirt and extra batteries for your flashlight.

4. Learn caving etiquette. Keep from taking anything from a cave or leaving anything behind (wrappers, bottles). Don't deface any surfaces or break off any rocks or formations. Learn cave without getting hurt or damaging the cave. Always go spelunking with at least three other cavers, so if someone is hurt there is one person to stay with the injured party and two to go for help.

5. Keep yourself physically fit. You need strength to climb around in the caves, flexibility to squeeze through small spaces and stamina to keep moving. You must know safely ascend and descend with the rope. Many spelunkers camp in the caves for days, so you must be able to carry the gear while moving through the cave.

Tags: about caving, squeeze through

Find A Geology Job

Consider which areas of geology interest you most.

Most geology positions require at least a master's degree, and geologists with master's degrees are expected to have the most job opportunities of all geologists with degrees through 2018, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics' Occupational Outlook Handbook. Geologists are employed in many different sectors, including metal mining, gas, oil and oceanography. Others work as private consultants to industry. Given the various professional options you can choose when applying for jobs in the field of geology, it is important to keep your search focused and directed so as not to waste time searching for jobs that you may not end up liking.

Instructions

1. Choose some areas of geology that interest you to save time in your search.

Narrow down the areas of geology in which you are interested in working. Search online for geology career profiles in different areas where geologists work, such as petroleum, engineering and mining. Consult the American Geological Institute's website for career profiles as well as the Geologists and Geophysicists section of the Bureau of Labor Statistics' Occupational Outlook Handbook.

2. Think about where you want to work.

Consider if you want to work for private companies or for the government and where you want to work in order to narrow down your job search. View job listings on the University of Mainz website if you are interested in working abroad. Domestic as well as international jobs in mining are listed at Infomine.com.

3. Register for USGS jobs to be sent to your email inbox.

Register at the U.S. Geological Survey's (USGS) Online Automated Recruiting System if you are interested in working as a geologist for the government. You will be emailed information about potential USGS jobs that you may be qualified for and that may interest you.

4. Geologists often work in petroleum engineering.

Search through the websites listed by the Cockrell School of Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin for jobs in geology in the oil and gas fields. This site lists many companies that are in the petroleum engineering field.

Tags: areas geology, interested working, petroleum engineering, want work, your search

Pay Scale For Federal Jobs

The federal government uses a base schedule to determine its employees' salaries.

Most federal government employees receive salaries in accordance with the Base General Schedule Pay Scale. The general schedule is published by the Office of Personnel Management each year with adjustments for cost-of-living increases. The current general schedule includes 15 pay grades with 10 steps, or payment levels, within each grade.

GS 1 to 3

The first three pay grades in the general schedule offer the lowest salaries. These salaries are typically offered for entry-level salaried positions. The salary range for grades 1-3 is as follows:

GS-1: $17,803 to $22,269

GS-2: $20,017 to $25,191

GS-3: $21,840 to $28,392

GS 4 to 6

Grades 4 through 6 of on the general schedule typically apply to mid-level salaried positions. A high school and/or college degree is usually a prerequisite for eligibility in this range. The level ranges for grades 4 through 6 are as follows:

GS-4: $24,518 to $31,871

GS-5: $27,431 to $35,657

GS-6: $30,577 to $39,748

GS 7 to 9

Grades 7 through 9 on the general schedule typically apply to upper mid-level positions. Generally, a college, advanced or professional degree is a prerequisite for eligibility in this salary range. The level ranges for grades 7 through 9 are as follows:

GS-7: $33,970 to $44,176

GS-8: $37,631 to $48,917

GS-9: $41,563 to $54,028

GS 10 to 12

Grades 10 through 12 on the general schedule typically apply to upper-level positions that require an advanced degree and substantial experience in a field. The level ranges for grades 10 through 12 are as follows:

GS-10: $45,771 to $59,505

GS-11: $50,287 to $65,371

GS-12: $60,274 to $78,355

GS 13 to 15

Grades 13 through 15 on the general schedule are the highest grades. These salary grades typically apply to highly experienced or specialized professionals in a field. The level ranges for grades 13 though 15 are as follows:

GS-13: $71,674 to $93,175

GS-14: $84,697 to $110,104

GS-15: $99,628 to $129,517

Tags: general schedule, Grades through general, level ranges, level ranges grades, ranges grades, through general, through general schedule

Get Saudi Citizenship

It is not impossible to to obtain Saudi Arabian citizenship.

