Schools Of Landcscape Design

Landscape architects design gardens, building grounds and outdoor spaces.

Landscape architects work to ensure that the environment of a park, outdoor space, or land surrounding a building is aesthetically pleasing. They work on diverse projects including parks, sports centers, schools, homes, office buildings and urban green spaces. While passion and skill are definite prerequisites to becoming a landscape architect, formal education and training provides prospective landscape architects with the foundation needed to implement professional design and execution.

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg is one of the top landscape architecture and design programs in the nation. In 2010, the American Society for Landscape Architects--which acts as an accreditation body--rated Virginia Tech's program the #1 undergraduate program and #2 master's program. Bachelor's degrees take the standard four years; master's degrees take two years for students with an undergraduate degree in landscape architecture and three years for those without. Students can expect intensive study in evolution of the American landscape; environment and natural systems; social and cultural landscape; land analysis; physical geology; and plant taxonomy; much of the curriculum includes studio and laboratory work. Virginia Tech offers internship and exchange programs on six continents and has an extensive network of domestic internship opportunities to ensure students get the hands-on experience they need. It also offers public school tuition which is especially beneficial to Virginia residents.

Texas A&M University

Texas A&M University in College Station has been teaching landscape architecture since 1913, making it the oldest landscape architecture school in its state. Although the field has changed considerably during that time, the university remains focused on preparing graduates for careers in private practice firms, landscape architecture, engineering, architecture, and public planning. The Best Colleges ranked Texas A&M the #2 landscape design program while the American Society of Landscape Architects ranked both its undergraduate and master's programs #8 in the nation. Texas A&M offers related degrees in land planning, urban development and urban and regional sciences. Texas residents can benefit from in-state tuition at this large, public university.

Ohio State University

Travel, seminars, hands-on experiences and the latest approaches to the field are points of focus at Ohio State University. The program strongly encourages students to make use of their summers to get supplemental and enriched experience outside the classroom, and has an established network of international exchanges and programs to foster that. In the classroom, students can expect core curriculum in landscape architecture survey, outlines of landscape architecture, basic design, landscape studio, design on the land, design communication, site planning and landscape plants. The Best Colleges ranked Ohio State #1 in the country while the American Society of Landscape Architects gave its undergraduate program a #9 ranking.

Cornell University

Cornell is the only Ivy League school that offers an undergraduate degree in landscape architecture. Located in Itaca, New York, Cornell has a landscape architecture program that's been around since 1904 and emphasizes conservation throughout its coursework. Cornell also offers undergraduate students opportunities to participate in research and teaching for credit. The Best Colleges ranked Cornell's landscape architecture program at #4 in the country while the American Society of Landscape Architects placed only the master's program in its top ten with a #9 ranking.

Tags: landscape architecture, American Society, American Society Landscape, Society Landscape, State University, Best Colleges, Best Colleges ranked

What Are The Six Natural Divisions Of Arkansas

Erosion has left striking rock formations throughout Arkansas.

Geographical features divide Arkansas into six natural regions. The southern and eastern areas of the state are lowlands, and highlands are located in the northwest. The natural formations of each region have influenced the development of communities and businesses. The geography of each of the natural divisions is tied to the economical success and hardships of Arkansas' cities throughout history.

Ozark Highlands

The Ozark Highlands are also known simply as the Ozarks. This region covers most of the northern border and a quarter of the western border. Scientists say the Ozarks' formation began millions of years ago during the Paleozoic Era, when Arkansas was covered by ocean. During collisions of land, the rock beneath the water's surface was forced upward. The result of this is seen today in the Ozarks' flat-top mountains. Limestone, shale and siltstone cover this area and make the soil rocky. Due to the rocky soil conditions and small plateau areas, this region provided few resources for agriculture.

Arkansas River Valley

The Arkansas River Valley sits directly south of the Ozarks. It has plenty of water and land suitable for agriculture. Scientists date the formation of the river valley to the Paleozoic Era, when rivers carried sediment into the area. The valley made transportation easy for both recreational and commercial uses. Because of the area's attractiveness, towns were quickly established. The valley today still grows in industry and population.

Ouachita Mountains

Directly below the Arkansas River Valley sits the Ouachita Mountains. This area consists of mountains covered with pine and oak trees. The vast amount of trees has provided the resources for a successful timber industry. Unlike the Ozarks, the Ouachita Mountain area supplied large valleys with rich soil. Agriculture was easily sustained here. Economic classes formed between those who lived and worked in the mountains and those settlers who profited greatly by farming.

The Coastal Plain

The Coastal Plain is the southernmost part of Arkansas. The area lies between the Ouachitas and the southern state border. The Red River provided earlier settlers with the resources for agriculture, mainly cotton farms. The majority of the the area is rich with pine trees. In time, settlers who maintained farms left agriculture for forestry. The amount of pine trees in the Coastal Plain support the timber industry locally and to the Ouachita Mountains.

Mississippi Alluvial Plain

The Mississippi Alluvial Plain is also known as the Delta region. This area covers one-third of Arkansas. It rests on most of the eastern border, from north to south. Within the Delta is the Grand Prairie, abundant with flowers and grass. The land was extremely fertile due to the rivers and flooding in the area. Settlers found rice cultivation successful in the Delta in the 1890s. By 1916, 100,000 acres of farmland were dedicated to producing just rice.

Crowley's Ridge

Crowley's Ridge is also known as Mississippi Valley Loess Plains. The term "loess" means "windblown soil." This type of soil is easily eroded and causes concern with any development of land. The ridge starts at the Delta's north border and continues south for 150 miles. Its height ranges from 200 to 300 feet. The ridge was formed by the Ohio and Mississippi rivers millions of years ago. Helena, Jonesboro and Forrest City were early settlements on the ridge.

Tags: also known, Arkansas River, Arkansas River Valley, Coastal Plain, Ouachita Mountains

States That Have Many Volcanoes

The islands of Hawaii are made from volcanic rock.

Many of the nearly 170 volcanoes in the United States are centered along the western seaboard of the nation, in the Cascade Range from British Columbia to California. They are also found in Hawaii and Alaska, which by far has the largest amount. The majority of the volcanoes in the U.S. are not considered to be high threat, as rated by the United States Geological Survey.

Alaska

Alaska is home to more than 130 of the nation's nearly 170 volcanoes, with 75 percent of all volcanoes that have erupted in the U.S. within the past 200 years. They are mostly located along the western Aleutian Arc, which creates what is known as the Ring of Fire. In 1912, volcanoes Novarupta and Katmai caused the largest eruption in the 20th century. The 1990s were an active time in Alaska, with Redoubt, Spurr, Akutan and Makushin all erupting between 1990 and 1995.

Hawaii

Hawaii may only have around 13 volcanoes, but those volcanoes are the islands. Hawaii is the only U.S. state that is completely composed of volcanic rock. The chain of islands are volcanoes that connect to the floor of the Pacific Ocean. Mauna Loa, located on the big island of Hawaii, is by far the largest, responsible for 85 percent of the state's land. It last erupted in 1984. The big island has six more volcanoes and the islands of Maui, Molokai and Oahu each have two.

