Index Fossil Characteristics

Trilobites are one of the most well-known index fossils.

Index fossils are important to the study of our Earth because they help geologists determine the relative age of rock layers and correlate them between regions. These fossils helped uncover the history of the land masses. The presence of an index fossil can pinpoint the age of rock layers because index fossils represent a distinct time period. Fossils of plants and animals that had the specific characteristics of being abundant and widely distributed around the world over a relatively short time period are good index fossils.

Unique Appearance

Index fossils must have a unique form that is easy to identify without special equipment. Geologists make maps in the field as they gather data and specimens. If the index fossil is easy to identify without the use of a microscope or laboratory equipment, the field work can progress more quickly. For example, the trilobite was a marine arthropod that had a rounded head and segmented body. While a variety of trilobites types existed, the general shape and appearance of the animal was consistent.

Worldwide Distribution

A good index fossil is one that was widely distributed. The benefit of a widely distributed fossil is that it helps scientists to correlate the age of rock layers that are on different continents. The presence of an index fossil indicates that the rock formed during a specific time, regardless of its location. Trilobites, for example, were widely present in the oceans of the early Paleozoic Era.

Abundant Numbers

For a fossil to be a good index fossil, the plant or animal must have been very abundant while it lived. Only a small percentage of plants and animals actually become fossils; therefore, it is important that there were enough living that the fossils occur in abundance. As a scientist examines a rock, it is easier to identify and refine the age of the layer if several index fossils that existed during overlapping timespans are present. Index fossils were often the dominant plants or animals of their era. Trilobites were a dominant sea animal of the Cambrian and Ordovician periods. While some trilobite species survived throughout the Paleozoic Era, they were not present in numbers vast enough to be the dominant fossil of the mid- to late part of the Era.

Short Existence

In geologic time, a "short" time may be several million years. For example, the trilobites that dominated the Cambrian and Ordovician periods mark a time span from 443 to 543 million years ago. A final important aspect of trilobites as index fossils of the Cambrian and Ordovician is that they changed rapidly in identifiable ways. Specific genera and species of trilobites existed for brief time spans of perhaps as little as a million years or less during the Cambrian, for example, a fact that allows geologists to use them to more finely date and correlate the rocks they're found in. Trilobites became less widespread after the end of the Ordovician, but continued to survive and change through the remainder of the Paleozoic.

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Careers In Engineering Geology

Engineering geologists work in minefields.

Engineering geologists analyze materials from the earth to help solve environmental and geological problems. Engineering geologists are trained to apply the principles of the earth sciences; they make recommendations on ways that humans can correct or avoid environmental problems. Engineering geologists can specialize in fields like geotechnical site investigation, hydrogeology, and natural and manmade hazard investigation. The average earning for geoscientists in 2008 was $71,000, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Construction

Geological engineers who work in construction fields are responsible for ensuring that buildings and high rises are safely erected on rock or soil foundations. They also make sure that bridges, tunnels, power plants and dams are constructed using engineering principles that resist natural disasters like earthquakes, floods or landslides. Geological engineers can work alongside other construction professionals like civil engineers or advise contractors and government agencies on the proper utilization of land as well as industrial and urban planning.

Environmental Protection

As experts in land appropriation, geological scientists make significant contributions in environmental protection. They help government officials and policymakers understand how engineering projects affect the landscape and the environment. Government agencies involved in building or renovating roads, airports and railway systems rely on the advice of geological engineers when developing innovative approaches when designing and constructing new projects to build or maintain the infrastructure. Geological engineers also lend their expertise in areas like waste management, garbage disposal and the prevention and removal of toxins from the environment.

Energy

Due to the growing demand for energy sources, geological scientists play an instrumental role in exploration projects for seeking new sources of renewable energy. Geological engineers are employed by the energy industry and take part in multi-billion-dollar exploration programs for energy sources like oil and natural gas, uranium, tar sands, coal and geothermal energy. In addition to lending their expertise in energy exploration projects, geological engineers also work in the production of energy resources and are employed by various firms to work as reservoir engineers, pit engineers and mine geologists.

Mining

Numerous mining companies rely on the expertise of geological engineers to explore and extract coal, metals and minerals from the earth. Geological scientists also discover and develop new mineral sources. Engineering geologists extract deposits from the earth using sophisticated satellite technology to study variations in the earth's magnetic field and to identify mineral deposits around the world.

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What Is A Fossil Forest

Fossil forests are often found along seacoasts.

Fossil forests are composed of fossil trees, most often buried entirely within sedimentary rocks, in upright, slanting or flat positions. Fossil forests date from geological periods that include the Triassic, Jurassic, Carboniferous and Cretaceous eras.

Preservation

Some ancient fossil forests are preserved in sedimentary rocks--sandstone, limestone and shale. Other fossil forests aren't petrified--turned to stone by minerals replacing the wood cell structure--but are preserved underground.

North America

The Petrified Forest of Arizona and the fossil forests in Yellowstone National Park are famous examples of fossil forests in the U.S. One extensive fossil forest is located in Western Nova Scotia along the coast of the Bay of Fundy.

Europe

Countries in Europe with fossil forests include England, Italy, Germany and France. A fossil forest found in the village of Nostimo, Macedonia, is 20 million years old.

Non-Petrified Fossil Forests

Lignite miners in Hungary discovered a non-petrified fossil forest in an open pit lignite mine, with at least 16 upright trees. Petrified fossil forests have been discovered in South America.

Asia, Africa and Australia

Russia, China and Japan all have fossil forests. The Chirundu Fossil Forest National Monument site, in Zambia, Africa, contains fossilized tree trunks that are 4 feet in diameter. A fossil pine forest is located at Fennell Bay, Lake Macquarie, New South Wales.

Arctic and Antarctica

The remains of a non-petrified fossil forest from 50 million years ago are buried near Ellsmere Island in the Canadian Arctic. Fossil forests composed of trees and rooted plants have also been discovered on Alexander Island in Antarctica.

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Paleontology Grants

Grants are available for research in paleontology

As defined by the National Parks Service, Paleontology is the study of ancient flora and fauna and their fossils, which can be found and excavated today. To become a paleontologist requires dedication to research and study and a passion for the historic record. To help fund the education needed for this career, as well as post-doctoral research and excavations, grants are available.

Professional Societies

Organizations dedicated to the advancement of paleontology and advocates for those working in the field can be funding resources for research projects. The Paleontological Society based in Boulder, Colorado was established in 1908 and has membership in 40 countries. The society awards student research grants to undergraduate and graduate students conducting paleontological research. As of June 2011, the award amount is $800, and eligible applicants must be members of the society. The society also awards the Sepkoski Grant to paleontologists living in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. Fifteen $1,000 awards are available for research in paleobiology or paleontology.

Scientific Organizations

Institutions interested in the advancement of science often provide grants for paleontological research. The National Geographic Society is a nonprofit institution dedicated to science and education. The society's committee for research and exploration awards grants for paleontological research. The grants fund excavations worldwide. Applicants should hold a PhD and be affiliated with an academic institution. As of 2011, most grant awards range from $15,000 to $20,000 to fund on average a maximum of two years of research. Those who are awarded grants are expected to give Nation Geographic the first right of refusal for material to be published on research findings.

Museums

Museums often sponsor research in line with the intuition's focus and mission, including awarding travel grants so that scholars can study the museum's collection. The Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History in New Haven, Connecticut funds the Charles Schuchert and Carl O. Dunbar Grants-in-Aid Program for Invertebrate Paleontological Research. As of 2011, two awards of up to $1,000 each are granted to graduate students or young professional paleontologists who wish to conduct research at the museum. The funding can be used for travel and accommodation.

Colleges and Universities

Academic institutions that provide a concentration in paleontology often award scholarships and grants to help graduate and undergraduate students fund their academic studies. The Department of Geological Studies at the University of Missouri offers several awards to paleontology students. For example, the Maurice G. Mehl Memorial Scholarship in Field Geology is bestowed upon a graduate student to help cover field expenses. The Ernest J. Palmer Memorial Scholarship is awarded to both graduate and undergraduate students studying paleontology and systematic botany who need financial assistance to complete their degree.

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Components Of Mobile Gis Solutions

Mobile GIS solutions are an improvement over collecting data with pencil marks on paper maps.

A geographic information system, or GIS, is a digital mapping database. It allows users to pick and choose the data they need for doing a particular job. Mobile GIS is used in four areas: public safety, environment, government, and utilities and infrastructure. Mobile GIS solutions are a powerful and useful addition to the standard office-based GIS.

