Sell A Rock Collection

If you have a rock collection you want to sell, there are many ways to go about it. Rock collectors connect through several outlets whether it be via trade shows, eBay or a dealer. By knowing the details of your collection and staying current on hot-selling pieces, you can increase your chances of garnering a competitive profit.

Instructions

Increase the Value of Your Rock Collection

1. Maintain the natural appearance of the rocks. By limiting exposure to artificial lighting and keeping the rocks clean using simple household materials such as alcohol, you can protect your investment and increase the likelihood of future profit.

2. Set up an organized system. If you plan to sell a rock collection, buyers are more attracted to collections that have detailed records, labels and complete information relating to the acquisition of each piece.

3. Learn the names of the rocks in your collection. Expert buyers may prefer to deal with a seller who is well informed and knowledgeable about the different types of calcite or marble, for instance.

4. Sell rocks from the best locations. For example, tourmaline from California is valued much higher than comparable tourmaline from Brazil or Connecticut.

Unload Your Rock Collection

5. Trade it! You can avoid spending money on a new one since most rock collectors enjoy a good swap every now and then.

6. Advertise it on the Internet. Popular websites like eBay can help you post your collection using color photos and set up minimum bidding for the sale of your goods.

7. Contact a geology or natural history museum, especially if you are a collector of rare rocks. Often, museums are interested in the hard-to-find pieces not generally available to the public.

8. Consider selling the collection in parts or as a whole. Some potential buyers opt for individual pieces such as particular types of crystal in a collection rather than buying the entire group.

9. Work with a dealer. Some operate exclusively online, while others can be reached in person. Many dealers will buy rock collections without ever seeing the collection, especially if you hold desirable pieces.

10. Be ready to answer questions. Buyers often have many questions including price, transport, specimen size and count, dealers you've worked with, and the historical value and condition of the display, to name just a few.

Tags: Rock Collection, your collection, Your Rock Collection, tourmaline from, Your Rock

Degrees In Wildlife Biology

Wildlife Biology students focus on the biology of animals that have backbones. This study encompasses the habitats of these animals, along with the ecosystems and prevalent diseases. Students with a degree in wildlife biology can find a wide array of job opportunities, such as in forestry and conservation, as well as marine studies.

Associate's Degree

An associate's degree is useful for students who wish to eventually transfer to a four-year degree program, since a bachelor's degree is generally required for entry-level work in this field. The associate's program will offer courses in general biology, animal biology, ecology and physical geology, along with a series of basic math and science classes. This coursework is designed to prepare the student for the higher levels of education.

Bachelor's Degree

The bachelor's degree is necessary for entry into any field of wildlife biology. This program will study animal behavior, their natural environment and wildlife management techniques. Ecology and environment conservation techniques are a heavy focus of this discipline. Applicant's for this program must have a high school diploma or the equivalent. Some prior coursework in chemistry, calculus, biology and physics is suggested. Students in this program will study various areas of wildlife, including ornithology, mammalogy, botany and aquatic botany.

Master's Degree

A master's degree in wildlife biology allows students to focus on data analysis, research and other methods for the study of the wildlife population. The focus of this study is on the protection of endangered species. This program typically combines lab work, classroom sessions and field work. Students in this program must have a bachelor's degree before being accepted. Typical courses for a master's degree include entomology, wildlife population management and wildlife management practices.

Ph.D

The Ph.D program focuses on research and education. The coursework includes a large amount of field research, as opposed to classroom learning. Under this program, the student will choose an area of interest and compile data to analyze that topic. Areas such as conservation biology or wildlife management may be chosen. Ph.D programs requires a bachelor's degree along with some other educational or work-related experience in the field. Typical courses for a Ph.d would include soil science, wildlife handling and landscape ecology.

Tags: this program, along with, bachelor degree, program will, wildlife management

Jobs For An Environmental Science Major

Environmental science majors study nature and the environment and any changes within it. These changes include human impact on the environment, natural ecosystems and pollution. Environmental scientists work to document, conserve and educate people about the environment and damage to it. As an environmental science major, you can open the doors to a wide array of future careers. The United States Environmental Protection Agency provides many careers for environmental science majors, as do places such as local environmental agencies, museums and universities.

Air Quality Analyst

Air quality analysts study the atmosphere and the effects of pollutants on the air that we breathe. This job comes in two forms: air quality scientist and air quality statistician. As a scientist, the work is more hands-on. Air quality scientists interpret air quality using the latest field equipment. They also develop new analysis techniques that may make documenting environmental changes easier.

Statisticians take the data that the scientists find and look for trends within the data. Statisticians present their findings in ways that are easy to understand for a wider audience. For both career paths, having some math skills helps, as do computer skills and good communication.

Ecologist

Scientists who study the connection between the environment and the creatures living within it are known as ecologists. These connections are studied through field research, observing visible changes and analyzing unseen changes. Ecologists study air, soil and water and the effects of things like industrialization and pollution on them.

Many ecologists form an area of expertise, such as marine biology or zoology. To become an ecologist, a background in environmental science is needed. Some math skills also help in the career path. To teach ecology within a college or university, you will need to earn a Ph.D.

Environmental Toxicologist

Water often receives pollutants from factors such as factories and landfills. Environmental toxicologists measure the amount of toxins within water. Toxicologists collect and analyze samples using toxicity tests. Once the toxins have been measured, an environmental toxicologist then interprets the data found in order to present the findings to interested parties. These parties can include independent researchers, universities or government institutions.

Environmental toxicologists often work alongside environmental scientists and marine biologists to develop ways to eliminate toxins in the water and protect both the water and marine life. As an environmental toxicologist, additional skills needed include computer knowledge, written and verbal skills and the ability to work on a team.

Oceanographer

Oceanographers work primarily with bodies of water, such as oceans, fresh water and polar ice caps. They study these bodies of water and their relationship to the atmosphere. An oceanographer is tasked with studying pollution, commercial fishing, climate changes, weather and other factors that can have an effect on water and ice.

Many oceanographers choose a specialized field, such as marine geology, marine chemistry or marine biology. The work environment for oceanographers, when not collecting field samples, is usually within an office or lab in schools or with the government.

Tags: bodies water, environmental science, environmental toxicologist, Environmental toxicologists, marine biology, math skills, science majors

Chemical Components Of Clay Soil

According to the University of Massachusetts, the physical texture of soil has an effect on its chemical characteristics. Clay soil is made of very fine rock particles that compact together very tightly. It also has a high exchange rate of cations, which are positively charged ions. Plants absorb most soil nutrients as cations. Does this Spark an idea?

Oxygen

Oxygen is classified as an anion, which is a negatively charged ion. Oxygen in clay soil tends to be low compared to sandy or loamy soil. This is because the spaces between the particles of clay soil are packed very tightly together. Additionally, clay soil particles repel the negatively charged oxygen anions because the clay is filled with tiny negatively charged particles called colloids.

Silicates

Clay particles are primarily made up of tiny particles of weathered rock. For this reason, the largest concentrations of clay soil are in floodplains near large mountain ranges such as the piedmont area that lies between the Appalachian mountain range and the coastal soil of the Atlantic region. These tiny weathered rock minerals are called silicates. Examples of silicate particles include montmorillonite, vermiculite, micaceous and kaolinite.

Oxides

Chemically speaking, clay soils differ from the large rocks from which they are formed because the weathering process removes water-soluble components such as calcium. Because of this, soils contain more insoluble elements such as aluminum and iron oxides. The high concentration of iron oxide in clay soil is what gives many clay soils a red coloring.

pH

The pH of soil is a measure of the balance between soil acidity and alkalinity. The measure of pH balance is a 14 point scale. 7.0 is an indicator that soil is pH-neutral, or balanced. Plants that are planted in soil have a specific pH range at which they can absorb nutrients that are present in the soil. Most plants prefer to grow in a neutral or slightly acidic range. A few plants, such as blueberries or azaleas, grow well in a lower range. Clay soils may be acidic or alkaline in nature based on the makeup of the rocks from which their particles were formed. For example, piedmont clays, which have high levels of iron oxides, are acid in nature with a low pH. Houston black, a dark brown or black clay soil, is lower in oxides and has a slightly alkaline pH rating.

Tags: clay soil, negatively charged, from which, iron oxides, measure balance

The Difference Between Chemical And Petroleum Engineering

Chemical and petroleum engineers share some of the same skills but apply them to different fields.