Washington

Washington is home to hundreds of small, non-threatening basaltic volcanoes, but has only five major volcanoes. These are classified as composite volcanoes, and the U.S. houses 13 in the Cascade Range. The five that fall in Washington's borders are Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, Mount Adams, Mount Ranier and Mount St. Helens. Mount St. Helens, probably the best-known modern day volcano in the U.S., erupted on May 18, 1980, and was the most destructive in U.S. history, killing 57 people and causing $860 million in damage.

Oregon

Oregon also falls in the Cascade Range and is home to many small, ineffective volcanoes and five active volcanoes. The active volcanoes are Crater Lake, Newberry Caldera, Three Sister, Mount Jefferson and Mount Hood. Mount Hood is the farthest north in the state and falls in a rather active seismic region along with Mount St. Helens, just across the border in Washington. Despite its near-constant tiny rumbling activity, Mount Hood has not erupted since the 1790s.

California

California is home to six active volcanoes. The northern portion of the state is included in what makes up the southern tip of the Cascade Range. Three of California's volcanoes fall into this range. They are Medicine Lake, Mount Shasta and Lassen Peak. The Lassen Volcanic Complex, as it is known, is where the Cascade Range comes to an end. Mount Shasta erupted in 1786 and Lassen Peak in 1917. Three other volcanoes, Clear Lake, Long Valley and Coso, are located farther south in California.

Tags: Cascade Range, active volcanoes, Mount Helens, Mount Hood, along western

Geode Information

Geodes can be found mainly in North and South America and in Australia.

On the surface, geodes look like an average rock or stone. But crack one open and you are likely to find a hollow cavity filled with crystals. Scientists are unsure exactly how geodes were formed but speculation has centered around three hypotheses. The name geode is from a Latin word meaning "earthlike" in reference to the stone's rounded shape.

Facts

Crystals found inside geodes can be microscopic in size or easily visible to the naked eye. When crystals are so tiny they cannot be seen by the unaided eye, the geode is called chalcedony. Geodes can vary in size from a small as a garden pea to over 30 inches across. Most geodes fall in the 2 to 7 inch range.

Identification

Rounded or oval stones with an exterior of nodules may be geodes. The nodules can have a cauliflower-like appearance. Sometimes, small quartz crystals on the outside of the stone will reflect light and appear to glitter. Since geodes can have a nearly hollow interior, they may feel lighter or seem less dense than other stones their size. The only way to know for certain is to crack open the rock with a hammer to see if it has the geode's characteristic, crystal-lined hollow interior.

Composition

Geodes are composed mainly of quartz. However, most geodes have a band of agate around the hollow area that produces a beautiful color when polished. Other metals and minerals like iron, pyrite, gypsum and calcites are also found in geodes. Each of these colors the interior crystals or the surrounding stone differently, producing scores of geode variations.

Speculation

Geodes have perplexed geologists as to how they are formed. Speculative theories usually have three major stages of formation in common: 1) Concretions, nodules with outward growth, collect around a nucleus and form in soft sediment. These are precursor stones to geodes. 2) Over time, the outer shells of concretions are entirely replaced by chalcedony. 3) The interiors dissolve, creating a hollow space where crystals can grow.

Geography

Geodes are found in North and South America and in Australia. An unusually high concentration of these stones is found within a 35 mile radius of Keokuk, Iowa. The town is referred to as the "Geode Capital of the World" and the state Legislature named geodes the Iowa state rock. Geologists speculate that geodes in this area were part of the Warsaw Formation, a widespread rock strata known to contain these stones.

Tags: America Australia, crack open, Geodes found, geodes have, hollow interior, North South, North South America

How Do Chemical Sedimentary Rocks Form

Salt Flats at Death Valley, California

The Surface of the Earth

Chemical sedimentary rocks form at the earth's surface. Sedimentary rocks are rocks that have been placed by weathering or erosion in layers or beds. Over time, these layers are compressed and cemented together. Add more time to the process, and these rocks break apart into smaller pieces. Chemical sedimentary rocks differ from other sedimentary rocks because they are decomposed at the surface of the earth. Chemical processes affect and control the formations of these layers of rocks.

Water Transports Minerals

Rocks are made up of minerals. Water in the form of rivers, streams and rain travels through existing rock layers and causes the minerals in the rocks to dissolve. Water breaks down the original rock with a chemical reaction that causes the minerals to dissolve into a solution that is readily transported in water. The minerals are then carried away with the water. As stated in the above step, this usually occurs at the surface of the earth although underground streams and rivers can also rinse rocks and remove minerals.

Water is an erosion agent. Any type of water can act in this manner to remove minerals from rocks. Seawater, rain, rivers and streams all are capable of transporting mineral deposits. In addition, air can sometimes move fine particles of minerals and deposit them in another location.

Remember that the method of transport must have enough force to actually keep the minerals in suspension. If the water flow is too light, the minerals will simply be released to drop to the bottom of the river or stream.

Mineral Deposits

Minerals that are carried away by the water must end up somewhere. As the water evaporates, these minerals become deposits that form the typical layering seen in sedimentary rocks. Over thousands of years, layers form as subsequent deposits of minerals are made in the same location. Compression by the newer deposits forms layers of mineral deposits. The weigh of the upper layers cements the lower layers, forming a solid rock.

Chemical sedimentary rocks are identified by the minerals that make up the rock itself. In many cases, it's possible to tell where the sedimentary rock has come from by identifying the minerals it contains. Layers are not always horizontal. If there are long periods of time between depositions of minerals, the deposition site can be eroded by weathering. In this case, layering beds may run in different directions. However, you will still be able to see the layered bedding of the rock.

Evaporation

Chemical sedimentary rocks are particularly susceptible to the whims of the water. Because the method of transport keeps the minerals intact for deposition at a layering site, quick evaporation of the water can greatly affect the type of chemical sedimentary rock that is formed. A good example of evaporation affecting a chemical sedimentary rock is rock salt. Minerals are dissolved from other rocks and transported to a deposition site. The water evaporates quickly and forms mineral rock salt. We use this every day in the form of table salt. This type of evaporated chemical sedimentary rock typically occurs near dry lake beds and inland seas.

Tags: sedimentary rock, chemical sedimentary rock, Chemical sedimentary rocks, sedimentary rocks, carried away, causes minerals

Identify An Opaque Rock

The way rocks interact with light is one of the easiest rock properties to identify.

Rocks and minerals are formed through many complicated chemical processes, resulting in a wide variety of shapes, colors, textures and densities. In rock identification, there are different characteristics scientists describe to differentiate between types of rocks, including what elements the sample is composed of, and optical properties such as color, transparency, luster, reflection, streak and florescence. With a little practice, anyone can identify and catalog rock types, and optical properties such as transparency are the simplest to learn.

Instructions

1. Make sure your light source provides you with a bright light. Florescent lights are best for this purpose, but an incandescent light also works.