Mobile GIS Hardware

Hardware for mobile GIS is different from the traditional stationary office computer or network. Typically managers use laptops, PDAs or Pocket PCs to input and process data in the field. Some of the newer mobile GIS solutions use pen-tablets that let users make digital sketch maps. Manufacturers of traditional professional GPS units now make integrated hand-held hardware that runs GIS software and has GPS capability.

Mobile GIS Software

Software is the core of mobile GIS. Popular GIS software packages often have mobile GIS versions that take up less computer memory than stationary versions. You can install mobile GIS software in small hand-held devices that let you collect data in the field. GPS software combines with GIS to give precise locations during field data collection.

Mobile GIS with Wireless Connectivity

Park rangers and biologists at San Diego State University have used mobile GIS solutions with wireless Internet for environmental solutions. Being able to see habitat maps while in the field allowed rangers to monitor changes in natural habitats.

Aerial Mobile GIS Components

Aerial mobile GIS are designed to be used from airplanes and helicopters, primarily with pen-tablets. The Nature Conservancy uses aerial mobile GIS to make digital maps of invasive weed species. Using mobile GIS from up in the air lets biologists efficiently map where weed species are on the ground. The Nature Conservancy can then create strategies to fight the invasive species and protect native ones.

Trained Users

Technology is only as good as the people who use it. Professionals with strong training and experience in mobile GIS solutions are key components of the system. When operated by intelligent and informed people, mobile GIS provides quality data for decision making. In the right hands, mobile GIS can save money and time and improve efficiency. Well-trained mobile GIS users help fire departments fight fires, and emergency departments evacuate residents and save lives.

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Find A Mineral'S Mohs Hardness

The Mohs Hardness Scale is a relative scale developed in 1812 by German geologist and mineralogist Friedrich Mohs. This scale is used to classify minerals according to their physical hardness and incorporates minerals commonly available in his day. Modern-day equivalents can also be used to test and determine the hardness of your unknown mineral. Your fingernail, a penny, piece of glass and a steel blade can be used to approximate the Mohs hardness of a mineral. The Mohs hardness scale is still used today to help students learn about physical properties in the world around us.

Instructions

1. Open your Mohs Scale mineral kit and examine the sample minerals. You should have 10 items in the kit, each mineral corresponding to a hardness ranking: talc (H=1), gypsum (H=2), calcite (H=3), fluorite (H=4), apatite (H=5), orthoclase (H=6), quartz (H=7), topaz (H=8), corundum (H=9) and diamond (H=10).

2. Examine the surface area of your test or unknown mineral sample. Look for a smooth, fresh surface.

3. Hold your specimen in one hand or secure it on a table. Hold your reference mineral in the other hand.

4. Scratch the smooth surface of your test mineral with a pointed edge of a reference mineral from your kit. Begin testing using your orthoclase (H=6) crystal.

5. Estimate the hardness of your sample mineral. If your mineral is scratched by the orthoclase you should see an etch line on the surface. This means that your mineral is softer than orthoclase (H=6).

6. Wipe the surface of your test mineral with your finger or a soft cloth to verify that the scratch is real.

7. Test the surface of your unknown mineral again using the next lowest hardness reference mineral, apatite (H=5). If apatite does not scratch the surface of your test mineral, the true hardness is between (H=5) and (H=6).

8. Use a steel blade, which has a hardness of about 5.5, and scratch the surface of your test mineral. If it is scratched, you'll know that the hardness of your test mineral is between 5 and 5.5.

9. Repeat the testing to be sure of your results. Use the same sequence of elimination in determining the hardness of other samples.

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Gemstone Hunting In New Jersey

Amethyst is just one of the quartz gemstones found in New Jersey.

New Jersey comprises five geologic regions, three of them shared with Pennsylvania. All of them have notable mineral deposits, and four of them have produced gemstones. Only a few of the known sites are publicly accessible, however. Near some old mining operations, "dumps" of rock with too-small quantities of useful minerals for industrial extraction are open to visitors.

Quartzes

New Jersey has its own native brand of quartz, known as "Cape May diamonds." They are unusually clear quartz pebbles, best found on Sunset Beach, to the West of the town of Cape May after an arduous trip down the Delaware River valley that has tumbled them smooth. Quartz pebbles and multicolored quartzite are also to be found almost at the other end of New Jersey's shore of Delaware Bay, in the Salem Jasper Gravel, in the shadow of a nuclear power plant. Off a student parking lot at Montclair State University, on the site of a former quarry, you may still find smoky quartz, amethyst and other stones including opals, a chemically similar, though sedimentary, stone that contains water.

Opaque Gems

Agates can be found at some of the same sites as quartz pebbles, and so can jaspers. South of Interstate Highway 78 in Somerset County is a site sometimes referred to as "Carnelian Brook." Malachite and serpentine can be found, along with other minerals, at an overgrown quarry in a Morris County park near Lake Valhalla. The nearby Watchung Mountains hosted some very early copper mines, and this area also offers finds of copper-containing gemstones such as malachite.

Crystalline Iron

Iron was a major mineral in New Jersey's development from the earliest colonial days, and the gemstone forms of hematite, marcasite and pyrite are still to be found in several old and current quarries and mines. They were once found in large nodules at Cliffwood Beach on Raritan Bay, though development has made them harder to spot in the dark clay.

Franklinite

Though not generally recognized as a gemstone, New Jersey's true native mineral, found in the zinc mines in the state's northwest corner, is well known to rockhounds. The Sterling Hill Mining Museum in Ogdensburg offers several digging opportunities, both in the remains of the original mine's output and in dumps created for visitors' enjoyment.The Franklin Mineral Museum, in nearby Franklin, has three collecting areas, including the original 3.5-acre Buckwheat Dump, where new minerals have been identified in the 21st century. Franklinite contains both zinc and iron and has been described as resembling chocolate chips. The Franklin-area minerals are especially known for their fluorescence, best viewed under black light.

Other Gemstones

The Lime Crest Quarry, still operating outside of Sparta, has on occasion opened to the public for gem hunting under the auspices of the Franklin-Ogdensburg Mineralogical Society. Along with gems and minerals found elsewhere in the state, rock hunters have gone home from Lime Crest with blue-green apatite --- until recently little known as a gemstone and also found at the Sterling Hill Mine --- spinels, dravite (a form of tourmaline) and even rubies.

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Volcanoes In The Triassic Period

Eroded remnants of ancient volcanoes mark today's landscape in many areas.

The Triassic Period in Earth's history lasted 50 million years, from 250 million to 200 million years ago. Earth at the time looked vastly different than it does today. All land existed in one supercontinent called Pangaea, which began the Triassic intact but began to break up at the period's conclusion. Life on Earth went nearly extinct immediately before the Triassic, with more than 90 percent of all species dying en masse. Throughout the Triassic, volcanoes played a major role in shaping land and life, and the remnants and evidences of these landforms exist today.

Northwestern United States

Triassic volcanoes formed the Klamath Mountains and Blue Mountains of Oregon. These volcanoes erupted on top of much older volcanic remnants along Pangaea's western shore. Igneous rocks from these volcanoes are chemically similar to modern igneous rocks and are rich in iron. These mountains originally grew as underwater volcanoes, and later as island chains as the underwater volcanoes breached the surface. The resulting chain of island volcanoes resembled the Aleutian Islands in scope, although this ancient archipelago rested in warm equatorial waters, surrounded by reefs and atolls.

Siberian Traps

Occurring 250 million years ago, the volcanic activity in northern Pangaea, now modern-day Siberia, produced the largest discovered basaltic lava fields on Earth's surface. The area covered in lava equals the square mileage of Alaska. The eruptions expelled effusive lava, which spread like floodwaters over the area for thousands of years. Today, the remaining igneous rock is often miles thick. The estimated timing of the volcanic activity coincides with the largest mass extinction of life on Earth. Paleontologists and other scientists theorize that the eruptions caused the mass extinctions, but other scientists disagree.

Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP)

Approximately 200 million years ago, large volcanic activity near the center of Pangaea began, beginning the process of splitting the supercontinent into what eventually became the modern world map. This series of eruptions helped create the Atlantic Ocean by driving two halves of Pangaea apart, leaving a narrow but expanding strip of ocean behind. Evidence for these volcanoes is found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, in areas like Brazil, West Africa, northwest Spain and the eastern seaboard of the United States.