Chemical engineering is a field that covers an extensive range of scientific, industrial and manufacturing processes. Chemical engineers use their working knowledge of chemistry and physics to solve a variety of problems and to streamline existing chemical processes. Petroleum engineering is a more specialized field that focuses on the exploration and extraction of natural resources for the petroleum industry and requires knowledge of geology, chemistry and mechanical engineering.

Chemical Engineers

Chemical engineers are employed by almost all industries that rely on chemical processes for some part of their production cycle. They work with scientists to create new materials and new methods of working with existing materials. They solve problems facing the manufacturing, medical, food production, research and environmental sectors. They are mainly called upon to apply chemical processes to an existing problem but draw upon many other mathematical and engineering disciplines to do so.

Petroleum Engineers

Petroleum engineering is a more specialized and hands-on field of engineering than chemical engineering. Petroleum engineers use their knowledge of geology, physics, chemistry and mechanical engineering to locate and extract petroleum reserves around the world. They work in a wide variety of challenging terrains, including mountains, deserts and the ocean floor. Most petroleum engineers start out working in the field, and most office jobs are held by engineers who have spent some time designing and installing rigs in person.

Overlap

Chemical engineers work with petroleum engineers in creating new chemical processes to aid in oil exploration and extraction. Chemical engineers also work closely with the petroleum transmission, refining and power generation fields. Chemical engineering is also used to create new methods of extraction for marginal petroleum sources such as shale and tar sands. These cross-specialization engineers may be chemical engineers employed by the petroleum industry or they may be primarily petroleum engineers with a strong background in chemical engineering.

Occupational Outlook

Chemical engineers are expected to experience a decline in employment of 2 percent over the next 10 years, especially those working in the manufacturing sector. Petroleum engineers, by contrast, are expected to see a rise in employment of 18 percent over the same period, a faster than average rate of growth across all industries. Chemical engineers can expect to earn a median salary of $84,680, while petroleum engineers have a median salary of $108,020 in 2011.

Tags: chemical processes, Chemical engineers, chemical engineering, Chemical engineers, chemistry mechanical, chemistry mechanical engineering, employment percent

Unusual Facts About Neptune

Neptune, the furthest planet from the sun, has several distinct interesting attributes.

Unlike Earth, Neptune's surface is a mixture of hydrogen, helium and methane with some rocks, water and ice. Because much of its surface is gaseous, humans cannot land, much less walk on Neptune. The extreme high winds that surround Neptune--at times blowing more than 1,200 miles per hour--also make it one very windy and stormy planet.

All in the Name

Neptune is named for the Roman god of the sea (Greek equivalent is Poseidon). Roman mythology indicates that Neptune generated hurricanes, storms and even earthquakes. Given its atmosphere on and around the planet, "Neptune" seems to be a fitting name for the planet.

Orbiting

It takes approximately 165 years for Neptune to make one complete orbit around the sun. This means Neptune has yet to complete even one orbit around the sun since its discovery.

Star Moon

Triton holds the distinction for being Neptune's largest moon as well as the largest moon on any planet. Triton also has an unusual orbit route. Instead of circling in the same direction as Neptune's natural rotation, Triton orbits the planet in the opposite direction.

Hidden Rings

Like Saturn, Neptune has rings circling it, but the rings are darker and do not reflect light very well, so the rings are not as prominent as the ones that circle Jupiter.

The Great Spot

Since its discovery, one distinct identifying characteristic on Neptune is the "Great Dark Spot," a concentrated area of hurricanes appearing on the surface of the planet. However, this area seems to be no more, as it mysteriously disappeared in 1994 for no apparent reason.

Tags: largest moon, orbit around

Geology Grants & Scholarships

Geology students study the earth and its processes.

Geologists study the earth and how it evolves and changes. Students interested in the field and educators looking to further their careers can apply for numerous scholarships and grants offered by nonprofit geology organizations. Awards are available on all levels, from undergraduate to post-doctoral research. Grade school teachers as well as college professors are eligible for grants.

Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists Scholarships

The Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists promotes research and educational opportunities. AEG offers several scholarships and grants for undergraduate and graduate students funded by donors, corporations and bequests to the organization. Students can apply for scholarships and grants that fund field projects, research projects, travel to AEG meetings and tuition. Awards range from $200 to $3,500. Local branches of AEG also award scholarships. Applications for all AEG grants and scholarships are available on the organization's website.

Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Institute Scholarships

The Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Institute (RMCMI) is a nonprofit organization dedicated to coal mining education in the western United States. RMCMI awards several scholarships to students studying geology or related fields. Students must be residents of an RMCMI state: Arizona, Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, North Dakota, Texas, Utah or Wyoming. There are two types of scholarships: the engineering/geology scholarships are for $2,500 and renewable for up to two years; the technical scholarship is a $1,000 one-time gift for students who hope to apply their education in the coal industry. Each scholarship program includes eight awards. In addition to completing an online application, students must undergo interviews when applying for a scholarship.

Geological Society of America Grants

The Geological Society of America awards numerous grants to undergraduate and graduate students and post-doctoral scholars. Funds for grants come from donations to the organization's foundation and corporate sponsors. In 2010, the GSA awarded nearly 300 grants to graduate students. The average award was $2,218. GSA branches and sections award grants to undergraduates for individual research and for travel to the annual GSA meeting. Grant amounts vary and some are for as much as several thousand dollars. Applications and details for all awards are available on the GSA website.

National Association of Geoscience Teachers

The National Association of Geoscience Teachers is an organization of educators including geology teachers at all levels. The organization awards $500 scholarships to students for field study. NAGT also awards $750 grants to two-year college faculty members and secondary school teachers to attend scientific meetings, purchase classroom materials and take workshops. In 2010, NAGT awarded 19 scholarships and four grants. Applications for NAGT scholarships and grants are available on the organization's website.

Tags: scholarships grants, graduate students, Association Environmental, Association Environmental Engineering, Association Geoscience, Association Geoscience Teachers

National Geographic Tours Of Mexico

Explore the history and ruins of Mexico with an expert during a National Geographic tour.

National Geographic Expeditions, the travel program developed by the National Geographic Society, features more than 300 annual trips across seven continents. The trips and tours to more than 40 countries offer participants the opportunity to travel with anthropologists, archaeologists, biologists, historians, naturalists or photographers. National Geographic Expeditions focus on photography, active/adventure, family, train trips, private jet tours, student excursions or small ship cruises. Choose from several National Geographic tours of Mexico for an informative and educational sightseeing experience.

Copper Canyon Expedition

Explore the geological wonders of Copper Canyon during a seven-day journey, including a two-day, first-class train trip on the Chihuahua al Pacifico. Larger than the Grand Canyon, Copper Canyon features dramatic scenery of deep arroyos and majestic pinnacles. Lead by an experienced geologist, the tour discusses the Tarahumara people and the geology of the Sierra Madre. Participants can float the Rio Fuerte and walk along the rim of the canyon. The tour includes two nights at the Hotel Posada Barrancas Mirador, situated on the edge of the canyon. Tour prices are per person based on double occupancy and airfare is not included. An optional four-day trip extension at the luxury Miraval Resort and Spa can be added for an additional fee.

Copper Canyon

National Geographic Expeditions

1145 17th Street NW

Washington, DC 20036

888-966-8687

nationalgeographicexpeditions.com

Photography Workshop: Oaxaca: Day of the Dead

Capture the ceremonies and traditions of one of the oldest holidays in Oaxaca during an eight-day workshop with a renowned National Geographic photographer. The festivities of the holiday include costumed children, street dances, painted faces of adults and children in dramatic settings such as graveyards, ancient ruins and candlelight. Although there is a planned itinerary, the schedule can be changed to allow for spontaneous photographic opportunities. Time is set aside each day for participants to learn new techniques as well as editing and critiquing the group's images. The tour includes visits to the markets of Zaachila and Ocotlan, offering the opportunity to photograph colorful produce, textiles and the merchants. All workshop tour members must bring their own digital SLR camera and a laptop computer equipped image editing software. The workshop includes an overview of downloading, archiving, sizing and editing images on a computer and is suitable for amateur as well as experienced digital photographers. Each tour is limited to 25 participants and prices are per person, based on double occupancy. Airfare is not included.