2. Label the samples and create a table of observations in your notebook.

3. Turn on the light and hold the rock sample in your line of vision between the light and your eyes. Note how much light passes through the sample; this is what defines the rock's transparency. A transparent mineral such as a diamond does not block the light at all. If the light is fuzzy or blurred, the rock is considered translucent.If no light passes through the rock at all, it is an opaque rock.

4. Record the light observation in the notebook along with any other things you notice, such as color and weight.

5. Record variations in your sample to help with identification. For example, some rocks can be more or less translucent than others of the same type, and some rocks may have parts that range from transparent to opaque.

Tags: light passes, light passes through, optical properties, optical properties such, passes through, properties such, some rocks

Civil Engineering Master'S Degrees

Master's students in civil engineering can specialize in structural design.

Earning a master's degree in civil engineering can prepare students for entry to doctoral programs or provide them with the advanced training needed to progress in their careers. Because of the broad variety of work performed by civil engineers, students in master's programs typically select an area of specialization, such as structural, environmental or coastal engineering.

University of New Mexico

Students in the master's in civil engineering programs at the University of New Mexico can select from six concentrations, including environmental engineering, structural engineering and construction engineering and management. There are thesis and non-thesis options available; students in the non-thesis option take 35 credits, compared with 32 credits for students who complete a master's thesis. Applicants should have an academic background in civil engineering. Prospective students who do not have a bachelor's degree in civil engineering may be required to take some undergraduate courses in the field in addition to the graduate-level courses.

Department of Civil Engineering

University of New Mexico

MSC01 1070

Albuquerque, NM 81731-0001

505-277-2722

unm.edu

Clemson University

Clemson University notes on its website that civil engineering has been taught at the school since its inception in 1889. At the master's level, students can select from specializations that include construction engineering, structural engineering and applied fluid mechanics. The master's degree requires 30 credits and can be completed in three or four semesters of study. Admission to the master's program in civil engineering is based on a review of undergraduate transcripts, standardized test scores and recommendations, along with a statement of purpose. Students who complete a master's degree can go on to a PhD program or find employment in private industry or government agencies, according to Clemson's website.

Department of Civil Engineering

Clemson University

Lowry Hall, Box 340911

Clemson, SC 29634-0911

864-656-3001

grad.clemson.edu

Johns Hopkins University

The master of science degree in civil engineering at Johns Hopkins University can be completed in two to four semesters of full-time study. Alternatively, students can apply to a part-time program and take courses on weekday evenings and Saturdays, completing the degree within five years. Students can select from two options; one requires 10 courses, and the other requires eight courses and a master's essay approved by a faculty adviser. Program curriculum is designed individually by students to reflect their interests in areas such as structural engineering, geomechanics, hazards management or coastal engineering.

Department of Civil Engineering

Johns Hopkins University Homewood Campus

3400 North Charles Street

Latrobe Hall 210

Baltimore, MD 21218

410-516-8680

civil.jhu.edu

Michigan State University

Students in the master's program in civil engineering at Michigan State University can focus their research in the areas of structural, materials or pavement engineering. Master's degree candidates select from three options, all of which require 30 credits of coursework. One option requires defense of a thesis, another option requires completion of an independent project, and the final option is coursework only, with no thesis or project required. Admissions is based on a review of undergraduate transcripts, standardized test scores, and personal and academic statements.

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

Michigan State University

Graduate Program

3546 Engineering Building

East Lansing, MI 48824-1226

517-355-5107

egr.msu.edu

Tags: Department Civil, select from, civil engineering, Clemson University, degree civil, degree civil engineering, Department Civil Engineering

College Classes Needed To Become An Environmental Engineer

The qualification path for every environmental engineer's career begins with a bachelor's degree and ends with a license granting the designation of professional engineer. According to the Association of Environmental Engineers & Science Professors, this baccalaureate in environmental engineering, or in a related engineering discipline such as civil engineering or a science, often precedes a master's degree in the environmental engineering specialty. The 70 programs accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering (ABE) expect graduates to gain proficiency in mathematics, science, engineering principles, technology and communication, plus a foundation in humanities, social sciences and their chosen specialty discipline.

Mathematics Credits

Environmental engineering students must master advanced mathematics, such as calculus, statistics, analytical geometry and differential equations. Louisiana State University (LSU) requires placement tests, noting that freshmen not qualified for advanced math courses will not be able to complete their degrees in an eight-semester sequence. LSU environmental engineering program demands 16 math credits, as do those at Stanford University and University of Illinois; Florida State University requires its environment engineering majors to take 19 math credits.

Science and Lab Requirements

Students hoping to become environmental engineers can expect to take chemistry and physics science courses with lab time, which all ABE-accredited degree programs must require. Students at programs similar to LSU's also need four credits in biology whereas those enrolled at other schools have to choose a biological science elective, such as geology, ecology oceanography.

Engineering Courses

Fluid dynamics, thermodynamics, hydraulics, engineering design and graphics, engineering mechanics and structural engineering count among the engineering science classes needed for a degree in environmental engineering. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, students usually take these courses, along with math and science classes, during their first two years in order to fulfill degree requirements. Electives enable students to specialize in the environmental engineering field. Choices include wastewater treatment, transportation, solid and hazardous waste management, soil mechanics, environmental engineering processes, ground water and operations and pollution control.

General Education Classes

A "focus on humanities" provides the understanding needed to solve and address environmental problems through engineering, according to the American Academy of Environmental Engineers. Classes in English composition, social sciences, history, art and culture can be taken to satisfy general education requirements. The career website State University.com says technology classes give students an opportunity to gain much-needed familiarity with scientific software and computer-aided drawing.

Tags: environmental engineering, State University, degree environmental, degree environmental engineering, engineering science, math credits

Industrial Uses For Crystals

Crystals

Early civilizations used crystal sands of quartz, garnet, diamonds and other crystals as abrasives to saw blocks of rock and stone, fashion jewelry and ornamentation and create specialized engravings. During the end of the 19th century science began mineral synthesis and growing crystals synthetically in the laboratory. Synthetic crystals proved to be more abrasive than their natural counterparts; being stronger, cheaper and easier to obtain, synthetic crystals quickly found a strong market in many industries.

Diamond Crystals and Dust for Cutting

Diamond bits are used in industrial saws and ropes for cutting stone blocks and ornamental stones. Drill bits studded with diamond crystals are now used on oil well drills. Jewelers and lapidary artisans use saws loaded with diamonds, copper laps with diamond dust and diamond polishing powder, especially for use with hard gemstones such as jade and sapphire.

Watches and Semiconductors

Synthetic quartz, ruby and sapphire are all used in the watch industry. Rolex watch glass is made of scratch-resistant, colorless synthetic sapphire. Synthetic ruby has been used for making hard bearings in watches and other mechanical instruments. Synthetic quartz crystal controls the time and operates by a silicon chip. Pure quartz sand is used to make silicon metal, a semiconductor that brought about the transistor and the development of microelectronics, integrated circuits and the silicon chip.