Obtaining Saudi Arabian citizenship is difficult, but not impossible. There are a couple of paths to becoming a citizen, however, none allow you to become one with less than ten years of residency. All citizenship requests are handled by the Minister of the Interior, and the Prime Minister awards citizenship upon the Minister of the Interior's recommendation. Being a Saudi citizen has its advantages, such as the right to own property and open business. But becoming a Saudi national is a time consuming task, and requires giving up your previous nationality. Saudi Arabia is not a democracy, it is both kingdom and a religious state, which makes the process that much harder.

Instructions

1. Apply for a residence/work visa. Work visas are obtainable if you work for a corporation with business interests in Saudi Arabia. Also, citizenship becomes easier with a high level of education in the sciences, including: engineering, medicine, petroleum geology, chemistry or physics-related sciences. These are skills needed by the Saudi government; having these skills immeasurably helps you to become a Saudi citizen.

2. Become fluent in Saudi Arabic. Saudi Arabian citizenship requires a mandatory level of proficiency in Arabic.

3. Marry a Saudi national. Being married to a citizen of Saudi Arabia allows you to apply for Saudi citizenship after ten years, provided you live in Saudi Arabia the entire time. Be sure to have the marriage approved and recognized by the Saudi government.

4. Contribute actively to things that will help you become a Saudi Citizen. These include: having a clean record during your years in Saudi society, contribute in the public sector as per the government law. Converting to Islam and attending regular worship also improves your chances.

Tags: Saudi Arabia, Arabian citizenship, Saudi Arabian, Saudi Arabian citizenship, become Saudi

Education Needed To Be A Petroleum Engineer

Drilling for oil may be a running joke about how people strike it rich, but the actual process of drilling, preparing land and testing materials is a complicated practice performed by petroleum engineers. Far less common than electrical engineers or computer software engineers, petroleum engineers study for their profession at the bachelor's level and have the option to move up through master's programs as desired.

Petroleum Engineering Schools

Although thousands of colleges and universities in America offer programs in engineering, the petroleum engineering field is considered a much smaller segment. The Accrediting Board of Engineering Technology accredits only 17 institutions in the country for petroleum engineering, including Marietta College in Ohio, Montana Tech of the University of Montana, The University of Oklahoma, Pennsylvania State University, West Virginia University and the University of Wyoming. The minimum requirement to a career in petroleum engineering is a bachelor's degree, though many of these schools offer master's degrees for students who wish to further their education in the field.

Enrollment

Students just starting on their path towards becoming petroleum engineers enroll in a bachelor's degree program. Options may be a single petroleum engineering degree or in the cases like The University of Tulsa McDougall School of Petroleum Engineering, multiple choices, including a bachelor of science in petroleum engineering, bachelor of science in petroleum engineering with geosciences, bachelor of science in petroleum engineering with mechanical engineering and bachelor of science in petroleum engineering with chemical engineering.

Core Classes

Prospective petroleum engineers enrolled in a bachelor's program will find a slate of courses similar to those from the Kansas University School of Engineering: basic engineering thermodynamics, reservoir engineering, introduction to petroleum engineering profession, energy in the modern world, momentum transfer, introduction to petroleum drilling engineering, plant and environmental safety, petroleum production, petroleum engineering design, biocatalysis, drilling and well completion, methods of chemical and petroleum calculations, environmental assessment of chemical processes and polymer science and technology.

General Education Courses

Petroleum engineering programs require students to take several non-engineering-related courses to build a general education foundation. These include technical writing, literature, social science, humanities, art history, music, psychology, math and foreign language, which are part of the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology petroleum engineering course load.