Hunter-Bowen Orogeny

Along the eastern continental margin of ancient Australia, a mountain range formed approximately 225 million years ago. This event, known as the Hunter-Bowen orogeny, resulted from two tectonic plates colliding. One plate subducted, or passed underneath, the other plate. The top plate was pushed up, and mountains and volcanoes formed along the boundary line between the two plates. Eroded remains of this mountain range exist in northeastern Australia.

Tags: million years, volcanic activity, Atlantic Ocean, mountain range, other scientists, Triassic Period

Careers In Mining For Women

Women will find careers in mining.

Although traditionally considered a male-dominated industry, mining offers many career opportunities for women. Whether in the labor-intensive extraction sector of the industry, or the more professional engineering side, women interested in mining will find many career options. Mining schools offer one route for women to get into a the industry. In 2010, the Colorado School of Mines reported that women made up 24 percent of the student population.

Assayer

An assayer works in a lab and analyzes ore. Using machines such as analytical spectroscopes and A-ray diffraction machines, as well as chemical processes, assayers analyze whether ore is rich enough to be worth mining. Assayers must have good people skills because they deal with scientists and engineers. They should also have strong writing skills and be be able to compile reports. Assayers generally have a degree from vocational school or a Bachelor of Science from a university.

Blaster

Blasters detonate explosives in mines when it's necessary to break apart large rocks, and may work in an underground mine or quarry. Blasters must also have good judgment and know how much explosive to use and where best to use it. A dangerous job, blasting also requires physical stamina. Blasters must be familiar with safety regulations and should know read blueprints. A blaster will need to get a blasting license, but can work as a "blaster learner" in order to get experience. Blasting licenses are typically issued on a state-by-state basis.

Geologist

Geologists are scientists who study rocks and minerals. Working for mining companies, they look for patterns of rock formation, hoping to find deposits of valuable minerals. Geologists collect specimens, construct survey maps and use machines, such as seismic instruments. Geologists are often required to travel to remote places. Most geologists have master's degrees.

Hydrologist

Hydrologists focus on environmental issues and responsible land management. They check issues such as water contamination or the effect of land erosion on water supply. The Bureau of Labor Statistics forecasts demand for hydrologists to grow faster than average through 2018. Women interested in hydrology should take courses in soil science, aquatic biology, atmospheric science, oceanography and hydrogeology.

Environmental engineer

Environmental engineers make sure mines meet federal, state and local legal requirements. They may work on getting permits for new projects or reclamation plans for finished projects. An environmental engineer has to study a variety of subjects, among them engineering, chemistry, geology and biology. As well as having scientific knowledge, an environmental engineer must understand public policy. Not surprisingly, environmental engineers go to school for a long time, often getting master's and doctorate degrees.

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Clep Vs Dsst

Both the CLEP and the DSST consist mostly of multiple-choice questions.

Both the DANTES Subject Standardized Tests and College Level Examination Programs exams were originally created to help military personnel or others with unusual schedules or life paths to earn college degrees, by providing a way for them to earn college credit quickly. Today, you do not have to be affiliated with the military to take either type of exam, and many college applicants and current students use one or both of these test systems to earn a semester or a year's worth of college credit. As of the time of publication, the exams have similar registration fees and include some of the same disciplines. They also both take between 90 and 120 minutes. However, they offer exams in different subject areas.

Credit Recognition

Confirm your university grants credit for CLEP or DSST before you register.

Since the goal of the DSST and CLEP exams is to earn college credit, before you take either test check with your college or university to confirm it will accept the exam in lieu of coursework. CLEP is by far more recognized than DSST. CLEP is recognized at almost 3,000 campuses, whereas the DSST is recognized at under 1100. However, some colleges recognize DSST and not CLEP. For example, in Boston, as of time of publication, Laboure Junior College grants credit only for the DSST, while Simmons College grants credit only for the CLEP. Emmanuel College recognizes both.

Also, a university that is listed as "recognizing" CLEP or DSST may not recognize that exam in all subject areas, so check with your admissions office or academic department for its policies regarding individual tests.

Humanities and Language Examinations

You can use CLEP exams to place out of language courses.

DSST offers exams in four humanities fields, but they are different from ones offered by CLEP. The DSST humanities exams are Ethics in America, Introduction to World Religions, Art of the Western World and Principles of Public Speaking. The public speaking exam includes a portion in which you are given a topic and must record an impromptu speech.

The CLEP program focuses more on literature and writing, offering tests on American literature, British literature, literary analysis and composition. There is also a general humanities exam that covers names, dates and concepts in literature, philosophy, art, music and architecture.

If you want to earn college credit for your knowledge of French, German or Spanish, you will take a CLEP rather than a DSST test, since DSST does not offer exams for foreign languages.

Math and Business Examinations

DSST or CLEP exams might place you out of college math requirements.

Both DSST and CLEP offer exams in College Algebra. DSST additionally offers Statistics, while CLEP offers Calculus and Precalculus.

The DSST business offerings are more extensive than those by CLEP. Both programs offer exams in accounting, management and business law. Additional DSST exams include Personal Finance, Principles of Finance, Information Systems, Organizational Behavior, Human Resource Management, Money and Banking and Business Mathematics. CLEP, however, offers an exam in introductory marketing.

Science and Technology Examinations

You can use CLEP or DSST science exams to place out of introductory college courses and go straight into advanced classes, or to fulfill general requirements in science, depending on your college's policies. Only CLEP has exams in the traditional high school subjects of biology and chemistry (though the exams cover college-level material); it also offers a test in Natural Sciences, which covers introductory material in biology, chemistry, earth sciences and astronomy.

If you have specialized knowledge in earth sciences, take a DSST Principles of Physical Science, Physical Geology, Environment and Humanity or Astronomy exam. DSST also has a health exam that covers fitness, nutrition, relationships, disease prevention, psychological disorders, addictions and violence.

If you are interested in computers, look into the CLEP Information Systems and Computer Applications exam or the DSST Introduction to Computing test. DSST also has a Technical Writing exam, with an optional writing component; if you choose to do the written section, it will be sent to your college's technical writing faculty for them to evaluate themselves.

History and Social Sciences Examinations

DSST offers an exam in General Anthropology, but CLEP offers Introduction to Sociology.

Before taking a history or government exam, consider the focus of your knowledge, as CLEP typically seek breadth while DSST tests look for depth. For example, CLEP has American History and American Governmen exams, while DSST offers The Civil War and Reconstruction and The History of the Vietnam War tests. CLEP has two exams on Western Civilization while DSST has an exam specifically on Western Europe since 1945; it also offers tests on the Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union and Introduction to the Modern Middle East. CLEP, though, has a general exam on social sciences and history, which tests basic knowledge of United States and world history, Western civilization, political science, geography, sociology, economics, psychology and anthropology.

CLEP additionally offers exams in economics and sociology. DSST offers exams in anthropology and human geography.

Psychology, Education and Criminology Examinations

Either program, or a combination of both, can speed your studies in psychology.

When it comes to psychology, CLEP offers exams in introductory subjects like psychology, educational psychology and developmental psychology, while the DSST program is more suitable for those with deep knowledge in a particular field; DSST exams include Fundamentals of Counseling, Substance Abuse, Criminal Justice and Introduction to Law Enforcement.

Tags: CLEP exams, DSST CLEP, CLEP DSST, college credit, DSST offers, earn college, offer exams

Importance Of Meteorites

This rare Martian meteorite, called Nahkla, landed in Egypt in 1911.

Meteorites provide both a glimpse into the past and a window to the future. They represent both birth and death; creation and destruction. Meteorites are important because they were a potential source of life on Earth, have contributed to the development of a life-sustaining environment and have posed a significant threat to that life. Furthermore, scientists are discovering the secrets of the early solar system locked within these space rocks.

Source of Life on Earth

Meteorites are important because they may represent the pathway by which life arrived on Earth. One source of meteorites is the debris field of comets. Many scientists believe it is possible that this debris retains much of its durable organic material. In fact, meteorites have been found to contain amino acids, the building blocks of life. Furthermore, this organic material may undergo unique chemical changes when exposed to the high temperatures of atmospheric entry. How much of this organic material survives to be deposited in the atmosphere and on the surface of the planet is currently being investigated by scientists.