Ruby Laser

Invented in 1960, this red light beam produces an intense light with minimal divergence. It has many industrial uses. It is found in CD players and long-distance telephones, as well as in surveying and microsurgery. College professors and others find the tiny ruby laser pointer to be beneficial in their lectures. High-energy lasers can cut through steel plates and drill holes through diamonds.

Tags: silicon chip, Synthetic quartz, with diamond

Effects Of The Nile'S Floods

The path of the Nile River can be seen by satellite.

The Nile River begins in Ethiopia and courses through the Middle East, through Egypt into the Mediterranean Sea. It is one of the longest rivers in the world, flowing "uphill" from the direction of most of rivers. Many countries depend on the water from the Nile for drinking, agriculture and bathing. Therefore, the effects of the Nile's floods can be devastating to thousands of people as well as beneficial.

Flood Season

An antique map shows the Nile region with its tributaries.

The Nile's path runs along the Great African Rift and swells in summer. The extra water is a byproduct of the rain that has gathered in the tropical climes south of Egypt through the tributaries that feed from the Blue Nile (Ethiopia) into the Nile toward the sea. The flood plain is a few thousand kilometers long at Egypt's end.

Seasons of the Nile

The floods in the Nile Valley may have looked similar to this.

The year can be divided into three to follow the rise and fall of the Nile. Inundation occurs from July through mid-August as the water reaches its climax. From mid-August through the end of October, the waters will begin to subside. October through May will bring the water down to its lowest point, and between May and September the cycle begins all over again.

Egypt's Old Kingdom

Ancient Egyptian limestone relief.

The people of ancient Egypt relied upon the Nile as their only source of water. Geologic and archaeological findings show that the building of the pyramids happened in direct correlation of the bounteous periods the Nile offered the people. Also found is evidence that the longest low period of flooding caused the fall of Egypt's Old Kingdom between 2250 and 2050 B.C.

Those living in the Old Kingdom had to migrate elsewhere, and the capital moved from Memphis to the southeast. Sandstorms became predominate in the area as oases were swept over and lakes dried up.

Faiyum Depression

Pyramids near Cairo would have been built during a swell in flood waters of the Nile.

The Faiyum Depression is a valley south of Cairo that prehistorically was home to a huge lake fed by the Nile. It was from this point that canals were dug to water the region's fields. During droughts, the lake would begin to fill with sand, but water was regulated to try to maintain a 14-meter level to feed the agricultural area.

The Middle Kingdom lost its installations to the rise of the lake to 18 meters above sea level as it swelled and drowned populations in the surrounding area. After the breach of the dams in the area, the depression became uninhabitable.

The Ptolemaic period had a dam by El-Lahun that decreased the level of the lake and gave the Egyptians more land to cultivate. The depression is now one of the most fertile in the nation.

Different Flood Levels

Aswan Dam monument in Egypt.

Flood levels range from extremely high to low. Low flood levels reduce water resources, and with sediment buildup at the water's edge, blockage occurs. As a result, boats may have problems navigating.

High floods will cause increases in levels behind the Aswan Dam, and the Nile River Valley retains the possibility of having its land flooded should increased releases be necessary from the dam. This may also cause riverbanks to steadily decline.

Climate Change

As climate change occurs, the waters of the Nile may shift, submerging buildings along its shores.

Part of the reason why the Nile River floods or dries up may be partly due to climatic changes that began at the latter part of the 20th century. Egypt's wealth is dependent upon the free-flowing, steady waters of the Nile. So the climate may bring hardship as it changes.

Study Results for Future Flooding

If buildings were to be constructed upon the strip between the Nile's terrace (bank) line and water level, there is an extreme possibility that anyone living or working there would drown in a flood should one occur. An island currently located downstream from the Aswan Dam in the emergency flood area would be totally submerged in a high flood. A Nile Research Institute study indicates that even in the highest flood, what is determined as the terrace line would not be breached.

Tags: Nile River, waters Nile, Egypt Kingdom, Faiyum Depression, high flood, Nile floods

Capitol Reef National Park Rv Camping

Complex rock formations dominate Capitol Reef National Park.

Named for a white rock formation that resembles the dome of the U.S. Capitol, Capitol Reef National Park (nps.gov) in southern Utah is a study in contrasts. Forbidding red cliffs rise above the green banks of rivers. Evidence of human habitation stretches for thousands of years, but there are few human inhabitants in the park. A developed campground in Capitol Reef accommodates RVs, and commercial campgrounds nearby have more amenities.

The Park

The Waterpocket Fold, a wrinkle in the crust of the earth, is responsible for Capitol Reef National Park's unusual geography. Upheaval between 50 million and 70 million years ago created a region with a western side 7,000 feet higher than the eastern. Monoliths and buttes separated by washes and canyons dominate the horizon. While the park may appear barren at first look, it includes about a quarter-million acres of diverse ecosystems and landscape that includes Native American petroglyph sites, striking rock formations and the remnants of early settlers' attempts to create a home.

Things to Do

A 90-minute scenic drive through Capitol Reef's remarkable geology winds through gorges and past pockmarked sandstone and ends at the Pioneer Register, where westward-bound pioneers scratched their names into the red rock walls. Cyclists are welcome but must stick to the park's 140 miles of roads, and anglers can try their luck in the Fremont River if they have a Utah fishing license. The park has more than 150 miles of trails for day hikers and backpackers. Hikers should be aware that dry washes quickly become flooded streams after as little as a quarter-inch of rain and that open areas are dangerous during storms that are laden with lightning strikes.

The Campground

Capitol Reef's one developed campground is in a lush area by the Fremont River in the Fruita Historic District, site of an early Mormon settlement where thousands of fruit trees were planted. More than 3,000 trees, a one-room schoolhouse, rock walls and an irrigation system remain. The 71-site campground has restrooms with toilets and sinks but no showers. Sites have picnic tables and grills, and while the campground does have a dump station and potable water, there are no hookups. Sites are available on a first-come, first-served basis and usually fill early in the afternoon. Capitol Reef has two primitive campgrounds, but road conditions are rough, and four-wheel-drive is recommended. Campgrounds are open year-round.

Nearby Campgrounds

Commercial campgrounds in Torrey, 5 miles from the park's western boundary, are closest to the Fruita campground. Wonderland RV Park (capitolreefrvpark.com) claims to be the closest RV park to Capitol Reef. The campground has sites large enough for big rigs with full hookups that include cable, shade trees and grassy areas. Modern bathhouses have hot showers, and a laundry is on site. Sandcreek RV Park (sandcreekrv.com) has 12 full-hookup RV sites, a pavilion and modern bathhouses. Every site at nearby Thousand Lakes RV Park (thousandlakesrvpark.com) has a view of red rock cliffs. The campground has a swimming pool and play areas and full hookup sites with Wi-Fi.

Tags: Capitol Reef, Capitol Reef National, National Park, Reef National, Reef National Park

Geological Features Of A Desert Landscape

Several formations create a desert's geological landscape.