Tags: petroleum engineering, bachelor science, bachelor science petroleum, petroleum engineers, science petroleum, science petroleum engineering

What Causes Rainbow Moonstone Cloudiness

A Moonstone is a type of mineral mined in India.

A rainbow moonstone is a mineral: sodium potassium aluminum silicate. Moonstones have a pearlized, opalescent luster, which is the result of light refracting into layers within the stone. Moonstones are not particularly valuable, but they are attractive and frequently used in costume jewelry. Moonstones are available in a variety of colors, including the most valuable variety (blue), orange, brown, yellow and rainbow. The moonstone mineral is found in feldspar, a type of stone mined in Australia, Mexico, the United States, Poland and India. Jewelers takes feldspar and cut it to emphasize the sheen and shimmery qualities of the stone. The best moonstones appear to emit a cloudy "cloak" around the stone, and the most skilled jewelers are practiced at producing this effect. Does this Spark an idea?

Moonstone Construction

Moonstones have a "lamellar" construction, which is one composed of multiple layers of alternating materials. This construction frequently results in a cloudy visual effect.

Adularisation

The moonstone appears cloudy because it has an inner layer that refracts and scatters light. This process is known as "adularisation." The refracted light creates a cloudy visual effect as a result of light hitting the inner chamber of the moonstone.

Light Reflection

Light rays reflect off the layered composition. The reflected rays trick the eye into believing that the moonstone contains a cloud inside the stone.

Tags: cloudy visual, cloudy visual effect, moonstone mineral, Moonstones have, rainbow moonstone mineral, result light, visual effect

Poisonous Spiders Of Nevada

Only a few spider species are considered dangerous.

To some people, spiders are some of the most fear-inducing, cringe-worthy critters around. Even Nevada residents who don't live in fear of spiders should be aware that there are a few arachnid species in the state that do pose a danger to humans. Technically, people describe spiders as poisonous, but they are actually venomous. All spiders are venomous, but most are not dangerous because they either are not strong enough to pierce human skin, or their venom is too weak to affect people.

Black Widow

The western black widow spider, Latrodectus hesperus, is one of the better known of the dangerous spiders in the country. These creatures are common residents of the state of Nevada, though only the female poses any danger to people. They tend to be most active at night and can be driven inside when the temperatures dip below freezing. They can easily be identified by their shiny black coloration and the bright red hourglass shape found on the bottom of their abdomen. A bite from these spiders can be painful and potentially deadly, though fatalities are rare, especially when anti-venom can be given.

Desert Recluse

A close relative of the brown recluse, the desert recluse spider, Loxosceles deserta, is found in limited numbers in the southern part of Nevada. Though they potentially pose a threat to humans, not as much is known about these spiders as is known about their better-known relatives. These spiders are of a brown or tan color, with about a half-inch body length and long legs. They lack the distinctive violin or fiddle pattern found in brown recluse spiders.

Tarantula

Nevada is also home to the large and intimidating-looking tarantula. These spiders, from the family Theraphosidae, can be found in numerous species and subspecies in Nevada. While they can bite and release fine hairs that can cause eye, nose and throat irritation, they aren't considered dangerous to humans. Their bite has been compared to a bee or wasp sting. They can be tan, brown or black, and some can grow to be several inches in body length. Though these spiders can be found almost anywhere in Nevada desert environments, they are mostly nocturnal and spend much of their life alone. They can be found spending the daylight hours in their burrows, coming out to hunt at night.

Tags: body length, brown recluse, considered dangerous, known about, These spiders, these spiders

Online Engineering Degrees In Missouri

You can study engineering online in Missouri

Engineering refers to the use of scientific and mathematical principles in the design and construction of a variety of materials, structures and systems. A wide range of engineering degree and certificate programs--including studies in computer, electronics, electrical, civil, environmental, mechanical and mining--are available through online distance learning at schools in Missouri.