Effects on Earth's Environment

Meteorites are significant because they provide insight into how meteors have affected the earth's environment. Meteors release water and carbon dioxides as they vaporize in the atmosphere. By studying meteorites, scientists have determined that they release up to 12 percent of their mass as water vapor and up to 6 percent as carbon dioxide. While the individual contribution is insignificant, in large numbers the effect becomes substantial. For instance, around 4 billion years ago, a meteor shower known as the Late Heavy Bombardment delivered up to 10-billion tons of each. This release significantly increased the levels of greenhouse gas and water vapor, leading to a more hospitable environment for life.

Threat to Life

Meteorites represent violent collisions that can have a devastating effect on the planet's life forms. By studying meteorites, scientists can better understand past impacts and, therefore, provide better guidance on hazards posed by future ones. This is especially important considering the fact that, as of July 2011, there were 8,155 know near-Earth objects, 1,241 of which have been classified as potentially hazardous. For example, at 112-miles in diameter and 3,000-feet deep, the Chicxulub crater in Mexico is one of the largest meteorite impact craters on the planet. Its significance is demonstrated in the fact that this meteorite, originally an asteroid, was responsible for the elimination of 70 percent of life on earth and, possibly, the extinction of the dinosaurs.

Cosmological Database

Meteorites represent the left-over building materials from the creation of the solar system. They provide important information about the chemical compositions and physical structures that existed at that time. Some meteorites actually come from other planets, the product of comet, asteroid and meteor impacts. These meteorites provide science with important information about planetary geology that would otherwise be unavailable. In fact, meteorites are responsible for a large percentage of all that is known about the solar system, including its age and history.

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What To Test For In Well Water Before Buying A Water Softener

Water softeners remove the "hardness" from water. Hardness is defined as all dissolved minerals in the water, but it is commonly only calcium and magnesium. High mineral contents exist in large segments of the United States, according to the United States Geological Survey. Hard water reduces the effectiveness of soaps and damages cloth. Knowing the hardness of the water in your area is the first step to understanding if a water softener will solve your water-quality problems. Does this Spark an idea?

Temporary Hardness

Mineral content in the water that boils away with the carbon dioxide gas driven off with steam is known as temporary hardness. Well water with this type of hardness is associated with limestone rock formations. The testing process is repeated before and after boiling to determine if any of the mineral content in the water is temporary hardness.

Hardness Estimates

Test strips offer an estimate of water hardness. You should purchase this type of kit as part of the investigative process. Dip the strips in the water and match the paper to a color to yield a basic idea of your water's hardness. If you need a more exact measurement, laboratory testing will be necessary.

Testing Process

Commercial water-quality labs perform hardness testing for a fee. Businesses who market water treatment equipment often perform the tests for free, although it may be worthwhile to double-check the results. Samples are taken from a flow of water from a faucet.

Hardness Measurements

Water's hardness is stated in one of two ways. If the hardness is stated in milligrams per liter or parts per million --- the same ratio --- a reading of more than 180 indicates extreme hardness. Ratings below 17 indicate soft water, with all readings in between showing various levels of hardness. The hardness could also be stated as grains per gallon. A rating of more than 10.5 grains per gallon indicates extreme hardness, while ratings of less than 1 grain per gallon indicate soft water.

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Information On Ammonite Fossils

Ammonites are treasured by collectors.

Ammonites are the fossilized remains of mollusks which appeared on earth for about 330 million years and became extinct by the end of the Cretaceous period. Collectors treasure the fossils for the intricate shell patterns and colors.

Distribution

Ammonite fossils can be found on every continent, and in every color. Their closest living relative is the chambered nautilus, which is found in the Indian and Pacific oceans, according to the Canada Fossils website.

Name

Ammonites received their name because of their resemblance to a ram's horn, symbol of the Egyptian god Ammon. Native Americans called them buffalo stones and believed they brought good fortune. Some in England called them snake stones, believing them to have been turned to stone by saints.

Size

Early ammonites (until the middle Jurassic) usually measured less than 9 inches. Ammonites from the upper Jurassic to the lower Cretaceous period were larger, with some having a diameter of over 2 feet.

Patterns

There are three basic patterns found on the ammonite's septa, or walls dividing the chambers of the shell: goniatite (irregular zigzags), ceratite (regular waves) and ammonite (having a feathery or fern-like appearance).

Index Fossil

The hard shell of the ammonite was easily fossilized, and an abundance from several different geologic time periods have survived. These factors make it a useful index fossil, a way for paleontologists and geologists to determine the age of rock layers, according to the Fossil Facts and Finds website.

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Paleontology Colleges In Arizona

Several Arizona colleges offer coursework and degrees in paleontology.

Students desiring education in paleontology can find undergraduate coursework along with graduate level learning and research at several colleges in Arizona. Paleontology is the study of the history of life on earth as depicted through the fossil record. The discipline incorporates biology, geology, ecology, anthropology, archaeology and even computer science, according to University of California Museum of Paleontology.

Northern Arizona University--Flagstaff

Northern Arizona University (NAU) in Flagstaff offers coursework in paleontology as part of a bachelor of science in geology. Students can specialize in many areas of geological disciplines, including paleontology. The university also has a master of science program in quaternary sciences, which includes the field of paleontology. "The program uses a multidisciplinary approach for a balance between eclecticism and specialization. Students develop broad competence in several disciplines---geosciences, paleontology, paleobotany, archaeology and climatology---and depth of knowledge in one," according to NAU's website. The university is also home to the Laboratory of Quaternary Paleontology, in which NAU partners with the Colorado Plateau Biodiversity Center.

Northern Arizona University

College of Engineering, Forestry and Natural Sciences

Department of Geology

Campus Box 4099

South San Francisco Street

Flagstaff, AZ 86011

928-523-4561

nau.edu

Arizona State University--Tempe

Arizona State University (ASU) main campus in Tempe offers paleontology courses as part of a geological sciences degree in the School of Earth and Space Exploration. The college also has courses in paleobotany, anthropology, geoarcheology and more anthropological topics. ASU offers a study-abroad program called the "South Africa Paleontology, Paleoanthropology and Paleoecology Field School." ASU is home to the Archeological Research Institute as part of the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences. The institute strives to "undertake the preservation of archaeological materials and related data, to pursue research activities associated with the archaeological record, and to conduct educational programs to disseminate knowledge of the past to Arizona's citizens," according to its website. ASU also houses the Institute of Human Origins, which deals with fossil evidence of human evolution.

Arizona State University--Tempe

University Drive and Mill Avenue

Tempe, AZ 85287

480-965-9011

asu.edu

Archeological Research Institute

929 S. Mill Ave., Building 150, Room 165

Arizona State University

Tempe, AZ 85287-2402

480-965-9231

archaeology.asu.edu

Institute of Human Origins

Arizona State University

Social Sciences Building Room 103

P.O. Box 874101

Tempe, AZ 85287-4101

480-727-6580

iho.asu.edu

University of Arizona--Tucson

The University of Arizona (U of A) in Tucson has paleontology coursework in the geosciences program. Paleontology at the university "focuses on the processes of fossilization (taphonomy) and on the late Cenozoic history of life and environments," according to the school's website. An active area of paleontological research is conservation paleobiology, which the university describes as "the use of fossil remains and proxy indicators to assess human impact and to guide restoration."

The University of Arizona

Department of Geosciences

Gould-Simpson Building, 208

PO Box 210077

Tucson, AZ 85721-0077

arizona.edu

geo.arizona.edu

520-621-6004

Arizona Western College--Yuma

Arizona Western College in Yuma offers paleontology coursework as part of a geology associate of science degree. Paleontological principles are covered in other geology courses, according to its catalog, along with archaeology and anthropology.

Arizona Western College

P.O. Box 929

Yuma, AZ 85366-0929

928-317-6000

azwestern.edu

Pima Community College--Tucson

Pima Community College in Tucson has paleontology coursework focusing on humans as part of an associate degree in anthropology. Pima is also home to the Centre for Archaeological Field Training.

Pima Community College

4905 E. Broadway Blvd.

Tucson, AZ 85709-1010

520-206-4500

pima.edu

Centre for Archaeological Field Training

Pima Community College

West Campus -- R20

2202 W. Anklam Rd.

Tucson, AZ 85709

520-206-6022

wc.pima.edu/~dstephen/

Tags: Arizona State, Pima Community, Arizona State University, Arizona Western, Community College, Northern Arizona, paleontology coursework

5 Types Of Mechanical Weathering

The mechanical weathering of flowing water and rocks striking other rocks causes rocks to become rounded.