Desert landscapes geologically vary the world over, despite sharing some inherent traits. To be considered a desert area, the land must receive less than 10 inches of total yearly rainfall; by that definition, deserts in the southwestern United States and northern Africa are similar to Antarctica. But many people consider the picture of sand, rocks and sparse animal and plant life to be trademarks of deserts, some of the world's most inhospitable landscapes on the planet. Does this Spark an idea?

Dunes

Sand dunes are billowy hills created by high winds in deserts like the sections of the Mojave and Sonoma of southern California and parts of Arizona. The tall deposits of sand particles are much more prevalent in the vast wastelands of northern and central Africa's Sahara and Asia's Gobi, where the dunes are can reach more than 1,000 feet in height. Geologists categorize dunes by five shapes. All dunes, however, have essentially two sides: the leeward, which faces away from the wind, and the windward, which faces the wind.

Mesas and Fans

Mesas and buttes jut well above the flat landscapes of American deserts. These features are characterized by flattened tops leveled by desert wind and help form the canyon walls of many American deserts. Another geological feature prevalent in many deserts are alluvial fans, sand and sediment deposits that collect into fan-shaped formations as a result of runoff from sudden flash floods. Similar to fans are arroyos, deep depressions in the desert floor that also result as water channels its way to the lowest points of a landscape.

Other Features

Several other erosive formations make up the geological landscape that form from both high winds and flash flooding. Blowouts are deeply depressed areas in the desert floor that result from the near constant battering of high winds. Blowouts can be recognized by the fact that plant life such as cacti species that have anchored themselves into the soil will be perched atop small columns. Enough blowouts and erosion can cause hoodoos, which are tall, rocky columnlike formations that form in the interiors of canyons.

The Desert Floor

Flash floods and wind are responsible for moving sand and rock to create desert geological structures. The displaced sand and sediment often finds it's way to the desert floor, where it hardens into what geologists call "desert pavement." Rocks, sand and grit too heavy to be carried far by the wind settle into small cracks and crevices, where they harden into this "pavement." Sometimes a chemical reaction occurs among the minerals, producing a reflective sheen known as a desert's "varnish."

Tags: high winds, American deserts, create desert, create desert geological, desert floor

Landforms Of Deciduous Forests

The world's deciduous forests encompass a variety of landforms.

Deciduous forests are those dominated by trees that lose their foliage for part of the year, whether in response to hard winters or dry seasons. Evergreen trees may indeed be a component of such ecosystems, but are usually scattered or limited in distribution. The deciduous forest may be thought as both a biome -- one of the world's major vegetation communities -- and, more broadly, as an ecological landscape in association with the landforms that underlie it.

Topographic Context

Exceedingly rich deciduous forests blanket lower and middle elevations of the southern Appalachians.

In both the temperate and subtropical zones of the world, numerous kinds of large-scale landforms support deciduous forests. In eastern North America, for example, deciduous forests blanket plains, hills and mountains alike. The Appalachian mountains support extensive examples; those of the Southern Appalachians, such as in the Great Smoky Mountains of Tennessee and North Carolina, are among the richest temperate woodlands in the world. At the highest elevations of the Appalachians, roughly over 5,000 feet along much of the range, the deciduous forest grades into conifer communities that have much in common with the taiga, or boreal forest, of northern North America. Associations of Indian-laurel, sal, jambul and other species help comprise the moist deciduous forests that blanket the foothills of the Eastern Ghats mountains and Satpura range in northeastern India, roamed by tigers, wolves, gaur and other large mammals that have become exceedingly rare in much of the country.

Swamps

Bald-cypresses are deciduous conifers that define many bottomland swamps of the South.

Large bottomland swamps are common landforms in the forests of eastern and southern North America, forming their own unique deciduous ecosystems in poorly-drained areas, notably the floodplains of big rivers. Rivers create floodplains through regular overtopping of their banks, depositing rich sediments in the low valley shouldering their usual channels. Some of the trees in bottomland swamps, such as water tupelo, sweetgum and the deciduous conifer called bald-cypress, may grow to immense proportions.

Glacial Landforms

The Great Lakes occupy glacially-scoured basins.

During the last Ice Age, continental glaciers generated at high latitudes extended southward across the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, large swaths of the northern portions of the eastern deciduous forest experienced glaciation, including much of the Central Lowlands and a portion of the Appalachian plateaus. Broad-leaved woods of oak, maple, basswood and beech in southern Wisconsin, for example, drape subdued glacial hills and ridges called drumlins, kames, moraines and eskers. The Great Lakes along the U.S.-Canada border, partly in the deciduous-forest realm, occupy ancient drainage basins greatly enlarged by glaciation.

Small-Scale Landforms

On a micro-scale, a great diversity of landforms exist within a deciduous-forest biome. The decomposition of felled trees creates a suite of landscape features, like tip-up mounds. These are low humps marking the position of a decayed uprooted trunk and rootstock, often bordering a hollow in which the living tree stood. Another glacially-derived landform on a smaller-scale than moraines or lakes is the glacial erratic: a huge, isolate boulder transported far from its point of origin by the moving ice body. Such striking rock masses loom from groundcover carpets in the woods, testament to the immense power and influence of the continental glaciers.

Tags: deciduous forests, North America, bottomland swamps, deciduous forest, continental glaciers, deciduous forests blanket

Soil Types For Foundations

Soil Types for Foundations

There are various types of soil that serve as part of a building's foundation. Different types can be combined together to form a more stable structure as many soil types fall into the expansive soil category. These soils shrink and well according to the water level, which can have negative effects on a building's foundation. The U.S. Department of Agriculture provides a map of the U.S. that lets builders and home owners know the type of soil foundations will rest on. Does this Spark an idea?

Expansive Soils

Expansive soil swells when water content increases, and recedes when the soil water content decreases. This is particularly problematic for buildings with shallow foundations because the soil will pull away from the structure as it dries out. This type of soil is also referred to as "expansive clays," "shrink-swell soils" and "heavable soils," among other terms. The shrinking or heaving occurs in the active zone, which is an average of 18 feet deep. The water content changes are less problematic for the foundation the deeper it is.

Sandy Loam

Sandy loam is a stable soil that is not heavily affected by changes in moisture or temperature. It is also called select fill. This type of foundation soil can easily support a slab foundation. However, it is susceptible to erosion. If the sandy loam begins to erode under the foundation, builders may have to turn to slabjacking to repair the damage and stop further erosion. Slabjacking involves pumping the holes created by the erosion with grout--a water, Portland cement, Bentonite or flyash and sand mixture, plus additives to prevent shrinkage.

Sand

Like sandy loam/select fill, sand is very stable in terms of moisture but is subject to erosion. It is also susceptible to drifting. Basically, the sand can shift beneath the foundation and seep into cracks underground. This will cause the structure above to move horizontally and drift.

Tags: water content, building foundation, sandy loam, select fill, soil that, Soil Types Foundations, This type

List Of Forensics Techniques

Fingerprints are just one of many forensics techniques available to law enforcement agencies.