Missouri University of Science and Technology

The Missouri University of Science and Technology offers multiple engineering and certificate programs in engineering through online distance learning. These include Master of Science degrees in civil engineering, aerospace engineering, computer engineering, electrical engineering, environmental engineering, engineering management, manufacturing engineering, mining engineering and systems engineering. Master of Engineering degrees in geotechnics and manufacturing engineering are also available. Graduate studies are available as well, including such subjects computational intelligence, power systems engineering and electrical engineering.

A bachelor’s degree in engineering or a related discipline is the general requirement for these programs. Coursework is delivered through a combination of online learning software and live streaming video lecture. Masters degree programs also require the Graduate Record Examination (GRE). However, if students achieve an average grade of "B" or higher in a certificate program, they can be accepted into a master’s degree without the GRE.

Missouri University of Science and Technology

300 W 12th Street

216 Centennial Hall

Rolla, MO 65409-1560

573-341-6222

mst.edu

Grantham University

Grantham University offers degrees in engineering management technology through online distance learning. The associate degree is designed to introduce to students to the function of electrical and electronic circuitry, in combination with business principles and practice. The bachelor’s degree builds on this foundation, with additional coursework in computer engineering, accounting, finance and management.

A Bachelor of Science in computer engineering technology and a Bachelor of Science in electronic engineering technology are also offered through online distance learning. The former includes coursework in circuitry and microprocessor design, computer programming, networks, and electronics theory. The latter is comprised of coursework in digital and analog electronics, power and control systems, signal processing, circuitry analysis, programming, and communication systems.

Grantham University

7200 86th Street

Kansas City, MO 64153

800-955-2527

grantham.edu

Devry University

Alongside multiple locations in the United States, Devry University has two locations in Kansas City and a campus in St. Louis. Three online programs in engineering are offered: a Bachelor of Science in electronics engineering technology, a Bachelor of Science in computer engineering technology and a Master of Science in electrical engineering.

The bachelor’s degree programs require nine semesters of full-time study on-campus or through online distance learning. Electronics engineering coursework includes mechanical electronic systems, signal processing, programming in java and communications systems. Computer engineering coursework include programming, microprocessor architecture, data networking, database design and operating systems.

The masters degree program can be completed within one year of full-time study, and it's only offered in an online distance education format. Coursework includes statistics, project development and management, wireless network, broadband and area networks, real-time and distributed systems, advanced mathematics, and computer architecture.

Devry University

Kansas City Campus

11224 Holmes Road

Kansas City, MO 64131

816-941-0430

devry.edu

Tags: online distance, distance learning, online distance learning, through online, through online distance, Bachelor Science, computer engineering

Estwing Geological Tools

Estwing has been manufacturing hammers and other striking tools for a wide variety of industries since 1923. The company is headquartered at its manufacturing plant near Rockford, Illinois, near the Wisconsin border and some 90 miles northwest of Chicago. In addition to its line of tools for the earth sciences, Estwing also manufactures specialty tools used in building trades such as bricklaying, drywall installation and roofing.

Rock Hammers

A rock hammer is the symbol of the geologic profession, like a lawyer's briefcase or a doctor's stethoscope. Estwing supplies hammers in a variety of sizes and configurations. The tool is called a rock pick when it has a pointed tip for hard rocks (igneous and metamorphic) and a rock hammer if it has a chisel tip for sedimentary rocks. Estwing hammers are available in several weights and two handle lengths. All hammers have one-piece forged steel construction and a shock-absorbing, blue rubber handle. Estwing is also the only maker of the iconic leather-handled rock pick, whose handle is sheathed with a stack of leather disks instead of rubber.

Specialty Hammers

Besides its line of rock hammers, Estwing also produces several specialty hammers. This includes heavier (2-, 3- and 4-lb.) crack hammers designed for use with chisels and star drills. A 4-lb version is available with a long handle, as is a 3-lb. engineer's hammer. Estwing cross-peen hammers, produced in three weights from 24 to 40 oz., have a wedge-shaped head for splitting and crushing rocks.