Weathering, along with erosion, causes rocks to break down into smaller fragments; this usually takes place near the surface of the earth. There are two types of weathering: mechanical and chemical. Mechanical weathering causes rock to disintegrate into continuously smaller fragments as part of the rock cycle. Through weathering, igneous and metamorphic rock can be disintegrated into smaller and smaller fragments, and eventually these can become a part of sedimentary rock.

Plant Activity

The roots of plants are very strong and can grow into the cracks in existing rocks. The roots become wedged in the cracks, and as they grow and expand they exert pressure on the rock until the it cracks further, with pieces of the rock eventually breaking apart.

Animal Activity

Certain animals, such as moles, rabbits and groundhogs, dig holes in the ground that can expose underlying rocks to the effects of weathering. These holes allow water and other mechanical weathering agents to reach the previously covered rocks, initiating and speeding up the process of mechanical weathering.

Thermal Expansion

The daily heating and cooling of rock, irrespective of the amount of water present, causes stress along the boundaries of various minerals that compose the rock. The reason for this is that different minerals expand and contract at different rates based on the temperature and composition. This results in mechanical weathering and the gradual breaking down of the rock.

Frost action

The Idaho Museum of Natural History describes the effects of frost action by explaining that water, as it trickles into fractures and pores of the rock, freezes as temperatures drop. When this occurs, the volume of the ice increases approximately 10%, putting pressure on the rock and causing it to be broken apart.

Exfoliaton

When a rock breaks off into leaves or sheets along its joints it is referred to as exfoliation, states Pamela Gore, professor of Geology at Georgia Perimeter College. Uplift of the rock and the erosion of dirt covering the rock result in less pressure on the body of the rock. Layers which are not firmly joined together then have a tendency to peel off. The resulting mechanical weathering can result in the dome-shaped rock formations and boulders found in some western states of the U.S. Igneous rocks are especially susceptible to this type of mechanical weathering.

Tags: mechanical weathering, smaller fragments, causes rocks, into smaller, mechanical weathering

Research Tools For Kids

Learning to do research on the Internet is a great skill for kids to learn.

Research is an important skill for kids to learn. Finding and assessing information about subjects in school will prepare them to preform similar research as adults; e.g., comparing cars or loans. Learning to use the Internet is crucial as well. Many websites and search engines are geared toward helping kids with their homework and research projects.

Do Research

Starting a research project is a daunting project for anyone, let alone a child. The Kentucky Virtual Library has created the "do Research" site. The site walks you through the research process step by step, from selecting a topic to evaluating the project on completion.

Search Engines

With engaging graphics and content filters, search engines for kids are age-appropriate and provide suitable content. The one difficulty is that the results may not be as complete as for regular search engines. Among the many search engines for kids is Yahoo! Kids, which divides results by "dictionary," "encyclopedia" and "websites." Factmonster also has a search feature. The Rambo Catskill Library System has created a "Kids Search Tools" page, with links to many kid-friendly websites.

Reference Works

Looking up unfamiliar words encountered during a project is common. Online dictionaries make this an almost seamless task. Dictionaries geared toward children include Word Central from Merriam Webster and the American Heritage Dictionary at Yahoo! Kids. You can find basic information on almost any subject in an online encyclopedia. A kids version of the Encyclopedia Britannica can be viewed free for seven days.

Subject-Specific Sites

Many sites exist to provide information on specific subjects or direct kids to appropriate content. Find out about the weather at The Weather Channel Kids! The "Homework Helper" at Time for Kids has a page dedicated to research. Kidipede directs middle school kids to appropriate information for history and science courses. Learn about the role of the U.S. government at Kids.gov. This umbrella site provide links to the kids section of other government sites, such as Treasury Direct Kids from the Treasury Department and Archeology for Kids from the National Park Service.

Tags: search engines, engines kids, geared toward, kids appropriate, Kids from, kids learn, search engines kids

Use A Prism For Middle School Labs

Demostrate the color spectrum to students with a prism.

Teach the science behind the electromagnetic spectrum by using a prism. White light is made up of the visible colors of the electromagnetic spectrum, and a prism can bend the light and demonstrate the different wavelengths that colors of the spectrum display. By using a prism and other materials, you can show students the mechanics of a rainbow and create the best rainbow. The colors displayed will be red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.

Instructions

1. Instruct students to measure a rectangular hole with a width of approximately 5 mm on the bottom side of the cardboard box. Have them draw the rectangle with their colored pencils.

2. Tell students to use scissors to cut a small rectangular hole in the bottom side of the cardboard box.

3. Instruct students to tape the white sheet of paper to the opposite side of the hole on the inside of the box.

4. Have students place the black sheet of paper flat on the bottom inside of the box and place the prism on top of the paper.

5. Turn off all the lights in the room. The darker it is, the better the display of the color spectrum.

6. Instruct students to turn on the flashlight and shine it through the rectangular hole in the cardboard box. This will display the color spectrum on the white paper in the box.

7. Have students trace the color spectrum displayed on the white paper on the inside of the box with their colored pencils. The colors should be the order of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.

Tags: color spectrum, Instruct students, rectangular hole, yellow green blue, blue indigo

Make A Model Of Sea Floor Spreading

The discovery of sea floor spreading helps explain how the continents drift.

Plate tectonics is a branch of geology built upon theories of how continent-sized pieces of the Earth's crust move along the surface of the Earth's mantle, the layers of the planet lying beneath the Earth's surface and above its molten core. The concept of plate tectonics was affirmed in the 1950s and '60s through detailed magnetic readings of the ocean floor. These revealed two important pieces of information: that the Earth's magnetic field changes polarity and that new crust is being formed on the ocean floor through volcanic activity. This latter phenomenon, known as "sea floor spreading," starts as a rift in the continental land mass. Plates move apart and form cracks that are filled with liquid volcanic rock, or magma, which seeps out onto the ocean floor, extending it. You can construct a simple model that visually shows the change in polarity to postulate sea floor spreading.

Instructions

1. Using a rolling pin roll out both colors of clay so they are approximately 3 millimeters thick.

2. Use the knife and ruler to cut strips of clay approximately 1 centimeter by 10 centimeters.

3. The strips of clay should alternate. The "valley" should be in the center and should follow the length of an individual strip.

Place the strips on the tray, alternating between both colors.

4. Create a small valley in the clay length-wise across the entire tray. This represents the rift valley formed when new layers of sea crust are pushed out of the earth. The alternating colors of clay represent the different magnetic fields that ocean rocks acquire from changes in polarity over time.

Tags: floor spreading, ocean floor, both colors, changes polarity, colors clay, strips clay

Become An Oceanographer

Oceanography began as a science in the mid 1800s. Almost 3/4 of the earth is covered with water, so there's a lot of opportunity for those who want to study the ocean. There are many different branches of oceanography, too. Marine geologists study characteristics of the ocean floor such as mountains, canyons, rocks, minerals and sediments. Marine Biologists study plant and animal life. Chemical oceanographers identify chemicals and pollutants in the ocean. Physical oceanographers study physical characteristics such as waves, light, temperature, currents and the ocean's effect on climate. But competition is fierce. Many people are competing for the best oceanography jobs, and the most qualified will get them. Decide which branch of oceanography you're most interested in and follow the course recommended for that branch.

Instructions

1. Build a strong math, science and physics background. Get the highest grades you can, especially in math with an emphasis on statistics and differential equations. Learn foreign languages so you can communicate with others in your travels as an oceanographer. Become proficient in computer sciences so you can organize data into ocean simulations.

2. Check out "Curricula in the Atmospheric, Oceanic, and Related Sciences" from your local library. Universities that offer oceanography programs are listed here, along with the classes offered. Choose the course that best fits the branch of oceanography you've chosen. Earn a Bachelor of Science degree in physics, chemistry, geology, biology, math, naval engineering or oceanography. Though a few graduates may be hired at that point, you should continue your education to earn a master's degree in oceanography. Better opportunities and higher pay will be available to you with a master's degree.

3. Become familiar with ships and the ocean, since oceanographers spend most of their time there. Become accustomed to traveling on ships. Scuba dive, swim and take part in other water activities. Expect to travel a lot and change jobs often. Oceanographers have short contracts lasting 5 years or less, and they spend most of their time on ships or in labs.

4. Become acquainted with oceanographers through lectures, book signings and volunteer work. Read periodicals such as "National Geographic," "New Scientist" and "Nature" for new developments in oceanography and to search for career opportunities.