Photography Workshop: Oaxaca: Day of the Dead

National Geographic Expeditions

1145 17th Street NW

Washington, DC 20036

866-797-4686

nationalgeographicexpeditions.com

Sea of Cortez Family Voyage

The eight-day adventure tour aboard the National Geographic Sea Bird is designed for families. Scheduled annually to begin on December 26, the New Year's tour includes exploring coastal Baja along with a knowledgeable team of naturalists. Activities for all ages are scheduled throughout the voyage, including nature talks, Zodiac trips, kayaking, games and snorkeling. The itinerary is based on discovering the wildlife of marine sanctuary of the Sea of Cortez, including dolphins, whales and sea lions. The schedule is flexible to take advantage of weather conditions and wildlife-viewing opportunities. The Sea Bird can accommodate 62 guests in 31 outside cabins. Each cabin includes an outer window, lower berths, a private bathroom, reading lights and individual climate controls. Sea kayaks and Zodiacs are kept on-board, providing easy access to coastlines, lagoons and coves. Airfare is not included and prices are per person, based on double occupancy. Discounts are available for children under 18.

Sea of Cortez Family Voyage

National Geographic Expeditions

1145 17th Street NW

Washington, DC 20036

888-966-8687

nationalgeographicexpeditions.com

Tags: National Geographic, Geographic Expeditions, National Geographic Expeditions, Copper Canyon, 1145 17th, 1145 17th Street, 17th Street

Academic Summer Camps In Portland Oregon

Academic summer camps involve more than studying and reading books.

Academic summer camps are not just about reading and studying in classrooms. Portland, Oregon day camps and overnight camps for young people, ages 5 to 18, include indoor and outdoor programming that focuses on animals, marine life, chemistry, robotics, geology, computers, animation, movie-making, architecture and many other subjects. Academic camps involve hands-on learning and activities, guided by teachers, university students and professionals in their fields.

Campers are exposed to new ideas and knowledge as they participate in experiences that encourage exploration, discovery, creativity and meeting kids, teens and adults who share similar interests.

Education Soaring

Education Soaring is a coed academic day camp for children from kindergarten through eighth grade. Campers take classes in subjects such as history, technology, chemistry, robotics, math, architecture, digital movie-making, nature studies, the arts, entrepreneurship, cooking and website design. The full-day program begins at 8:00 a.m. and ends at 4:00 p.m. and extended care is available. Campers may sign up for full or half-days, depending on how many classes they choose.

Certified public and private school teachers, local professionals and expert volunteers from science, math and engineering institutions and businesses teach children who learn through hands-on exploration and creativity inside and outside the classrooms.

The camp's technology center's offerings include

one computer for every one to two students,

video and digital cameras, HD equipment and green screen.

Education Soaring's southwest Portland location is easily accessible by car and public transit, and students take frequent field trips to nearby colleges and universities, museums, local businesses, government offices and nature areas.

Education Soaring

3607 SW Corbett Ave.

Suite A

Portland, OR 97239

503-253-3486

educationsoaring.com

OMSI Summer Science

The Oregon Museum of Science and Industry (OMSI) offers overnight science camps for second through twelfth-graders all summer. Campers depart from the museum in Portland and head off on science-based adventures all over the Pacific Northwest. The camps last from two days to 2 weeks, after which campers return for pick-up at the OMSI building. According to the Regional Resource Catalog of the Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) Initiatives, OMSI "offers the most affordable comprehensive science camp experience on the West Coast."

OMSI also offers weeklong, full-day science classes for grades 2 through 8 and half-day science classes for kindergarten through first grade. This academic day camp is described as a place where "kids investigate, invent, experiment, interpret, strategize, discover and share what they learn with others."

Throughout the summer, the museum offers hundreds of classes in subjects including computers, marine science, dinosaurs, space, rocketry, engineering, animation and sports science.

Oregon Museum of Science and Industry

1945 SE Water Ave.

Portland, OR 97214

503-797-4661

omsi.edu

ASE Saturday Academy

Portland's Saturday Academy offers a variety of academic summer camps for fourth through twelfth grade students. Camps are held at venues throughout Portland, and most camps are one week long and run from 9:00 a.m. to 3:00 or 4:00 p.m. Camps include Animal Camp, Dragonfly Science Camp for Girls, Oceanography, Mechanical Engineering, Super Science Investigations, Robotics Academy, Medical Camp, Game Design Academy and Architectural Photography. Overnight camping is part of a few of Fossils camp, Lewis and Clark Discovery camp, Marine Campout and Volcanic campout.

Instructors are professionals in their fields and experts in the subjects they teach, as well as being people who enjoy and have experience working with children.

ASE Saturday Academy

830 SW Tenth Ave.

Suite 200

Portland, OR 97205

503-200-5861

saturdayacademy.org

Tags: Education Soaring, Saturday Academy, academic camp, camps involve, chemistry robotics, classes subjects

Find The Distance Of A Storm

Use the speed of sound to calculate the distance of a storm cloud from your location.

A storm usually brings with it plenty of lightning and thunder. If you have a stopwatch and a calculator, you can use the time delay between the flash of lightning and its accompanying thunderclap to calculate the distance of the storm with remarkable precision. Since the light from a lightning flash reaches you almost instantaneously (light travels over 185,000 miles per second), all you need to know is the speed of sound and the time it took the sound to reach your ears to determine the distance to the thunder cloud.

Instructions

1. Wait for a lightning flash to appear in the storm. Start your stopwatch the instant you see one.

2. Listen carefully for the thunderclap. Stop the stopwatch as soon as you hear it.

3. Convert the time between lightning flash and thunderclap from seconds to hours by dividing the seconds on the stopwatch by 3600 (the number of seconds in an hour) on your calculator. For example, if you counted 10 seconds between lightning and thunder, you would divide 10 by 3600 to get 0.00278.

4. Multiply the resulting number by 750 to determine the distance in miles to the storm cloud. The speed of sound at the altitude of storm clouds is about 750 miles per hour. The formula distance = rate x time tells you that multiplying the speed of sound by the time it took the sound to arrive gives you the distance to the source of the sound (in this case, the storm cloud where the lightning originated). If the time difference was 10 seconds, multiply 0.00278 by 750 to get the distance: 2.08 miles.

Tags: speed sound, lightning flash, storm cloud, between lightning, calculate distance

Collect Hammers

The history of hammers dates back to the 4th century, from which archaeologists have found evidence of men using crudely made hammers as a tool. Hammers were later made by blacksmiths, who put their own mark on some pieces, and eventually hammers were made by machine. Knowing the age and history of the tool helps you collect hammers.

Instructions

1. Join a collectors club specifically made for antique tool collectors, such as Early American Industries Association, Collectors of Rare and Familiar Tools Society or the Mid-West Tool Collectors Association. After paying the annual membership fee, you'll have access to the resources of the organization, including meets, shows and auctions only open to members.

2. Decide on the era or time frame you want to collect hammers from. Collectors typically base their collection on a specific type of frames created during a certain point in time. Some focus on early hammers created by blacksmiths working during the 19th century, while others prefer machine made hammers from the early 20th century.

3. Look for identifying marks on the hammer or any signs of the manufacturer. Blacksmiths usually marked pieces created in their shop, with either a symbol unique to their shop or by placing their name on the piece. You can also find names or a logo placed on the handle of the hammer, especially with wood handles.

4. Determine the type of tools you want to collect by focusing on a specific material. Most collectors are very particular about the hammers that they collect, only looking for a specific kind. Some focus on steel hammers with wood handles, while others prefer iron hammers. You'll also find hammers made with stainless steel and some older examples made from local rock or stone.

5. Attend antique tool shows and swap meets. These are the best places to find antique and vintage hammers to add to your collection. You also have the chance to meet other hammer collectors, find different antique tools and discover what kind of prices hammers are bringing on the secondary market.

Tags: also find, antique tool, hammers from, made hammers, others prefer, Some focus, their shop

Proof Your Home And Prepare Your Family For An Earthquake

All U.S. states are vulnerable to earthquakes.

The motto "be prepared" doesn't apply just to Boy Scouts; it's also a wise maxim to adopt for home and family safety. While it's possible to prepare for inclement weather or a hurricane bearing down on the coast, earthquakes typically happen with no warning, so the best way to survive an earthquake is to safeguard your home and to create a family action plan. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, in 2010, more than 8,000 earthquakes of a 2.0 magnitude or higher occurred in the U.S., making home and family safety of paramount importance. Does this Spark an idea?

Instructions

Preparation

1. Secure large, heavy shelves, furniture and hot water heaters to wall studs with safety straps or fasteners available at your local hardware store. Rearrange heavy objects on lower shelves.

2. Place china, crystal and fragile items in closed cabinetry so that they don't become flying missiles of glass that can injure someone.