Paleontology Tools

The head of the Estwing chipping hammer has a pointed tip on one end, but instead of a square, blunt head the opposite end is chisel-shaped. The chisel edge is oriented parallel to the handle, and is intended for use in splitting or chipping away layered rocks such as limestone or sandstone. The Estwing geo/paleo pick is a 4-lb. digging tool on a 2-foot handle. One end of the head tapers to a sharpened tip while the other reaches a broad, flattened triangular head for digging through soil and loose rock.

Chisels

The company markets four rock chisel designs, ranging from a sharp-pointed tip to a chisel edge 2 3/8 inches wide. All chisels are one-piece forged steel and have vinyl grips on the shanks for a more secure and comfortable grip.

Accessories

In addition to its line of steel tools, Estwing also markets accessory products for use by scientists in the field. These include nylon belt packs for field gear, a messenger-style sample bag, safety goggles and a holster for the geologist's rock hammer. The company also markets gold pans in both steel and plastic.

Tags: Estwing also, rock hammer, addition line, also markets, chisel edge, forged steel

Boulders In The Desert

Joshua Tree National Monument is home to boulders that are frequented by climbers.

Boulders stacked one on top of the other in a desert plain gives an otherworldly impression. Some boulders are remnants of volcanic projectiles from long ago, while some are exposed by the wind and water as the ground erodes around them. Not all deserts have boulders, but others, such as Joshua Tree National Park are known for them.

Granite Mountain Boulders

The Granite Mountain Boulders rest on top of the Van Winkle Mountains in the Mojave Desert. They are comprised of 20 million-year-old volcanic rock that has created a fractured mountain range. A recreation area surrounds the mountains, providing a space for campers and hikers to enjoy the rocky playground.

Joshua Tree National Park

Joshua Tree National Park, east of Los Angeles, rests in the western region of the Mojave Desert. The park is home to the Joshua tree; a tall, spiny, top-heavy tree with an extensive root system. The region also is a mecca for rock climbing enthusiasts who journey many miles to scale the boulders. Rock climbing has a tradition of giving climbs names and levels, so climbers know what they are getting themselves into before they start; a good example is the "Towers of Uncertainty." However, like any other organic substances, rock is susceptible to wear and tear, so these climbs are sometimes shut down to protect the park's environment.

White Desert Mushroom Boulders

Egypt's White Desert, outside the city of Farafra, is home to mushroom cloud boulders that explode out of the desert ground. The white boulders are formed of white chalk and soft limestone. The high-speed winds blow the sand around the base of the boulders, carving out a stem that creates the mushroom effect. The desert is frequented by visitors, and guided tours are offered throughout the year.

Utah Red Rocks

The red rock canyons of Southern Utah, home to breathtaking rock formations, are a well-traveled area of the Southwestern United States. Most of the red rock is exposed by deep canyons. But over the years, large chunks of the rock have broken off to leave behind bright red boulders. The red rock region is located in the northern border of the Mojave Desert and is evidence that a desert has many dynamic ecosystems.

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Regulations On The Removal Of Bats

Regulations on the Removal of Bats

Bats are probably one of the most misunderstood of animal species. However, bats are beneficial to people. Generally, a bat consumes about one-third of its weight in insects each night, with some species eating up to 3,000 mosquitoes a day. Other species, such as the lesser long-nosed bat, are important pollinators in desert and tropical ecosystems. While the federal government recognizes that bats can be a nuisance, federal policy recommends "bat-proofing" or exclusion of bats from dwellings.

Status

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 and the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1956 protect the six federally listed endangered bat species, including the Indiana bat and the gray bat. Federal law safeguards not just the bats, but their habitat as well. Bats use caves and mines for habitat, and hibernating and roosting areas are protected by law.

State-threatened and endangered species are protected by state law. Regulations vary by state, depending upon the bat population status.