A list of forensic techniques includes a wide range of subjects and experts in fields as diverse as biology, anthropology, entomology, geology, pathology, toxicology, and psychology. The word forensics means of or pertaining to law, and forensic techniques are used to solve crimes, find missing persons, and recover lost or stolen data. Forensics is also used to determine the cause of death, including for people long since dead, such as in archaeological sites.

Biological Forensics Techniques

When most people think of forensics, they probably think of the kinds of forensics tests that police and crime-scene investigators perform on a routine basis. These are biological forensics.

Biological forensics techniques apply knowledge about the biological sciences to find clues and make determinations about evidence. The types of biological evidence that may be found at a crime science include blood, semen, saliva, fecal material and urine, hair and bone. Fingerprint analysis is also a biological forensic technique. Fingerprints are left by oils on the skin.

Contained in any of these forms of biological evidence is DNA, which is also a form of biological evidence. DNA does not exist by itself; it must be located within a cell, whether that cell is a blood cell, a skin cell, or a hair cell.

Forensic toxicology uses the sciences of biology, chemistry, and physics to examine the effect of a particular drug or poison on people. Forensic anthropology helps identify skeletal remains, and forensic odontology deals with the study of the teeth to determine the identification of a crime victim. Forensic pathology is concerned with the cause of death of a victim.

Physical Forensics

Physical forensics deals with non-biological types of evidence. These may take the forms of fibers, paint chips, explosives, or a wide variety of chemicals.

Forensic geology finds evidence in soils and minerals, and may help scientists determine whether a specimen is native to an area or brought in from another location. Forensic meteorology delves into the historical weather patterns in an area in an attempt to determine how the weather has affected a crime scene or helped erode remains. Forensic entomology studies insects that have important roles in the natural decomposition of bodies. By studying the number, type, and ages of insects present, scientists can determine the time of death of a victim to within a few hours.

Psychological Forensics

Psychological forensics applies the knowledge of psychology to criminal law. In particular, forensic psychologists study abnormal behavior and criminal behavior in an attempt to get inside the criminal's mind. By systematically interviewing possible suspects, forensic psychologists hope to draw out the truth from an interviewee. These professionals are often called upon to give testimony in court.

Forensic Ballistics

Forensic ballistics is the study of firearms. By examining the remnants of a bullet or the shape and size of a bullet hole, ballistics experts can determine the type of gun and the caliber of the gun used to fire the bullet. Forensic ballistics is very effective, and even mass-produced guns leave distinctive marks on their bullets, much like a fingerprint.

Digital Forensics

Digital or computer forensics is the identification and examination of all forms of digital evidence. Types of digital evidence may include word processing files, viruses, and all types of sound and video files. Digital forensics is instrumental in solving white-collar crimes, such as an employee hacking into confidential files, or child pornography.

Tags: biological evidence, cause death, deals with, death victim, digital evidence, Forensic ballistics, forensic psychologists

Control Gully Erosion In Clay Soil

Gullies are typically caused by increased rates and intensity of surface runoff. Unchecked rill erosion may evolve into this more substantial form, which can result from poor land-use management and is exacerbated by natural processes. Clay soils are generally less resilient than sand- and loam-based ones, and because clay minerals bind to water molecules, their loss can reduce the moisture-holding capacity of the soil and perpetuate the erosive cycle. Does this Spark an idea?

Instructions

1. Prevent gullies before they arise. This is much easier than attempting to control them once they've formed, when climatic, geological and fluvial processes sometimes collude in perfect conditions for their enlargement. For example, where gullies start in areas of fragile clay subsoil atop decomposed granite, great U-shaped channels over a hundred feet deep may eventually develop. Such mammoth scours can be subject to landslides, especially in the face of storms and weather-related phenomena. Proper land use---maintaining stabilizing vegetation, rotating crops and addressing the effects of disturbances like overgrazing, mining, logging, fires and road construction---can go a long way to preventing the financial and ecological havoc that gullies wreak.

2. Rotate crops, maintain cover vegetation and riparian buffers, recycle organic matter back into the soil and, in general, practice ecologically sensible land management to prevent or control gully erosion on agricultural land. The Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (OMAFR) notes that strip and contour planting may reduce erosion by 50 percent or more, for example.

3. Fully inspect any existing gullies. OMAFR recommends measuring the amount of water runoff entering the gully---which reflects various aspects of the local basin, from size to soil type---and the dimensions of the channel, including its slope. Determine the source and orientation of surface runoff in the area.

4. Manage runoff. This is essential to remedying gully development or avoiding the features in the first place. Where slope is relatively gentle---under 25 percent---broad, shallow skeins of stable vegetation called waterways can dissipate flow energy and reduce erosion, and may be combined with chute spillways and grade control structures which, through riprap and other materials, help break up the gradient. Drop pipes and subsurface tile systems may be implemented to transfer water down sharper slopes.

5. Monitor erosion control systems regularly. Especially where vegetation has been planted in waterways, riparian buffer zones or the like, stay vigilant to ensure its establishment.

Tags: reduce erosion, surface runoff

Differences In Bluestone & Slate

The smooth, thin sheets of slate make it a very good roofing material.

Bluestone and slate are both used as building stone, but the properties and uses of the two types of rock are very different. Both bluestone and slate, however, are built of sedimentary deposits which have been altered over millennia of geologic processes. Today, both bluestone and slate are used architecturally, though to very different purposes within a construction due to the differences in each rock's properties and composition. Does this Spark an idea?

Bluestone History

Bluestone is a feldspathic sandstone, composed of largely uniform rock particles deposited over a long period of time. Bluestone is a product of ocean or tidal sediments settling out of water which has since disappeared. These sediments were then compacted over a long period of time, resulting in a very strong stone. It has a distinct grain that enables it to be split smoothly along the layers laid down by sediment.

Slate History

Slate is a sedimentary rock that is composed of hardened clay, or mica, particles. In the early stages of slate's composition, mica sediments were compacted and water was forced out of the clay, forming shale. Shale was then further compacted and exposed to very high temperatures, hardening the mica particles and forming the cleavage direction which makes it possible to form slate into large, thin sheets of rock.

Uses

While the geologic processes forming bluestone and slate are related, the composition of the rock and the exact processes are different enough to yield stones with very different properties and distinct uses. Slate is often used as a roofing material because it can be cut thinly enough that it will not be too heavy for the supporting building structure, and because it is smooth enough that it will shed water without trapping any and causing leaks.

Bluestone, however, is used as a structural stone because its uniformity makes it both easy to shape and good for carrying the weight of stones above it. Both slate and bluestone are used as paving stones because of their ability to cleave smoothly, making an even surface to walk on.

Tags: very different, enough that, enough that will, geologic processes, long period, long period time

Identify Fossil Fish In Texas

Examine fossil for signs of a spine or backbone to determine whether it is a fish.