3. Rehang any photographs, mirrors or wall art away from seating areas or beds.

4. Secure overhead fans and light fixtures.

5. Repair existing cracks in windows, walls and foundations.

6. Repair any known plumbing or electrical problems, as well as gas leaks.

7. Place poisons, insecticides, herbicides and flammable liquids on the bottom shelf of a cabinet that latches closed.

8. Hold a family meeting every year to create or revisit an earthquake-preparedness plan, and review safety measures and plans for each family member. Point out the safest furniture under which to take cover, doorways against which you should brace yourself, and safe areas outside to run to, if necessary.

9. Choose a family member or close friend who does not live in your area or state to be the safe point of contact for each family member. Preprogram the contact's phone number is into all cell phones.

10. Designate a safe place for scattered family members to meet that is central to everyone, and remind each other that you should only meet there if it is safe to do so.

11. Assemble a disaster relief kit that includes several days' worth of water and nonperishable food (don't forget food for babies and pets), a nonelectric can opener, medicine and clothing. Add blankets, a radio with extra batteries, a flashlight with extra batteries, extra cell phone batteries, a first aid kit, personal hygiene items, tools, toys, books, a camera with extra batteries, extra car keys and a telephone with the cord attached. In a resealable, waterproof bag you should place cash, and copies of important family documents, such as birth certificates, insurance policies, bank statements and passports.

During and After an Earthquake

12. Drop, cover and hold on to something sturdy, such as a table or heavy desk, if you are indoors when an earthquake hits. Remain calm and try to stay away from windows, glass or areas where small objects become airborne. If you are in a public place, try to walk quickly to a framed doorway and away from glass and moving objects. Brace yourself by holding out both arms against each side of the frame. If you can't get to a doorway or under a table, crouch on the floor and cover your head with your hands.

13. Run clear of buildings, power lines and large objects that could fall on you, if you are outside. Try to stand in an open area.

14. Maneuver your car to a safe area, stop, and turn it off if you are driving when the earthquake hits. Try to stop the car where there are no buildings, overpasses or power lines that could fall on your car.

15. Vacate an unsafe area for safer ground after the earthquake is over. Remember that there will likely be strong aftershocks.

16. Call 9-1-1 if you, or anyone around you, is injured, and don't drive anywhere, so the streets can remain clear for emergency vehicles.

17.Contact family members, as well as the designated out-of-town contact, to let them know you are safe.

18. Retrieve your disaster supply kit, if possible, and turn on the radio to find out any important instructions or information from local emergency management systems or the police.

19. Check for any damage to your home or foundation, if it is safe to do so.

20. Leave a written message on your front door if you go to another location, alerting family and friends to the fact that you are fine and where you will be.

Tags: away from, extra batteries, family member, with extra, with extra batteries

Classification Of Chert Sedimentary Rocks

American Indian stone artifacts are often made of chert.

Chert is one the major sedimentary rock types; it occurs as a common surface rock and is a major component of gravel beds and bars in rivers and streams. Chert is left behind after dolomite erodes away into soil. American Indians preferred the hard but easily chipped stone in their manufacture of arrowheads, knives, spear blades, and tools. It was also used in the firing mechanisms of flintlock rifles.

Sedimentary Rock

Rocks are classified by geologists according to how they were formed; chert is a type of sedimentary rock. The many different processes that formed sedimentary stone complicates their classification, but the main categories of sedimentary rock are clastic or siliciclastic rock, biochemical rocks and chemical rocks. Chert, rock salt and gypsum are categorized as chemical rocks formed in association with marine environments. The chief component of sedimentary chert is silicon dioxide (SiO2).

Formation

Chert falls into the category of siliceous chemical rock made of the compressed skeletal remains of microscopic marine organisms. The shells of diatoms, radiolarians, glass sponges and flagellates fall to the ocean bottom to set the stage for chert formation. Chert isn't classified as a biochemical rock like coal, as it forms by the chemical recrystallization of silica into chert. Chert is made when seawater evaporates, causing the dissolved mineral silicon dioxide to precipitate into solid form.

Chert Properties

Chert is classified as a microcrystalline variety of quartz like chalcedony, agate and jasper; microcrystalline quartz contains microscopic, highly compacted crystals. Some geologists classify chert as a cryptocrystalline species of quartz. Chert is extremely weather-resistant and splits in glass-like conchoidal fractures along fault lines in the stone. It's usually white or light gray, but is found in a range of colors from red, yellow, brown and tan to dark gray. Its colors come from chemicals and minerals, such as iron oxide, in the sediment surrounding the chert.

Chert Types

Chert is classified into two major varieties -- nodular chert and bedded chert. Bedded chert is composed of layers of the stone interbedded with shale. Nodular chert grows within a softer sediment matrix of limestone or dolomite that erodes away over time. The nodules form by a process called diagenesis that involves the migration of silica to solidify sediment into rock. Chert nodules are solid-colored or banded with different colors. Deep red chert is called jasper, while high quality, dark-colored chert is known as flint.

Tags: chert Chert, Chert classified, chemical rocks, erodes away, sedimentary rock, silicon dioxide

Geology Facts On Neptune

Neptune's exterior

Neptune, the eighth planet from the sun, is a blue-green gas giant with a number of satellites. Since its discovery in 1846, information has been gathered on it within the field of planetary geology, and new discoveries are being made about it today.

Size

Neptune is 30,775 miles across and is 17.22 times larger than Earth.

Atmosphere and Mantle

Neptune's atmosphere is made of helium, hydrogen and methane gas. Its mantle (10 to 15 times larger than Earth's mantle) is made of water, methane ices and ammonia. Neptune's atmosphere and mantle blend into each other.

As with Jupiter, Neptune has storm spots in its surface.

Core

Neptune's core is 1.2 times larger than the earth's diameter, and is made of nickel, silicates and iron.

Rings

Neptune's ring system includes three rings formed of dust and rocks, and are (in order of extending away from the planet) Galle, Le Verrier, Lassell, Arago, Galatea and Adams.

Moons

Neptune has 13 moons made of rock and ice. The names of the moons are, in order extending away from Neptune: Naiad, Thalassa, Despina, Galatea, Larissa, Proteus, Triton, Nereid, Halimede, Sao, Laomedeia, Psamathe and Neso.

Naiad, Thalassa, Despina and Galatea orbit inside Neptune's rings.

Considerations

Neptune receives less heat from the sun than Uranus, the seventh planet from the sun, but generates approximately the same amount of heat. This indicates a central heat source.

Tags: larger than, times larger, times larger than, away from, Despina Galatea, extending away

Yellowstone'S Volcano Information

Yellowstone's Volcano Information

It is the mixture of wildness and serenity that brings thousands of visitors to Yellowstone National Park year after year. But under the feet of the free-roaming wildlife, hikers, sightseers, picnickers and campers lies a deadly instability that has the potential to cause mass destruction and the extinction of life on Earth. According to UnMuseum.org, just four miles below the gorgeous landscapes of Yellowstone lies the magma chamber of a sleeping supervolcano that is approximately 40 miles wide, one that presents an imminent threat to life as we know it.

Supervolcano

The term "supervolcano" refers to volcanoes that have had large scale eruptions in the past. Supervolcanoes are not like ordinary volcanoes that form a hole in the earth when pressure builds; erupt with magma, spew lava and form a cone-shaped mountain peak. Supervolcanoes have no mountain peak, and no point of origin that marks eruption. They essentially continue to build up magma (molten rock) and pressure under the Earth's crust until they can no longer be contained.

Historic Eruptions

Scientists estimate that the last eruption at Yellowstone was a small scale, rhyolitic (slow moving and silica based) episode which happened approximately 70 thousand years ago. However, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) reports that approximately 640 thousand years ago, the supervolcano of Yellowstone erupted on a much larger scale forming a massive crater. But the largest eruption that took place in Yellowstone history happened close to two million years ago; forming an enormous crater comparable in size to the state of Rhode Island.

The Caldera

The crater that was formed by the Yellowstone eruptions is referred to as a caldera. Greg Brown of the Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana, explains that the caldera was formed when the supervolcano erupted and the earth around it collapsed. As more and more magma was spewed from the supervolcano, the more the earth surrounding it sunk; causing a caldera 24 by 47 miles in circumference. The silica rock that covered the caldera was eventually transformed into a hardy green landscape of lodgepole pines, fire-weed and pine grasses. The landscape was further enhanced by the development of breathtaking waterfalls, streams, lakes and wildlife.