International law also protects bats. All bat species are protected in the United Kingdom. It is illegal to possess, injure or kill a bat. Like U.S. federal law, bat habitats are also protected. Violators are subject to fines and up to six months in prison.

State Regulations

State law protects bats and their habitats in several states, including West Virginia, Oklahoma and Maryland. Other states, such as Connecticut and Florida, include regulations that are limited to federally listed species.

California and Colorado, for example, have laws regarding bats and public health. While the risk from rabies is low, states such as Illinois report that bats are the number-one carrier of rabies. Guano, or bat waste, also represents a potential health risk, necessitating the removal of bats in human dwellings.

Some states like Nevada and Rhode Island do not have laws or regulations in place regarding bat removal. However, federal law still prevails in these areas.

Other Regulations

Most states require a license or permit for pest control operators. Additional permits are required for the taking of listed species only, if bat populations present a health risk to humans.

Permits are required by wildlife rehabilitators taking in injured wildlife. However, some states such as Kentucky do not allow rehabilitators to rescue rabies-vector species, including bats. Federal law prohibits collection of bat carcasses of listed species.

Endangered species permits are required by researchers who study and collect endangered species. Permits are subject to public notice.

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Interpret Xrf Data

Geologic evaluation of terrain is aided by portable XRF instruments.

Sophisticated chemical analysis instrumentation becomes available for field use quickly. As of 2011, X-ray fluorescence instruments are available in portable models, as well as laboratory-based units. Data obtained from these instruments is only useful if the data is interpretable. XRF is widely used in geologic analysis, recycling and environmental remediation efforts. The basics of interpreting XRF data involve the consideration of signals that arise from the sample, instrument artifacts and physical phenomena. The spectra of the XRF data allow a user to interpret the data qualitatively and quantitatively.

Instructions

1. Plot the XRF data in a graph of intensity versus energy. This allows the user to evaluate the data and quickly observe the largest percentage elements present in the sample. Each element that gives an XRF signal appears at a unique energy level and is characteristic of that element.

2. Note that you will only plot intensities for lines that yield K and/or L lines. These lines refer to the movement of electrons between orbitals within the atom. Organic samples will not exhibit any lines because the energies given off are too low to transmit through air. Low atomic number elements only exhibit K lines because the energies of the L lines are also too low to detect. High atomic number elements only exhibit L lines because the energies of the K lines are too high for detection by the limited power of handheld devices. All other elements may give responses for both K and L lines.

3. Measure the ratio of K(alpha) and K(beta) lines for elements to confirm that they are in a ratio of 5 to 1. This ratio may vary slightly but is typical for most elements. The separation of peaks within K or L lines is usually on the order of a few keV. The ratio for L(alpha) and L(beta) lines is typically 1 to 1.

4. Use your knowledge of the sample and spectra to determine if there is overlapping of spectra from similar elements. The spectra of two elements that give responses in the same energy region may overlay each other or modify the intensity curve in that region.

5. Take into consideration the resolution of your field analyzer. The lower resolution instruments can't resolve two neighboring elements on the periodic table. The differences between the energy levels of these two elements can blur together with instruments that have low resolution.

6. Eliminate signals that are instrument artifacts from the spectra. These signals relate to signals that arise from artifacts within the instrument design or may be due to the construction of that particular instrument. Back-scattering effects of the sample generally cause very broad peaks in a spectrum. These are typical of low-density samples.

7. Locate and remove from consideration any instances of Rayleigh peaks. These are a low intensity group of peaks that often occur in dense samples. Most often these peaks appear on a particular instrument for all samples.

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Safety Tips For Earthquakes

To keep you and your loved ones safe during an earthquake and afterward, it is important to be aware of safety tips that could save your life. You need a stock of supplies to be self-sufficient, need to know where to go during the earthquake and what to do immediately afterward. Does this Spark an idea?

Stockpile Supplies

Prepare to fend for yourself for up to a week. Never count on the fire department or the police during such events, because they may be tied up with a large number of emergency situations. Because your electric, gas and phone lines may not be working after the earthquake, you will need to have canned food, medication, flashlights, fire extinguishers, a radio and extra batteries. You will also want to make sure that you have stash of cash in the home because ATMs may not be in working order for a while.