Millions of years ago, the state of Texas was covered by a large inland sea, and because of this, you'll find an abundance of fossils in the Lone Star state. While fossil hunting is an enjoyable pastime, you'll eventually want to identify the fossils you find. You may need an expert to determine exactly what fossils you have discovered, but reference books and materials found at a library or a visit to a paleontology club or natural history museum may help you make an educated guess.

Instructions

1. Read up on fossil hunting, rock formations and known fossil hunting locations in Texas, especially those with an abundance of Eocene fossils, including the banks of the Brazos and Little Brazos rivers. A field guide such as the "National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Fossils" or "A Field Guide To Texas Fossils" will serve as a handy reference tool while you're out fossil hunting.

2. Search for fossils in locations where they are most likely to be found, such as road cuts, riverbeds, and quarries. In eastern Texas, Mineral Wells fossil park, located about 55 miles west of Fort Worth, offers gentle slopes with remnants of ancient sharks and other marine life. In central Texas, you can search for fossil fish in the Lake Brownwood Spillway area.

3. Use a geologist's hammer or pick to carefully remove fossil specimens or, when removal is prohibited, take a photograph of your find.

4. Examine the fossil to see if there is any sign of a spine or backbone. If there is no spine, most likely, you have discovered an aquatic invertebrate. Fossils that appear porous and those with multiple holes may be the remains of a sponge. If the fossil has a spine, you may have discovered a fossil fish.

5. Search quarry areas for flat plates or slabs of sedimentary rock. Pick up and split the slabs end-wise with a hammer and chisel. Make sure you protect your eyes with safety glasses.

6. Examine the fossil for bones, teeth and jaw lines. If the fossil is intact, the bones and skeleton of the fish should be quite visible.

7. Confirm the identity of any fossils you find with a professional or a paleontology association, such as the Paleontology Society of Austin, the Paleontological Association of South Texas or the Geological Society of America.

Tags: fossil hunting, Examine fossil, have discovered, fossil fish, fossils find, most likely

Cabins Near Redwood National Park

Fern Canyon in Redwood National Park has been used for movie filming.

The 132,000-acre Redwood National Park is home to 2,200-year old Redwoods that reach a height of 250 to 300 feet. More than 45 percent of the world's Redwood trees are located within 39,000 acres of the National Park. Guests camping in cabins near the park can enjoy hiking or biking through the massive forests and enjoy swimming, fishing and boating on the nearby ocean coast.

Emerald Forest of Trinidad

The cabins at the Emerald Forest of Trinidad offer both rustic and luxury accommodations across the 12-acre property. The one-bedroom North Coast Original Cabins were built in the 1930s and offer a wood-burning stove, claw foot bathtub and full kitchen, whereas the three-bedroom, two bathroom modernized cabins have fully equipped contemporary kitchens and a large living area with gas fireplace. Two cabins are pet-friendly, and some are also wheelchair accessible. The onsite Celebration Hall can accommodate up to 40 guests for personal functions and has an outdoor pavilion and campfire area. The resort has a playground, video arcade and gift shop with basic groceries available. Tent and RV camping also is available at Emerald Forest of Trinidad.

The Emerald Forest of Trinidad

P.O. Box 870

753 Patrick's Point Drive

Trinidad, CA 95570

707-677-3554

cabinsintheredwoods.com

Redwood Parks Lodge Company

Redwood Adventures offers seven cabin accommodations across seven acres and a variety of adventure and nature tours. The 1,200-square-foot cabins were originally the homes of local sawmill workers and have been remodeled to offer contemporary accommodations. Guests can enjoy hiking or biking around Fern Canyon, a site used in filming movies such as Jurassic Park and Lost World. Guests also can go horseback riding along the Lost Coast, where sea lions are aplenty, or fishing for rockfish, crab and salmon that have been known to grow to a size of 60 pounds. Tours available include Redwood National Park Ecotours, the World's Tallest Trees Tour and the Fern Canyon tour full of creeks and waterfalls.

Redwood Parks Lodge Company

7 Valley Green Camp Road

Orick, CA 95555

866-733-9637

redwoodadventures.com

Redwoods RV Resort

The Redwoods RV Resort offers tent and RV rental sites as well as deluxe and premium cabin accommodations. Cabins include a range of amenities, such as a contemporary kitchen with a full range of appliances, cable television in every room and soaker tub and separate walk-in shower. The resort has a large children's playground, horseshoes, onsite laundry facility and a dog washing area. Guests can enjoy a stroll on the nearby beach or go swimming in the ocean. Just a short hike into the Redwood National Park, guests can hop onto the Sky Trail that rises 571 feet into the air and brings riders on a 1,570-foot ride above the top branches of the 300-foot Redwoods.

The Redwoods RV Resort

6701 Highway 101 North

Crescent City, CA 95531

707-487-7404

redwoodsrv.com

View Crest Lodge

View Crest Lodge is open all year long and offers modern cabin accommodations with kitchenette or full kitchen, forced air heating and digital cable television. Every deck has a private outdoor sun deck, and some come equipped with an indoor hot tub. Housekeeping services are provided daily. The Lady Bird Johnson Grove is located within a one-mile hike of View Crest Lodge and offers bird watchers and nature enthusiasts a delightful retreat throughout the vacation.

View Crest Lodge

3415 Patrick's Point Drive

Trinidad, CA 95570

707-677-3393

viewcrestlodge.com

Tags: National Park, Redwood National, Redwood National Park, Crest Lodge, Emerald Forest

How Is Clay Soil Made

Clay soil has a limited geologic range.

Clay and related minerals are found in a limited geologic range. "Most clay minerals form where rocks are in contact with water, air, or steam," according to Nora Foley of the U.S. Geological Survey. They form near soil horizons (distinct soil layers) or in volcanic deposits and geothermal fields. They also form where old sediments and rock formations are weathered. Does this Spark an idea?

Soil Formation Basics

Weathering of iron soils makes clay.

Clays and other soils are formed from parent materials like rock and organic deposits. Weathering, pressure and oxidation cause the parent materials to be reformed into soil. Different geographic areas have different climates and different organisms present which affect the type of soil formed.

Depending on temperature extremes and rainfall, new minerals are made during soil formation. Clay is formed when silica combines with oxides, either iron or alumina. The sheets of silicates bond with metallic atoms (alumina and iron), oxygen and hydroxyl ions to form clay.

Where Different Clays Form

Tropic region clay dries out easily

Silicates, mica, iron and oxides of aluminum are all found in clay. Clays formed in the tropic zones tend to be iron and aluminum clays. Those formed between the tropics and polar regions tend to be silicate clays.

Clays formed in hot tropical regions are called two-layer clays. They are easily dried out and don’t hold water or nutrients well. Clays formed in mid-latitudes (between the tropics and poles) are three-layer clays. They are weakly bound and retain moisture easily.

Clay Formation by Erosion and Transport

Clay dunes are a form of transported clay.

As older rocks and soils erode they are transported from their original sites and deposited in layers called sediments. Clays laid down by erosion and transport are called transported clays. Clay formed in place by diagenesis or weathering is called residual clay.