5. Join the Cousteau Society. Started in 1973 by oceanographer Jacques Cousteau to educate the public about the ocean and what it means to the environment, the Cousteau Society has encouraged legislation in many countries to protect the oceans and marine life. Call (800) 441-4395 or go to the website listed below to sign up for membership.

Tags: branch oceanography, Cousteau Society, master degree, most their, most their time

What Are Contour Maps

Contour maps are detailed maps that show both natural and man-made features. Originally developed in the 1600s for military purposes, they are still used today for military purposes and by backpackers and hikers.

Definition

A contour map is also called a topographic map. Contour maps are highly detailed maps that show natural and man-made features. The main feature that differentiates contour maps from other maps is the demarcation of elevation through the use of contour lines. Contour lines indicate the elevation of features such as mountains and and depths of items such as lakes.

Map History

The first topographic map series to cover a single country was developed by cartographers in France in the late 1780s. While previous mapping techniques only showed governmental or private property lines, topographic maps showed both natural and man-made features.

USGS Map History

The United States Geological Survey was initially charged with making topographic and geologic maps in 1879. The early methods were crude by modern standards and involved using a method called "planetable surveying" that involved plotting features on a map using a slanted drawing board and sighting device. In the 1930s following the development of modern flight, the USGS incorporated aerial surveys into its mapping activities. Today, many maps are created or modified using aerial photographs and field surveys.

Characteristics

The main feature on a contour map is the contour line. Closely-placed contour lines indicate a steep slope; widely-spaced contour lines indicate level terrain. On USGS maps, brown lines indicate contour lines. Small buildings are indicated as black boxes; larger buildings are typically mapped using the building's actual shape. Water features, such as lakes, streams or rivers are indicated in blue. Important roads are indicated in red. Trails, smaller roads, railroads and other man-made features are indicated in black.

Tips to Reading a Contour Map

Become familiar with the scale of the map. USGS maps typically use a scale of 1:24,000, where one inch equals 2,000 feet (or 1 cm equals 240 meters) and each individual map covers about 9 miles north and south by 7 miles east and west. Next, become familiar with the map symbols, using the color system. Index lines indicate elevations. These lines are typically wider than other contour lines. You can determine the distance between contour lines (or contour interval) by checking the scale at the margin of the map.

Where to Get Contour Maps

You can purchase many contour maps at outdoor stores. USGS topographic maps are available for purchase or download from the USGS website. You can find topographic maps at state or county natural resources departments or online retailers as well.

Tags: lines indicate, contour lines, man-made features, natural man-made, natural man-made features

Facts About Labcreated Diamonds

Distinguishing a lab-created diamond from a natural diamond can be difficult

Diamonds have always been a stone of status and power but, often, they are out of reach due to their high price. However these days, there is an alternative: lab-created diamonds. The composition of a lab-created diamond compared to a natural diamond is identical; however, the cost is potentially much lower. There are currently two processes in place to make lab-created diamonds for use in jewelry, cosmetics and tools.

History

Since the 1950s, scientists have cultured diamonds out of graphite produced under temperatures as high as 2,500 degrees and pressures 55,000 times greater than the earth's atmosphere. However, the stones were impure and too small to be useful. In the past decade, scientists discovered a chemical process and a high pressure, high temperature process to "grow" larger and purer diamonds, similar to real diamonds produced naturally.

Chemical Process

The chemical process used today to make lab-created diamonds is called chemical vapor deposition. During the process, diamond seeds are placed in a vacuum chamber and heated to more than 1,800 degrees. While heating, a carbon gas cloud is passed over the seeds, crystallizing carbon on top of them, which causes the diamond to grow.

HPHT Process

The HPHT, or high pressure high temperature, process is an enhanced method of what the scientists were using in the 1950s. The process requires more than 2,000 degrees of heat and 50 times more pressure than the earth's atmosphere. Diamonds created by high pressure and high temperature have more nitrogen in them and thus appear more amber-colored. This process is much less expensive than the chemical vapor deposition process and thus the stones that are produced are cheaper than those produced via chemical vapor deposition.

Uses

With diamonds being created in labs, they are readily available for a wide range of uses. They are currently used in loudspeakers, cosmetic skin exfoliants and high-end cutting tools. Of course, they are also used in jewelry settings and can cost just as much as natural stones. They can also be colored in pink, blue, mocha, champagne or other hues.

Expert Insight

It is very difficult to distinguish between a lab-created diamond and a genuine diamond. There is no difference in the chemical makeup of a natural diamond from a lab-created one. In fact, without lab testing, gemologists would have a hard time detecting which stone was natural. One process to identify a lab-created diamond is to cool it in liquid nitrogen, fire a laser at it and analyze the way the light reflects through the stone. This process can take several hours.

Tags: lab-created diamond, chemical vapor, chemical vapor deposition, high pressure, high pressure high, high temperature, lab-created diamonds

Science Magazines For Kids

Kids' science magazines get children interested in the natural world with easy-to-understand articles, games and experiments they can do at home. Kids' publications include magazines to nature, geology, chemistry and biology. Make sure you choose an age-appropriate magazine your child can read easily, complete with activities that offer just the right level of challenge.

Ages 7 and Under

Parents eager to get their youngest children engaged with nature can subscribe to "Wild Animal Baby," a publication from the National Wildlife Federation. This magazine is geared to children between 3 and 7 years old, with bright, colorful picture stories and photographs. "Click" also has many pictures, stories and illustrations, but also answers questions such as, "What do animals eat?" "Your Big Backyard" focuses on activities like games, crafts and recipes, in addition to pictures and stories geared to children who are just learning to read.

Grades 2 to 4

Magazines in this group are geared to children who are beginning to discover the joy of reading on their own. "Ranger Rick," published by the National Wildlife Federation, has great nature photos and articles to get kids interested in outdoor exploring. "National Geographic Kids" has a broader focus; in addition to nature, there are also stories and activities that relate to technology, the environment, science, culture and current events. Each issue of "Kids Discover" focuses on a single theme, and features stunning photography and informative articles. "Know: The Science Magazine for Curious Kids" covers topics in science, math and nature. It features puzzles, projects and experiments and brain teasers to get kids learning. "Ask," a magazine published by the group behind "Click," explains science and nature one question at a time.

Grades 5 and Up

"Science News for Kids" is from the publishers of "Science News." It has a great selection of articles on science and math, along with tips for conducting science experiments, puzzles and science fiction writing contests. "Odyssey" features scientific thinkers from many fields and covers new technological developments. "YES Mag: The Science Magazine for Adventurous Minds," has articles on technology, archeology, earth science and profiles on famous scientists throughout history. "OWL," which stands for Outdoors and Wild Life, is a Canadian magazine that focuses on nature but also includes articles about science and quirky world news items.

Tags: geared children, activities that, National Wildlife, National Wildlife Federation, pictures stories

Summer Track Camps In Texas

Texas has several quality summer track camps for athletes of all ages and skill levels

Athletes who take their sport seriously never stop training, even in summer. They keep their bodies in shape and their skills honed year-round to stay competitive. Texas athletes take a great deal of pride in their achievements, and there are many summer track camps in the Lone Star state that help these "field warriors" stay at their peak performance level.

Champion Trainers, LLC

Eric Thomas, an award-winning hurdler and member of the 2000 U.S. Olympic Track and Field team, formed Champion Trainers LLC to bring his world-class skills and love of the sport to young athletes in Texas. Thomas' summer track camps are held at the Track and Field Stadium of Rice University and offer students between the ages of 9 and 21 the opportunity to take advantage of his knowledge and experience. The weekly workout sessions focus on improving the speed, agility, and mechanics of running in an atmosphere of overall fitness and well-being. His extensive background in amateur competition has given him invaluable experience that he passes on through tips and secrets on speed training, endurance, and goal-setting. Sessions are limited to 20 athletes so that Thomas can provide individual attention to each student, much like a personal trainer. Session prices range from $35 for each child under 12 to $100 per person for professional athletes, as of 2010. Group discounts are available, and senior citizens may also register at discounted rates.