Hot Springs, Fumaroles and Mud Pots

Yellowstone Association.org reveals that the supervolcano that lies below the park is responsible for the geothermal (earth heated) hot springs, fumaroles and mud pots that are located throughout Yellowstone National Park. The hot springs that rest above the supervolcano of Yellowstone contain bacteria, fungus and algae. They are extremely hot and unsafe for swimming, and visitors are urged to refrain from getting too close because the ground can be unstable. The mud pots are boiling pools of volcanic ash, earth and iron with a density that changes with the seasons. Fumaroles are vents that come out of the earth that emit steam and gases. They are a result of boiling groundwater that is so hot that it evaporates before it ever gets to the surface.

Geysers

A geyser is a geological feature of Yellowstone National Park that is directly related to the supervolcanic activity underneath the earth. When it rains or snows, the water soaks into the earth and becomes heated at an incredibly high temperature that can peak at about 400 degrees F. Geology.com explains that the underground pressure causes the boiling water to rise above any new groundwater that accumulates; forcing it back to the surface to erupt in a tremendous burst of hot water and steam. Old Faithful is the most famous geyser in Yellowstone National Park but, contrary to popular belief, not the tallest geyser. The Steamboat geyser has Old Faithful beat, dispensing approximately 100 thousand gallons of water per eruption compared to Old Faithful's estimated 8,400-gallon eruptions.

Wide-Scale Destruction

A full-blown eruption of the Yellowstone supervolcano would cause nothing less than wide-scale destruction. The national park that stands today would become non-existent, along with all of the residential communities that lie on the outskirts of the park. The Discovery Channel explains that the force of the supervolcano would spew dangerous ash, containing minute glass-like particles, along the West Coast and the entire Midwest region of the United States. A Yellowstone eruption would also affect the weather, causing worldwide weather changes that would fill the air with dust and toxic gases. The effect on humans would be catastrophic, and millions would succumb to the environmental disaster.

Tags: Yellowstone National, Yellowstone National Park, approximately thousand, explains that, National Park, Yellowstone Volcano Information, approximately thousand years

Archeological Dating Techniques

Artifacts are dated through specific archaeological techniques.

Dating is one of the fundamental practices in archaeology. By developing a database of readings of various areas, archaeologists can cross-identify patterns in the makeup of soil and other materials. By comparing tree growth patterns, natural disasters or artifacts, archaeologists can more accurately determine the order, and approximate date, of materials.

Superposition

The Law of Superposition identifies that younger strata, or layers, are deposited above older strata. This is only possible during normal conditions. For example, an earthquake could disturb the strata by depositing older material on top of the younger material. Another possibility is the deposition of soot over rock during high rainfall. Superposition is particularly useful when studying soil layers. This line of study is the most fundamental ways for archaeologists to study the relative ages of materials.

Cross-Dating

Cross-dating uses the consistencies in the superposition analysis to compare the time composition of various surfaces in the ground. For example, samples are taken from sites five miles apart. Each sample contains a layer of lava. With the use of cross-dating, archeologists can line up samples from different sites to determine the order of events. This method can be used, for example, to assess whether the lava from a volcano reached a certain point.

Radiocarbon Dating

Radiocarbon, also called Carbon-14, dating is a widely used and well-known dating method of organisms. Developed in 1949, the method added a valuable tool for archaeologists. The method measures the amount of C-14 that has decayed on the sample. Scientists have identified the decay rate and can therefore determine approximately how much time has passed since the organism died. The method does have its drawbacks: for example, the size of the sample needs to be large enough to go through a purification and distillation process. This removes some of the matter, including C-14.

Dendrochronology

Also referred to as tree-ring dating, dendrochronology helps give a relatively accurate read of the date. Rings found in areas with similar weather conditions can be compared. The rings tell the archeologist the variations in rainfall and seasons. The same species of tree are the only ones that can be compared for full accuracy. However, a relatively accurate read can be attained from different species of trees by analyzing the distance between rings; this is due to rainfall trends. Not all trees have distinctive seasonal patterns.

Tags: accurate read, determine order, from different, relatively accurate, relatively accurate read

The Best Places To Dig For Quartz Crystals In Arkansas

Plan your next dig-your-own Arkansas quartz crystal vacation.

Dig-your-own quartz sites allow rock enthusiasts, as well as adventurers, to spend the day digging for quartz in Arkansas, which has the largest deposits of quartz in the United States. According to Arkansas.com, "Geologists say Arkansas and Brazil have the best quality quartz in the world...tourists from all over the world head for the Hot Springs and Mount Ida area to go prospecting in the abundant Quartz Crystal deposits of the Ouachitas.." Prior to starting your mining quest with your friends and family, do your homework to ensure a pleasant experience. Certain digging sites do not allow children or provide an outhouse (bathroom). Group minimums are often imposed and will often charge a fee per pound of your discovered quartz.

Gee and Dee Quartz Crystal Mine

This family operated business is ranked as one of the best experiences among travelers. Unlike most digging sites, the Gee and Dee Quartz Mine, north of Mount Ida, allows you and your family, which includes children, to dig in the mine walls and find crystal pockets as opposed to digging in the tailings, which already have been high graded. The travelers are usually greeted by Dee upon arrival at their home which is your adventure's starting point. The couple will spend the day digging with your family, as well as guide you to find quartz. There is also an outhouse with running water in the digging area. Although you will most likely not be able to wear your digging clothes any longer, travelers walk away with great memories and their quartz findings.

Gee and Dee Quartz Mine

4764 Highway 27 N

Story, Arkansas 71970

970-867-4561

Arrowhead Quartz Crystal Mine

Ten minutes from Mount Ida and located in the Crystal Mountains is the Arrowhead Quartz Crystal Mine. Customer service is one of the main concerns for Matt (owner) and Brian to offer. You are taken to the digging site and safety precautions and tips are shared with you and your family to ensure an enjoyable experience. The Arrowhead Quartz Mine also won 9 out of 10 place finishes in the cluster and points division during the 2008 World Championship of Quartz Crystal Dig, which is held every year the second weekend in October.

Arrowhead Quartz Crystal Mine

Owley Road

Mount Ida, Arkansas

870-326-4443

arrowheadcrystals.com

Sweet Surrender Quartz Crystal Mine

North of Mount Ida is the Sweet Surrender Quartz Crystal Mine, which is a commercial operational mine. You will be given a safety lesson and will also be told where you can and cannot dig. According to Rockhoundingar.com "...the best and showiest pieces can be found at the mines." The Sweet Surrender website encourages you to call Becky directly prior to your trip with any digging questions. Becky offers her knowledge as part of the customer service and also has a wealth of information regarding the metaphysical meanings pertaining to the quartz crystals. Travelers walk away with buckets of crystals and great memories.

Sweet Surrender Quartz Crystal Mine

2806 Highway 27 N

Story, Arkansas 71970

870-867-7014

870-867-0104

870-867-7075

sweetsurrendercrystals.com

Tags: Crystal Mine, Quartz Crystal Mine, Quartz Crystal, Arrowhead Quartz, Quartz Crystal

Paleozoic Plant & Animal Life

Trilobites lasted the entire 300 million years of the Paleozoic Period.

The Paleozoic Period lasted from 542 million to 251 million years ago and covered six separate geological ages. Before this time, single-celled organisms and invertebrates had long dominated the Earth. But during the Paleozoic, vertebrates bloomed, and the ancestors of dinosaurs and mammals appeared. The land was filled by insects, tetrapods and plants. The geological order beneath the surface of the Earth is witness to the systematic evolution of species during this time.

Cambrian

The Cambrian age lasted between 542 and 488 million years ago. This period is associated with the great flourishing of diverse life. The most complex life before the Cambrian consisted of sponges, worms, cnidaria (like jellyfish) and multi-cellular colonies, but over a span of tens of millions of years, organisms with hard parts and more complex body plans began to flourish. The brachiopod with its hinged, clam-like shell evolved in the Cambrian and still lives on today as 300 separate species. Edrioasteroids (related to modern starfish and sand dollars), nautiloids (early cephalopods), gastropods (snails and slugs), opabinia (lobed animal with a fan-shaped tail and a long proboscis appendage), arthropod trilobites and early crustaceans also appeared during this time.

Ordovician

The Ordovician age lasted between 488 and 443 million years ago. Most invertebrates like mollusks and cephalopods continued to evolve over millions of years. Coral and graptolites (an early and important planktonic life) proliferated across the Earth. Creatures like the haikouichthys, a cartilage-filled precursor to fish that developed in the Cambrian, gave way to jawless armored fish called ostracoderm in the Ordovician that probably filtered food from the seabed. The arthropod crabs evolved in freshwater and shallow lagoons. Early plants became some of the first multicellular life forms besides fungi to colonize land.