Seek Protection

If you are near an ocean, get to high ground because of possible tsunamis. There is the potential for landslides in mountainous areas as well. If you are in a public area during an earthquake, remain calm and do not run for the exit. When crowds of people panic, more people can end up hurt from people pushing each other than the earthquake itself. If you happen to be in a stadium full of people, stay in your seat and cover your head with your hands. If you are driving during a quake, pull over into a clear area. Never park under bridges, as they could collapse. For those who are inside a building, seek shelter under sturdy furniture or in door frames.

Watch Your Surroundings

After the earthquake is over, make sure that the building you are in does not have a gas leak. If you smell gas, shut off the main valve. When main gas valves cannot be located or shut off, leave the building in case of a fire or explosion.

Do not drive or use the telephone unless you have to. When the telephone lines and roads are clear, emergency vehicles will have an easier time locating people who need urgent care. Watch for fallen objects or electrical lines. There may still be aftershocks, which can create more damage and dangerous situations.

If you have to leave your home due to dangerous structural damage, attach a note to the front door. This way, if friends, family or emergency workers come looking for you, they will know that you left the home and where you were heading.

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Become A Certified Soil Scientist

Soil scientists study the physical, chemical and biological properties of surface soil. They examine the formation, distribution, classification, mapping and morphology of soil to understand its impact on agriculture, irrigation, forestation and overall ecological balance and health. A certification in soil science is not a requirement for a practice license in most U.S. states; certification in a related discipline is often considered sufficient for licensing. However, soil science certification will enhance recognition and expand a soil scientist's career opportunities.

Instructions

1. Get a bachelor's degree in soil science or a related field. Typically, admissions for undergraduate studies require an applicant to demonstrate sufficient high school coursework in mathematics, lab and social sciences, proficiency in English, a 3.0 or higher high school GPA, and strong scores on the ACT or SAT. Undergrads in the soil science field take industry-specific courses, as well as coursework in mathematics, physics, biology, economics, statistics and computer science. A bachelor's degree in earth science, environmental science, natural science or geology will also help you become a soil scientist.

2. Apply for associate soil scientist certification in your senior year or after graduation. You are required to pass the Fundamentals of Soil Science Exam, which is administered twice a year by the Council of Soil Science. Currently, the exam is conducted in fall and spring semesters, and there are 45 exam centers at university campuses across the country. Beginning in November 2011, the exam fee is $225. The fee, schedule and location information may change from year to year.

3. Earn a graduate degree in soil sciences or a related field. While not a requirement, a graduate degree enhances your credentials for full certification and recognition as a soil scientist. An advanced degree opens doors to laboratory and field research, and positions you as an expert in a specific area in the discipline, such as wetlands, waste management or molecular soil sciences. Undergraduate transcripts in a related field, strong GED scores, letters of recommendation and a statement of purpose are needed for graduate admission.

4. Get three to five years of professional experience. A master's degree with three years of experience -- or a bachelor's degree with five years of experience -- is required before full certification. An internship or research work at the graduate level can also count toward your overall experience. Typically, master's degree holders begin their careers as associate scientists or junior researchers, while bachelor's degree holders start as technicians, data analyzers or sample collectors. Soil scientists can also apply as geologists, environmental scientists or water resource engineers.

5. Pass the professional practice exam to become a certified professional soil scientist. The Soil Science Society of America administers the exam in fall and spring at 45 different university campuses across the country. Starting November 2011, the exam fee is $225. The fee schedule and location information may change from year to year.

6. Obtain a state license. Maine, Minnesota, New Hampshire, North Carolina, North Dakota, Texas and Wisconsin currently require APSS or CPSS credentials for practicing professionals. Other states do not make soil science certification an absolute requirement, and instead ask for equivalent certifications in other fields, such as geology, environmental science or engineering.

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