Champion Trainers, LLC

Houston TX

713-320-6672

Eric@champion-trainers.com

champion-trainers.com

Texas A&M Summer Track Camps

Texas A&M University has one of the finest athletic programs in the country, as well as some of the best track facilities available anywhere. The university opens the doors to its state-of-the-art McFerrin Indoor Track Center each July to young athletes between the ages of 8 and 18. There are two programs offered each summer for advanced training in running and general track and field events. The Speed Development Camp focuses on acceleration skills, velocity training, and developing speed that helps young athletes improve their performance in any event. The Track and Field Camp includes intensive training in sprints, hurdles, pole vaulting, and throwing and jumping events (no distance training available). Online registration costs for these 3-day camps is $225 for the Speed Development Camp and $550 for the Track and Field Camp, as of 2010. The price includes meals and lodging and all training and instruction activities.

Texas A&M University

750 Agronomy Road

College Station TX 77843

979-845-3211

Trackandfieldcamp@athletics.tamu.edu

Wes Kittley's Champions

This summer track camp is held in June of each year and features instruction from nine coaches in all of the standard track and field events. The 800-meter hurdles are coached by Wes Kittley, track and field athletic director for Texas Tech University. The university track facilities are where the camp is held, and the rest of the coaching staff provides one-on-one instruction in fundamental and advanced sprinting, jumping, and throwing events. Middle and long distance running skills are also taught at this summer track camp, along with discus and shot put and all jumping events, including long jump and triple jump. Participants can either commute to the camp or can stay at the Wall/Gates dormitory. All meals are provided to resident participants, with breakfast and lunch provided to commuting participants. Camp costs are $395 for residents and $325 for commuters, along with a $100 non-refundable deposit, as of 2010. Participants must complete a medical form as part of the application process that provides their medical history, emergency contacts, and any special medical needs they have. The three-day camp is open to all ages.

Wes Kittley Champions Camp

6th and Boston Ave. Box 43021

Lubbock TX 79409

806-742-3355

Tags: Champion Trainers, summer track, summer track camps, Track Field, young athletes, along with, between ages

Find Cumulative Frequency In Math

Frequency in math and statistics illustrates how often a phenomenon occurs in a range of values. The results are commonly represented in tabular or graphical forms as frequency distributions, describing how often a data point occurs over a range of values. Cumulative frequency is an important tool in many applications. Geologists, for example, may wish to know how often earthquakes occur in different fault zones within different periods of time --- 100 years, 500 years, 1,000 years. Cumulative frequency is nothing more than the total number of frequencies at or less than a given value.

Instructions

1. Write down the first value in the table of frequency data. For example, say 100 trout weighing 1 lb. or less are caught in a pond in one season. That is the initial cumulative frequency.

2. Add to the figure in Step 1 the next value in the data set. Continuing the example, suppose 55 trout weighing between 1 and 2 lbs. were caught in the same pond, so 100 + 55 = 155 trout. Because you have changed the range of values to include the fish between 1 and 2 lbs., the cumulative frequency of trout caught is 155 trout weighing 2 lbs. or less.

3. Continue to add other data points to obtain further cumulative frequencies. For example, if 12 trout weighing between 2 and 3 lbs. were caught, the cumulative frequency will now be 100 + 55 + 12 = 167 trout weighing 3 lbs. or less were caught.

Tags: trout weighing, cumulative frequency, range values, trout weighing less, weighing less, were caught

The Effect Of Ph In River Water

Unlike lakes and ponds, rivers are open systems, where frequent water exchange occurs. Despite this fact, the organisms that depend on rivers require some equilibrium. Various indicators give a measure of the quality of a river. These measurement include dissolved oxygen, temperature, and pH, which is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration.

River health is affected by pH.

Definition

The scale for measuring pH goes from 0 to 14 with 7 or under representing an acidic environment, and a reading over 7 indicates an alkaline environment.

Sources of Acidity

A study published in the journal Nature directly linked acidity in Norwegian rivers and lakes to acid rain, which decimated local salmon and trout populations.

Effects of Low pH

Low pH levels cause fish kill by stressing animal systems and causing physical damage, which in turn makes them more vulnerable to disease.

Buffering Capacity

The effects of low pH levels can be lessened by the presence of limestone along river banks and in soil.

Factors Influencing pH

Other external factors that can cause fluctuations in the river pH include agricultural runoff, acidic mine drainage (AWD), and fossil fuel emissions such as carbon dioxide, which creates a weak acid when dissolved in river water.

Benefits of Testing pH

Testing pH levels indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a sample. Rivers have some capacity to prevent changes in pH by the structure and composition of the river bed. However, drastic changes in pH can have detrimental effects on river health.

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Ideas For A Middle School Science Classroom Setup

Visual models are helpful for retention of middle school science lessons.

In middle school young teenagers begin to explore science more deeply than in grade school. Lessons in physics, geology, biology, the use of the microscope to explore the world of amoebas and other microscopic organisms begins to take shape. Inquisitive minds are shaped to be analytical and to learn observe and record information. A middle school science classroom should be safe, but teachers can also set up a classroom to facilitate curiosity and to impress upon the mind of the student the lessons at hand.

Equipment and Tools

Hands-on experiments and activities are a prominent and memorable feature of middle school science.

The middle school science classroom should come set up with tools and supplies for hands-on experiments. A large percentage of the lessons taught should be active discovery through projects and chronicling conclusions from experiments. Some of the equipment and supplies that might be used are hand lenses, microscopes with prepared slides, a 50-foot clothesline rope to demonstrate the concept of the timeline in the history of the universe. Stock nature materials such as samples of different types of rocks, as well as hydrochloric acid and safety goggles for experiments. Classrooms should be set up with paper for scientific drawings as well as a good supply of colored pencils, in addition to standard classroom supplies. A teacher would want to have access to online resources and/or videos for education videos pertinent to the subjects being studied. Fossils are also an important concept to master in middle school science, and these should be presented in real-life forms that students can see for themselves and touch.

Posters and Pictures

Posters and pictures of such subjects as volcanoes, the Grand Canyon, famous scientists, the universe or solar system and pertinent quotes related to science, in addition to learning posters relevant to the current topic, help to create an atmosphere conducive to learning and anticipation.

Word Wall

A science word wall is a standard part of the requirements for science classrooms in many school systems. The word wall should be relevant to what the class is discussing. Some standard words to include from the beginning are words such as scientific method, problem, hypothesis, theory, fact, observations and conclusion. Students can make the words from poster board using magic marker and be creative in their designs.

Books

A science library should be a part of the classroom. There are many good science books to choose from. The teacher should make his own collection of science books and select relevant books from the school library as might be permitted by the librarian. Though an emphasis on nonfiction will probably be most helpful, including some science fiction can help the students get a full grasp on the concept of science and science fiction, along with the many works that might be a mixture of the two. Biographies of luminaries such as Albert Einstein and Isaac Newton or of such people who might be considered in science lessons such as Helen Keller, can be used as assigned or extra credit projects for book reports.

Tags: school science, middle school, middle school, middle school science, classroom should, middle school science, science books

Phd Programs In New England

New England universities offer a range of PhD programs.

New England has a variety of colleges offering a number of PhD programs ranging from finance to education. Students choosing to pursue a doctoral degree take classes, conduct scholarly research in their chosen field and write a dissertation. Students considering a PhD need to be devoted to several years of studying, researching and writing.

Boston College

Boston College's Carroll School of Management offers a PhD in finance. Students take 18 courses during the first two-and-a-half years in the program, learning about economics and finance. As students complete their coursework, they also work as research assistants and submit a research paper on their findings. Near the end of their second year in the program, students must pass a comprehensive exam before they begin work on the dissertation. Graduates of this program work as faculty at schools such as George Washington University and the University of Virginia.

Boston College

Carroll School of Management

Fulton Hall 510

140 Commonwealth Ave.

Chestnut Hill, MA 02467

617-552-8420

bc.edu

University of Rhode Island

The University of Rhode Island's Department of English offers a PhD. The admissions committee considers the student's ability to do scholarship and whether his research interests are specialized. Students complete 72 credits to earn the PhD---30 credits approved for master's work, 24 credits of coursework and 18 dissertation credits. Students also have the opportunity to work as teaching assistants in both literature and rhetoric.

University of Rhode Island

Department of English

114 Swan Hall

60 Upper College Road

Kingston, RI 02881

401-874-4664

uri.edu

University of Connecticut

The University of Connecticut's Department of Community Medicine offers a PhD in public health. Students can choose from one of two concentrations---social and behavioral health sciences or occupational and environmental health sciences. Courses vary depending on the concentration, but sample courses include Public Health Seminar, Nutrition for Healthy Communities and Methods and Teachings of Education Research. Students must complete 45 credits to earn the degree, which includes discipline-specific courses and elective courses.