Silurian

The Silurian lasted between 443 and 416 million years ago. Fish diversified during the Silurian, evolving into jawed fish like the acanthodians. The water also became home to eurypterids (sea scorpions) and leaches. Invertebrates like brachiopods, mollusks, trilobites and hederellids (tubular, colonial animals) continued to thrive. On land, early arthropod insects began to stake out territory. Leafless plants became more prevalent, including the first signs of vascular plants like cooksonia in the middle Silurian. Nascent leafed and stemmed plants that still used spores such as baragwanathia developed late in the Silurian.

Devonian

The Devonian lasted between 416 and 359 million years ago. Fearsome fish like the 10-meter long dunkleosteus and the early shark cladoselache ruled the waters. Around the early to middle Devonian, the first four-limbed tetrapods appeared on land: eusthenopteron (a lobe-finned fish), panderichthys, tiktaalik and ichthyostega (a limbed tetrapod) are all related to modern tetrapods. Early amphibians like labyrinthodontia evolved from these first tetrapods. During the middle to very late Devonian, ferns, horsetails and seeded plants such as early trees began to appear, turning the land lush and green.

Carboniferous

The Carboniferous age lasted between 359 and 299 million years ago. The period is better known as the Mississippian (early Carboniferous) and Pennsylvanian (late Carboniferous). In the water, sharks and crustaceans diversified across the globe. Plants flourished, and the increased levels of oxygen in the atmosphere led directly to the proliferation of very large winged insects, centipedes and arachnids. While ancient amphibians were still evolving, the first reptiles had already appeared. These amniotes were known for their specially adapted eggs. Early reptiles diverged quickly into anapsids (now modern turtles and tortoises), euryapsids (ancient marine reptiles like plesiosaurs), synapsids (which led to modern mammals), and diapsids (which led to all other reptiles and birds).

Permian

The final period of the Paleozcoic was the Permian, which lasted between 299 and 251 million years ago. By this time, ammonoids, which are shelled cephalopods, early cockroaches, and cone-bearing conifers were beginning to develop. The land was being dominated by archosaurs, from which dinosaurs eventually evolved, and therapsids and cynodonts that would eventually give rise to mammals. The cynodonts had many reptile characteristics, but they also had mammal-like skulls with differentiated teeth, bulging braincases, and robust jaw musculature, galvanized by the evolution of jaw bones that had become part of the ear. Now that plants had covered the Earth, herbivores began to expand rapidly during this period. By the end of the Permian, trilobites and many ancient animals had gone extinct.

Tags: million years, between million, between million years, lasted between, lasted between million

What Are The Walls Of Jericho

Tennessee's Bear Hollow Mountain Wildlife Management Area (WMA) consists of approximately 8,943 acres in which the Walls of Jericho is located. Contiguous to the Bear Hollow Mountain WMA is the Skyline WMA located in Alabama for a total acreage of 21,453. These lands, acquired by The Nature Conservancy, were once the hunting grounds of Davy Crockett. Does this Spark an idea?

History

In the 1940's Texas oil magnate Harry Lee Carter originally owned the Walls of Jericho, acquired through a purchase of 60,000 acres in Franklin County, Tennessee and Jackson County, Alabama. Until 1977 the property was managed through the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency (TWRA) and open to the public for recreational use. The Nature Conservancy subsequently acquired the acreage in both Tennessee and Alabama, totaling approximately 21,453 acres including the Walls of Jericho. The Tennessee tract was transferred to the TWRA in 2006 and renamed the Bear Hollow Mountain WMA with the Walls of Jericho contained therein. The 750 acres of the Walls of Jericho and the surrounding Turkey Creek basin area is co-managed by the State Natural Areas Program of the Tennessee Department of Environment & Conservation. The Nature Conservancy opened the Walls of Jericho and surrounding area to the public after its acquisition.

Natural Formation

The Walls of Jericho is a natural geological limestone formation shaped like a large bowl similar to an amphitheater. Bowling ball size holes are embedded in the limestone forming water spouts and drips, creating an impressive water feature. Located on the Turkey Creek, the walls of the natural amphitheater rise to 200 feet with the waters of the creek draining through these holes. Turkey Creek may have played a part as a geological force in the formation of the Walls of Jericho.

Biological Significance

The Turkey Creek drainage bisects the natural area from north to south. By doing so, it supports the endangered limerock arrowwood or viburnum bracteatum, a rare species. Downstream from Turkey Creek is the Upper Paint Rock River watershed which is protected by the creek. The Paint Rock River is the natural habitat of numerous rare fish species and mussels.

Tags: Walls Jericho, Turkey Creek, Bear Hollow, Bear Hollow Mountain, Hollow Mountain

Physical Science Games For Kids

Well-designed computer games can help kids enjoy science.

Educational games are a fun and practical tool for physical science teachers. Games can help kids get involved in science by providing a context where it is meaningful for them. Important physical science principles such as speed, velocity, chemical and physical change and the characteristics of materials can be taught effectively through games to get children excited about learning how the world works.

Construction Games

Science construction games allow children to build, or demolish, and practice with the principles of gravity, mechanics and three-dimensional space. An example of a well-designed science construction game is Disney's Trash Tower based on the popular animation film Wall-E. Kids are taught the basics of gravity, mechanics and three-dimensional space by helping Wall-E demolish his trash tower without electrocuting his pet cockroach.

Activity Games

Science exercises and activities can be made into a game by designing an interesting setting and theme that attracts the attention of kids. Even practical exercises like converting units, learning scientific facts and research projects can be turned into games with a little imagination. Take for example NASA's Astro Matic 3000 activity game. This activity teaches kids calculate their weight on different planets in the solar system, the standard metric system units and do simple unit conversions.

Science Arcade Games

Science arcade games combine the fun and fast-paced style of traditional arcade games with scientific subjects to help children learn and remember important scientific facts and concepts. For instance, you can Introduce kids to chemistry with Dog Pound 3, an arcade-style game created by PBS. Dog Pound 3 helps children understand each element is made of a different type of atom and how these elements are organized in the periodic table by playing a classic hammer arcade game.

Science Project Games

Science projects can be turned into games with a little work and imagination. Simply provide kids with an interesting challenge and the tools they need to accomplish it and kids' innate curiosity will do the rest. Try, for example, When Pigs Fly, a science project game created by the U.S Mint to teach children how planes fly in commemoration of the centennial of the Wright brothers first flight. In this game kids learn about the physics of flight by building their own plane and seeing how far it will fly.

Tags: Games Science, games with, game created, games with little, gravity mechanics

Create Virtual Flash Cards

Create Virtual Flash Cards

Do all of your studying online by creating virtual flash cards. There are several websites that offer free, online study spaces where you can customize cards for the specific topics you are studying. Create different sets and store them in your online account. Flip through them with the click of your mouse on the "Flip Card" button at the bottom of the virtual card on the screen or by a tap on your space bar.

Instructions

1. Open an account at The Flash Card Machine website. Opening an account is free, but you will have to enter your email address, a user name and a password. The Flash Card Machine will send you a verification email. Click on the link in the verification email to finish setting up your account.

2. Click on the link "Get Started Creating Flashcards." The Flash Card Machine website will direct you to a log-in page. Type in your user name and password.

3. Click on the button "Create a New Flashcard Set." The Flash Card Machine will prompt you to fill out several form fields, such as giving your card set a title and picking a font style. Fill out and select the appropriate information and click the "Save Set Details" button.

4. Click the button "Quick Editor," which is the second button in the second row of buttons on the screen. You will see columns with empty form fields. In the left column, you can type a study question. In the right, you can type the answer. Click the "Save" button and two new empty form fields will appear. Then click the "Exit" button.

5. Click the "Start Study Session" button to begin your virtual flashcard review. To flip through the cards, simply press the space bar.

Tags: Card Machine, Flash Card, Flash Card Machine, form fields, button Click, Card Machine website, Card Machine will

Why Is Gold Found In River Beds

Gravity has long been the prospector's friend.

Gold is found in riverbeds simply because the flow of water, over time, erodes mountains and carries minerals away in the form of flakes. Gold is found in riverbeds by prospectors because it is heavy, so the gold flakes will sink to the bottom of any pan in which river or stream water and sediment are mixed and swirled about.

Gravity as an Ally

Gold is heavier than silver.

Specific gravity is the weight ratio of a material compared to the weight of the same volume of water. Specific gravity is temperature dependent, but given the density of water at 4 degrees Celsius, the specific gravity of gold is 19.3.

For purposes of comparison: The specific gravity of silver at the same temperature is 10.5; copper is 8.9. Gold, in short, is heavy, and this fact means that gravity has always been a key ally in finding it.

Why It Is in the Stream

There's gold in them thar' lava streams!

A look at the geology behind the well-known gold-strike at Sutter's Mill in 1848, the catalyst of the "49-ers Gold Rush," gives some insight into why the gold is in the stream in the first place. An understanding of the geology of the location of gold around the planet's crust has to include examining volcanoes, plate tectonics and erosion. Volcanic activity can lift gold from deep inside the earth onto the surface as one of the elements in the lava flow. Scientists believe that between 400 million and 200 million years ago, a tectonic plate constituting sea floor, with volcanic islands and gold deposits, was pressing eastward. Meanwhile, the North American continent and its tectonic plate were moving westward.

California

The Sierra Nevadas are a source of gold.

The collision of the two plates created what we know as California, and created the mountains with their rich gold deposits. Of particular historical importance are the Sierra Nevada goldfields in the north and east of that state. The Feather and the American rivers both run through these gold-bearing mountains.

Erosion

From that point forward the geological part of the story is fairly simple. Flowing water is, over time, a very powerful force and can decompose rocks, all the while suspending within the water (if it is running with sufficient speed to prevent settling) the mineral grains or flakes formed by this decomposition.

The Chemistry of Erosion

The erosion caused by flowing water has a chemical, as well as a mechanical, element. Where the water is acidic, chemical reactions will separate the minerals suspended in the stream into their constituent elements.

A lot of things, then, may have happened to put the gold in the river.

Tags: found riverbeds, gold deposits, Gold found riverbeds, over time, Specific gravity, tectonic plate, water over

Find Ginseng In October In Missouri

Ginseng is prized in traditional and herbal medicine.

Ginseng is indigenous to eastern and central North America. Long used in Native American medicine, it is prized by herbalists today. Ginseng commands high prices and has been endangered by over-collecting. Digging and trading ginseng in Missouri is regulated. Harvesting, with the landowner's permission, is legal from September 1 through December 31. Harvesting ginseng on most state land is not permitted. A permit is required to remove ginseng for personal use from U.S. Forest Service land, and may be obtained from the Forest Service.

Instructions

Preparation

1. Study photographs in books and online to aid ginseng identification. Seek pictures of how ginseng looks at different stages of growth. Note particularly how it appears in fall in Missouri -- by October, it will be yellowing. Ensure you can distinguish young ginseng from poison ivy, because they are similar in appearance.

2. Finding Jack-in-the-pulpit plants can indicate likely places for ginseng.

Familiarize yourself with native Missouri "indicator plants," near which ginseng commonly grows, such as ash, elm, sugar maple, oak, hickory, rattlesnake fern, Jack-in-the-pulpit, spleenwort, May apple and wild ginger. Read the regulations on harvesting ginseng in Missouri.

3. Select mature hardwood forest giving heavy shade and with damp, yet well-drained soil. Ensure that if you do not own this woodland, you obtain permission from the landowner.

The Hunt

4. Focus your search on north and east-facing slopes. Look for Missouri native "indicator plants." Seek ginseng plants among grapevines and shady thickets.

5. Look for the bright red berries of mature ginseng. Watch also for plants with yellow leaves. After fruiting, plants concentrate a growth spurt into the root, and drooping, yellow leaves signify that a plant has completed root growth.

6. Scrape away the leaves from around the base of the ginseng plant to expose the root top. Determine which way the root is growing. Follow the root, scraping to expose the full extent, including forks. Scrape or dig carefully under and around it, taking care to avoid damage.

7. Follow Missouri regulations governing ginseng harvest. Collect ginseng only from areas where several large plants are growing. Leave some plants untouched. Do not harvest plants that have not yet produced ripe berries. Dig only plants with at least three separate flowering prongs, often called "three-prong ginseng." Keep this mature foliage attached to the root in case of inspection by law enforcement -- this is a legal requirement. Do not remove this foliage until you are home.

8. Examine the roots you find. Count the bud scars on the root -- they will equal one per year of life. Re-plant roots under five years of age (fewer than five scars). Plant all seeds from the plants you dig. Squeeze the seeds from the ripe berries, and then plant them one half-inch deep and 6 inches apart. Ensure you plant all within 100 feet of the parent plant -- ginseng is "particular" about its growing conditions.

Tags: Forest Service, from Forest, from Forest Service, ginseng Missouri, indicator plants, plants with

Parts Of The Volcano

There are two main types of volcanoes: composite and shield.

There are two main types of volcanoes. The first, called a shield volcano, is usually found in the middle of tectonic plates; examples include volcanic island chains like Hawaii. The second type of volcano is called a composite volcano; these are the cone-shaped volcanoes most people think of when they imagine a volcano, and they are typically found in subduction zones. While there are different kinds of volcanoes, there are several basic physical features that most have in common.

Magma Chamber

The magma chamber is a pool of molten rock that sits beneath the Earth's crust. Volcanic eruptions occur when the magma, which is less dense than the surrounding mantle, reaches the surface of the Earth's crust.

Lava

Lava is the liquid rock that is ejected from a volcano during an eruption. The lava flows out at extremely high temperatures that exceed 700 degrees Celsius, and once it cools, it hardens into igneous rock.

Main Vent

This vent, also called a conduit, is the place where the magma reaches the surface of the Earth's crust. The conical shape of the volcano forms around the main vent as ash, rock and other debris settles and builds up after a volcanic eruption.

Crater

The vents of a volcano are located at the bottom of its crater, which is a gaping, circular depression that resembles a hole.

Pyroclastic Flow

A pyroclastic flow describes the rapidly-moving gases and molten rock that are expelled during volcanic eruptions, and which travel down the volcano at speeds that can reach up to 700 km/hour.

Ash Cloud

An ash cloud mushrooms out above the volcano during eruptions and is comprised of small bits of rock and debris. These clouds can disperse over impressive spans of land; the tiny particles can be harmful to aircraft, so larger volcanic eruptions can immensely disrupt air travel.

Volcanic Bombs

Volcanic bombs are large, solidified chunks of lava that harden while they are still flying through the air.

Secondary Vent

Larger volcanoes often have secondary vents, which are different outlets for magma, gas and debris aside from the large outlet provided by the main vent. These vents can form secondary cones.

Sills and Dikes

A sill is a horizontal crack in a volcano that houses hardened magma. Dikes, on the other hand, are vertical cracks in a volcano that also contain hardened magma.

Tags: Earth crust, rock that, hardened magma, main types, main types volcanoes, main vent

The Similarities Of Earth & Mars

Olympus Mons, the tallest volcano in the solar system, rises more than 75,000 feet from the Martian surface.

Although Earth and Mars may appear at first glance to be very different, closer inspection reveals a number of important similarities in structure, atmosphere and the natural forces that shape their landforms. Because of these similarities, scientists are studying Mars to find out what light it can shed on Earth's past and future.

Atmospheric Composition

Earth and Mars both have atmospheres consisting of oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. However, the concentrations of each gas are very different; for instance, carbon dioxide makes up roughly 95 percent of Mars' atmosphere, and almost .04 percent of Earth's. As such, Mars' atmosphere resembles that of Earth approximately 1 billion years ago. According to NASA scientists, it may be possible to "terraform" the Martian atmosphere to produce earthlike conditions.

Seasons and Days

Earth and Mars each have four distinct seasons, due to their similar tilt (Earth has a tilt of 23.4 degrees, while Mars has a tilt of 25.2 degrees). The length of a day is also similar on both planets: A Martian day lasts 24 hours and 39 minutes.

Magnetic Fields

Evidence indicates that early in its history, Mars had an active magnetic field. This field would have shielded Mars from cosmic radiation, and may even have enabled it to have a relatively earthlike environment. Furthermore, it appears that Mars' magnetic field reversed periodically, just as Earth's does.

Polar Ice Caps

Like Earth, Mars has large polar ice caps, the size of which varies by season. Mars' northern ice cap consists primarily of water, while the southern cap is a mixture of water and carbon dioxide.

Planetary Structure

Earth and Mars have similar geological structures. Both planets feature hard crusts and dense iron cores, and they also contain the same elements (though in different amounts). Although Earth is larger than Mars, they both have approximately 92,000,000 square miles of landmass. In other words, the total surface area of Mars is roughly equivalent to the surface area of Earth's continents.