University of Connecticut

Department of Community Medicine

270 Farmington Ave., Suite 260

Farmington, CT 06030

860-679-5470

publichealth.uconn.edu

University of New Hampshire

Doctoral students at the University of New Hampshire can earn a PhD in history through the school's College of Liberal Arts. Students can design a program to meet their research interests, but the department has to approve it. The school encourages doctoral students to teach as they study to prepare them for a career in scholarship and research. Sample courses include Cults and Charisma, African Religions and Readings in Modern American History.

University of New Hampshire

Department of History

Horton Social Science Center

20 Academic Way

Durham, NH 03824

603-862-1765

unh.edu

Tags: Boston College, Rhode Island, University Connecticut, University Hampshire, University Rhode

Plush Oregon Area Rv Parks

RV Camping Near Plush, Oregon

Plush, Oregon is located in Lake County, in a region known as the "Oregon Outback" due to the rugged terrain. The area is located on south-central Oregon’s high desert with elevation levels ranging between 4,300 feet to 8,500 feet. Winters in Plush are typically cold, summers are warm and the average growing season lasts approximately 100 days. Plush is situated adjacent to the Hart Mountain National Antelope Refuge and is close to recreational activities such as hiking, fishing, camping, hunting, birdwatching and boating.

Junipers Reservoir RV Resort

Junipers Reservoir RV Resort is located in Lakeview, Oregon, approximately 40 miles from Plush. The RV Resort is located at the edge of Junipers Reservoir on an 8,000 acre ranch with cattle and timber. The park is open seasonally from the beginning of May until mid-October and has sites to accommodate all sizes and types of campers, ranging from pup tents to oversized motor homes. All sites have a picnic table, shade tree and 20 or 30 amp electric service; 28 sites in the park have 50 amp service. Park activities include fishing, wildlife observation, birdwatching and mountain biking. Amenities include fire pit area, wireless Internet, laundry facilities, horseshoe pits, modern restrooms with tiled showers, volleyball area, deep well water and access to cable television. 2010 rates are $30 per night for sights with water, sewer and electricity; rates are $27.78 for sites with water and electricity. The park also offers weekly and monthly rates as well as discounts for members of AAA and other groups.

Junipers Reservoir RV Resort

91029 Highway 140 West

Lakeview, OR 97630

541-947-2050

junipersrv.com/welcome.html

Goose Lake State Recreation Area

Goose Lake State Recreation Area is located in New Pine Creek, Oregon, approximately 53 miles from Plush on the Oregon-California border in Lake County. Goose Lake’s camping area is open from early April until early October. Park attractions include wildlife observation, bird watching, boating, fishing, The park has 48 RV sites with electric and water hookup. RV sites can accommodate vehicles with a maximum length of 50 feet. Park amenities include hot showers, paved sites, shady sites, public telephone, fireplaces and a sanitary dump station. 2010 rates are $20 per night for electric and water hookup.

Goose Lake State Recreation Area

PO Box 207

New Pine Creek, OR 97635

541-947-3111

oregonstateparks.org/park_1.php

Summer Lake Hot Springs RV Park

Summer Lake Hot Springs RV Park is located in Paisley, Oregon, approximately 75 miles from Plush. Summer Lake Hot Springs RV Park spans 145 acres with ponds, nature trails, outdoor rock pools, hot mineral springs and an indoor pool. Nearby activities include hiking along the Summer Lake basin or along the Chewaucan River, observing wildlife in the Summer Lake Wildlife Refuge, looking for petroglyphs at Picture Rock Pass, exploring sand dunes, collecting sunstones at the Dustdevil Sunstone Mine, fishing in the Chewaucan River or one of the numerous mountain lakes and star gazing at Summer Lake. RV sites have 20 to 50 amp electric service, water and sewer. 2010 rates start at $35 nightly.

Summer Lake Hot Springs RV Park

41777 Highway 31

Paisley, OR 97636

541-943-3931

summerlakehotsprings.com/index.html

Tags: Summer Lake, Junipers Reservoir, Lake Springs, Lake Springs Park, Springs Park, Summer Lake Springs

How Does Ice Cause Tectonic Plates To Move

Melting glaciers affect tectonic plates.

The outer surface of the Earth is divided into tectonic plates, which formed in the early days of Earth's creation. These plates move, allowing molten rock known as magma to rise up and fill in the gaps between the plates. Tectonic plates continuously move. While no ice exists deep down where this activity occurs, the melting of ice on the planet's surface can affect the plates beneath.

Tectonics

Magma renews the Earth's crust.

Tectonics is a branch of geology that is concerned with the movement of tectonic plates. The Earth's surface, known as the crust, is continuously being renewed as magma rises and fills in the gaps between the rigid tectonic plates. This area is known as the divergent boundary. Tectonic plates move due to the forces of magma and thermal energy under the plates. When tectonic plates are forced together, mountains form, while earthquakes are caused by sudden slips in pressure as the plates grind together.

Plate Movement

Tectonic plates move incredibly slowly, migrating at a rate of 1 to 16 cm per year. The continents are made up of different tectonic plates, often called continental plates. Seven primary tectonic plates exist. Originally there was only one single continent, known as Pangaea. Pangaea broke up due to tectonic plate movement, forming the continents we know today. The continents have moved all over the planet since the Earth first formed.

Melting Ice

Glaciers are masses of frozen water. They exist in extremely cold areas such as on high mountains or at the polar caps. Antarctica and Greenland are huge bodies of ice known as continental glaciers. The water locked in glaciers can remain frozen for thousands of years, but like tectonic plates, glaciers slowly move across the land. The pressure from the weight of all that ice melts the underside of the glacier, causing it to slide. When glaciers travel into warmer climates, this melting increases.

As glaciers melt, weight is removed from the land the glacier is resting on and is redistributed; the land then slowly rebounds as the pressure is relieved. This redistribution of weight affects the tectonic plates underneath, altering their course or changing the speed of plate movement.

Climate Change

Glacial melting is normally a slow process, taking thousands of years. However, climate change has resulted in increased and rapid glacial melting, which redistributes the weight that was concentrated under the glaciers. This redistribution of weight is affecting the tectonic plate movement beneath. While it is difficult to predict the effect that this rapid glacial melting will have on plate tectonics, increases in earthquakes are one possibility. Earthquakes could also become more unpredictable, affecting areas not normally associated with them.

Tags: tectonic plates, plates move, tectonic plates, gaps between, plate movement, rapid glacial, rapid glacial melting

Soil Types For Oregon

Rock and sand on the Oregon Coast represent one type of the state's soils.

Oregon is a state of breathtaking beauty and great diversity. Centuries of natural forces have formed the soils present in Oregon; rugged, sandy coastlines, magnificent mountains and fertile river valleys abound. Soil content varies from exceptionally fertile and well-drained sandy loams to very poorly-drained clays. The types of soil found in Oregon are as diverse as the terrain. Does this Spark an idea?

Stony Loam Soil

Fertile Oregon Farmland

Very stony loam soil prevails in many parts of Oregon. Baker County is predominately composed of stony loam. Clay and silty lake bed sediments, carried by glaciers, makes up the soil content. In many areas, these sediments have washed over and covered the tailings of gold dredging activities from the late 1800s.

Oregon Soil Distribution

Orchards In Oregon

In Clackamas County, on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation, sandy loam is present. In the Upper Deschutes River Area of Deschutes County, fertile sandy loam supports abundant crop production. Throughout the state the most productive soils are deep and well drained. They occur on the valley bottoms, close to large streams and rivers. The soils consist of materials that were carried by fast-moving flood waters and contain a large percentage of sand and silt.

Willamette Valley

Fertile Willamette Valley soils were deposited by ancient floods.

Soil in the Willamette Valley of Oregon is remarkably fertile. Carried by floods and glaciers, the soil is deep and productive. The broad plain of the Willamette Valley is bound on the west by the Oregon Coast Range and on the east by the Cascade Range. The rich, loamy soil of the valley floor grows an abundance of varied crops. The Willamette Valley is composed of an old volcanic, sedimentary seabed that has been overlaid with silt, gravel, rocks and boulders that were carried by the Missoula Lake floods from Montana and Washington over 10,000 years ago. Red Jory soil, commonly found above 300-foot elevations is found in 4- to 6-foot layers and provides superior drainage. Soil found below the 300 foot elevation is composed of sedimentary-based soil.

Tags: Willamette Valley, Oregon Coast, sandy loam, that were, that were carried, were carried