Tectonics

Tectonic forces may have played an important role in shaping Mars during its first 500 million years. While Mars' southern hemisphere appears untouched by major tectonic events, its northern hemisphere comprises much younger rocks. Scientists are still studying and debating the exact nature of the tectonic forces at work on Mars.

Volcanism

Mars has several enormous shield volcanoes. These volcanoes are similar to Hawaiian volcanoes, in that they produce basaltic lava, but are much larger. Mars shows evidence of volcanic activity as recent as a few million years ago, and magma flows under the planet's surface still appear to be shaping its surface features.

Weathering

Although Mars' atmosphere is much thinner than Earth's, wind erosion appears to be a major force in shaping the planet's surface features. Atmospheric circulation is strong enough to create massive dust storms, which scour and erode Martian soil and rock formations. The existence of large sand dunes, particularly around the poles, is one result of this process.

Water

Evidence on the surface of Mars indicates the planet once had freely flowing water like Earth. This evidence includes river valleys, lakebeds, glacial deposits and indications of massive floods. Much of the planet's water is now frozen in its polar ice caps; scientists are still trying to determine where the rest of it went, and why.

Tags: Earth Mars, carbon dioxide, Mars atmosphere, Although Earth, both have, magnetic field, million years

How Does The Ged Test Work

How Does the GED Test Work?

How Does the GED Test Work?

With the number of jobs that now require applicants to have a high school education, adults who do not have a diploma often face difficulties finding an employer. Fortunately, the General Education Development test (GED) provides an opportunity for these individuals to earn their high school degree. Designed to measure the person's skills in five crucial subjects--language arts, social studies, science, reading and math--the test covers the same materials taught in a traditional high school curriculum. To ensure fairness and accuracy, the GED is regularly evaluated by high school teachers, adult educators and test specialists. Additionally, the GED is then compared to the graduation exam that is given to high school seniors The creators of the GED test analyze the results of a random sampling of graduating seniors to determine appropriate GED scores (i.e., what score constitutes a passing grade). This comparison is done to ensure that the GED accurately measures the materials covered in high school.

What's on the GED?

Although the GED focuses on subjects taught in high school, the test is actually designed to measure real-life skills. Rather than asking trivial facts or formulas, the questions found on the GED evaluate the person's critical thinking, reasoning and communications skills. The language arts portion is a two-part writing test that evaluates the tester's knowledge of grammar and sentence structure. In the first portion, the user reads a small passage and is then asked to correct any mistakes he or she notices. In section two, the tester is required to write an essay on an assigned topic. The topics are opinion-based and do not require any special knowledge. Next, the social studies portion consists of multiple-choice questions regarding American history, economics or civics. The science portion of the GED analyzes the tester's ability to read tables, graphs, charts and diagrams. Once again, it consists of multiple-choice questions and covers such topics as earth science, physical science and geology. In the reading portion, the tester must read two short passages and then respond to questions that analyze the reader's comprehension of the text. Finally, the math section consists of two parts. In the first portion, users may use a calculator, while in the second portion, no calculators are allowed. Both portions measure the taker's ability to analyze data and apply mathematical concepts such as geometry and algebra.

How Do You Take the GED?

Although the GED eligibility requirements differ in each state, all applicants must be at least 16 years of age. In addition, the person may not currently be enrolled in high school and may not already have a high school diploma. If the person does meet her state's requirements, the next step is to register to take the GED. The American Council on Education (ACE) provides listings of all GED testing centers in the U.S. and also offers information on prepare for the exam. Once the applicant has found a testing center, she should contact the office to learn the specific dates and times that the GED is administered. In order to register for a specific time slot, she must verify her identity by showing a valid passport, military ID or driver's license. Some states may also require GED applicants to complete a practice test beforehand. Additionally, depending on the location, a fee may be required. After taking the test, scores are received within 6 to 8 weeks. If the tester fails a portion or portions of the GED, she only needs to retake those specific sections. Once the tester has passed the GED, then she is considered to have a high school diploma.

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List Of Jobs In Geography

Geography is one of the oldest academic disciplines in the world, dating back 2,300 years to ancient Greece.

Geography is a broad, multi-faceted field in which degree-holders can find a wide variety of jobs. Many large corporations employ geographers to work in areas such as store site location, geographic patterns of sales trends, and map production. Trained geographers can also find employment in the government sector, as there are several agencies, such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the United States Geological Survey and the Army Corps of Engineers, which use geographic techniques to a large extent. While the following list is not exhaustive, it does provide descriptions of the broader areas in which geographers can find work.

Cartography and Geographic Information Systems Cartographer

Cartographers are trained in the art and science of producing maps. Several companies in the United States employ cartographers to research location information, design, and construct maps for many uses such as navigation, population analysis, and politics. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are computer applications used to perform spatial analysis on spatial data. A GIS technician may perform tasks closely related to a cartographer, but are also involved in maintaining databases of spatial information, and creating web-based map services.

Economic Geographer

Economic geographers are responsible for analyzing and understanding the spatial concepts involved in retail services, trade, agriculture, and industry. Geographers in this field may perform such tasks as determining optimal site locations for new retail stores, analyzing patterns of purchasing activity, and analyzing transportation and shipping networks.

Environmental Geographer

Environmental geographers work in fields related to the study of the physical earth and the interaction between humans and their environment. Tasks related to phenomena such as pollution, resource management, climate, and environmental change all require an understanding of the physical mechanisms that operate on our planet. Many environmental geographers (also referred to as physical geographers) find employment in the government sector, such as with the National Weather Service, The Department of Agriculture, or the Geography Division of the United States Census Bureau.

Geography Teacher

Understanding the physical and cultural processes at work in our world are important to a well-rounded education. Geography teachers instruct students from kindergarten through college on such topics as regional, world geography, environmental, human and cultural geography. Geography professors at the college level usually teach these same courses, but also instruct students in their own area of expertise as well as the focus of the department curriculum.

Remote Sensor

The sub-discipline of geography referred to as remote sensing is concerned with collecting and analyzing information about the earth and the atmosphere through the use of satellites. Remote sensing technicians used satellite-based imagery to observe such phenomena as vegetation change, weather, and ocean, river and other water-based processes. Government agencies that employ remote sensing techniques include the Central Intelligence Agenc, The Department of State and the Department of Defense.

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Projects On The Pressure Inside A Volcano

Hot magma boils and escapes the Earth through volcanoes.

Volcanoes are giant pressure cookers. Pressure created by the mixture of water and plate movement underneath the Earth's crust forces magma to the surface. As this pressure increases, magma explodes from the Earth's surface; this is what creates a volcano. Some volcanoes remain active for years, while others go dormant for long stretches of time. Scientists can forecast when a major explosion is about to occur by measuring the mounting pressure below the Earth's surface.

Volcano Models

A miniature scale model of an active volcano will illustrate the effect of pressure on magma. These models can be constructed of any material that will respond to a pressurized environment. A simple volcano can be built out of a pile of mud. The mud is molded into a mountain shape. A hole is made through the center of the mountain, then baking soda, dish soap and red food coloring are added to the hole. Vinegar is the last ingredient added, because it will cause the volcano to bubble and begin its active state. A project using this method is accompanied by an explanation of volcanic pressure.

Volcano Forecasting

Volcano forecasting, just as with weather forecasting, is not an exact science. Scientists track the activity of volcanoes by measuring movement and pressure underneath the Earth's crust, but this movement can be unpredictable. This factor of unpredictability means that a geologist cannot precisely predict when a volcano will erupt. A project detailing the process a geologist uses to track the activity of a volcano will educate a student on an exciting field of science. Using a specific volcano as a model for the project, such as Mount St. Helen's in Washington State, will help focus the project.

Building Pressure

Before a volcano can erupt, pressure must build under specific circumstances. A project detailing the way pressure builds before the eruption of a volcano will enlighten an audience about the life beneath the surface of the Earth. This project is supported by the use of graphs and a presentation guiding your fellow students through the pressure cycle.

Dormant Volcanoes

Dormant volcanoes are currently not active, but they may become active again given the right circumstances. A project studying the pressure inside a dormant volcano and what would happen should the volcano suddenly become active will illustrate how quickly a change in pressure happens. This project also exhibits the movement of pressure systems and may lead to theories on cyclical pressure systems.

Global Warming and Volcanic Pressure

Global warming affects the movement of the tectonic plates. These plates are essential to the buildup of pressure underneath the Earth's surface. As the movement of these plates changes, so does the accumulation of pressure, which in turn affects the activity of volcanoes. A project presenting these changes is a timely investigation into current events in geology.

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