Deposited sediments, called muds, contain clay-size particles (2 micrometers or less). The clays are a mix of clay-sized mineral crystals and fine-grained clay minerals. Sedimentation continues today in lakes, deltas and ocean basins. Clays are being formed by eroded particles washed down to these locations and compacted by settling.

Clay Formation by Diagenesis

Clay forming in rocky soil

Diagenesis is caused by compaction (squeezing out water), cementation (chemical cement precipitation) and recrystallization (new crystal grain growth). In other words water is removed, chemicals bond together the minerals left and new clay-sized mineral crystals are formed.

Clay Formation by Weathering

Weathered sediments

Weathering is the decomposing of materials near earth’s surface like rock. It is caused by changes in temperature and pressure (physical weathering) or by mineral elements being added to or removed from existing minerals (chemical weathering).

Weathering into clay takes place progressively. Minerals break down unevenly over time and clay can have different stages of breakdown in the same layer. The types of minerals present when weathering begins determine the type of clay produced.

Rocks like granite containing silica and alumina decompose to form clay. Rocks like limestone containing clay minerals are dissolved by water or the chemical action of plant roots. Their clay does not dissolve and is deposited in place. Clay transformed to shale rock by lithification is released when shale disintegrates and becomes a solution called neo-formed clay.

Tags: Clay Formation, clay minerals, Clays formed, between tropics, clay Clays, Clay formed

List Of Bsa Merit Badges

A compass is essential for earning the orienteering merit badge.

The Boy Scouts of America is one of the largest organizations for youth in the country. Their mission is to train young people in civil responsibility and teach them to make moral and ethical choices in the rest of their lives. Beyond the basic activities scouts enjoy through regular meetings and outings, the Merit Badge Program offers an avenue to experience and learn about new and unexplored subjects, occupations and activities.

The Merit Badge Program

One of several advancement programs within the Boy Scouts, this program offers scouts an opportunity to select a subject they wish to know more about, such as Astronomy or Orienteering, and then perform specific tasks pertaining to that subject to demonstrate their acquired knowledge. The requirements for each badge are very specific and scouts are expected to meet those requirements exactly as stated -- no more or no less. Scouts work at their own pace, with the oversight of a merit badge counselor. Successful completion of the requirements for each subject earns the scout a "badge" that is then worn and displayed on their uniform. Earning merit badges encourages scouts to identify goals and execute a well thought out plan to reach those goals. With each success, the scout gains in self-confidence and self-reliance.

Earning the Badge

Scouts select from a list of more than 100 different subjects. Once they have decided on a topic, they are instructed to seek the advice of a designated merit badge counselor, who is someone within their troop familiar with the subject. The scout is presented with the requirements to earn the badge and the counselor may then offer guidance, but the scout is encouraged to plan his "attack" on his own. Once the scout has completed the background research for his topic, he is required to prove his knowledge through a presentation to his group or other means of demonstrating his mastery of the topic.

Earning the Badge

Following the suggestions and requirements set forth in the specific merit badge pamphlet, the scout will thoroughly research his topic. He may seek out members of the local community with expertise on his subject for first person interviews or obtain information from the public library. Once the scout has completed the background research for his topic, he is required to prove his knowledge through a presentation to his group or other means of demonstrating his mastery of the topic. The merit badge requirements will also instruct the scout in how his information should be presented. Just telling about the topic is not acceptable. Language such as "make," "list," or "collect" in the guidelines indicate that the scout is expected to present his material in a active fashion. Doing so is a major part of earning the badge.

Merit Badges

American Business, American Cultures, American Heritage, American Labor, Animal Science Archaeology, Archery, Architecture, Art, Astronomy, Athletics, Automotive Maintenance, Aviation, Backpacking, Basketry, Bird Study, Camping, Canoeing, Carpentry, Chemistry, Cinematography, Citizenship in the Community, Citizenship in the Nation, Citizenship in the World, Climbing, Coin Collecting, Collections, Communication, Composite Materials, Computers, Cooking, Crime Prevention, Cycling, Dentistry, Disabilities Awareness, Dog Care, Drafting, Electricity, Electronics, Emergency Preparedness, Energy, Engineering, Entrepreneurship, Environmental Science, Family Life, Farm Mechanics, Fingerprinting, Fire Safety, First Aid, Fish and Wildlife Management, Fishing, Fly-Fishing, Forestry, Gardening, Genealogy, Geocaching, Geology, Golf, Graphic Arts, Hiking, Home Repairs, Horsemanship, Indian Lore, Insect Study, Inventing, Journalism, Landscape Architecture, Law, Leatherwork, Lifesaving, Mammal Study, Medicine, Metalwork, Model Design and Building, Motorboating, Music, Nature, Nuclear Science, Oceanography, Orienteering, Painting, Pathfinding, Personal Fitness, Personal Management, Pets, Photography, Pioneering, Plant Science, Plumbing, Pottery, Public Health, Public Speaking, Pulp and Paper, Radio, Railroading, Reading, Reptile and Amphibian Study, Rifle Shooting, Rowing, Safety, Salesmanship, Scholarship, Scouting Heritage, Scuba Diving, Sculpture, Snow Sports, Shotgun Shooting, Skating, Signaling, Small-Boat Sailing, Soil and Water Conservation, Space Exploration, Sports, Stamp Collecting, Surveying, Swimming, Textile, Theater, Tracking, Traffic Safety, Veterinary Medicine, Truck Transportation, Water Sports, Weather, Whitewater, Wilderness Survival, Wood Carving and Woodwork.

Tags: badge counselor, merit badge, research topic, background research, background research topic, Badge Program

Rubbish Removal Jobs

Refuse collectors can earn more than $40,000 annually.

The rubbish removal industry offers many job opportunities ranging from hazardous waste removal to residential garbage collection. Waste management companies also employ engineers who design landfills and monitor air quality. The job market continues to expand as communities grow, and as more landfill space is sought when old landfills close.

Landfill Manager

A landfill operations manager runs the day-to-day operations of a landfill by controlling operational costs and monitoring compliance with environmental laws. The manager is also responsible for efficient turnaround times for trucks entering and leaving the landfill. A bachelor of arts degree is required to qualify as a manager. According to 2010 job postings, the position pays up to $150,000 per year.

Hazardous Waste Specialist

A hazardous waste specialist generally works for a private company to transport chemicals and other hazardous materials from clients’ facilities to disposal venues. Careful recording of inventory and compliance with all safety regulations are required. The median salary as of 2010 was $15.90 per hour, according to Careers State University.

Medical Waste Handler

Safe collection and disposal of medical waste are performed by handlers employed by private companies. The job is similar to hazardous waste specialists, but collections occur at medical facilities, and disposals are made at separate facilities designed for medical material. A high school diploma and plant environment training are required. The average annual salary in 2010 was $30,000.

Landfill Geologist

A landfill geologist, or environmental geologist, conducts project research for landfills. In addition, a major portion of the job is monitoring air quality compliance with local and federal regulations. The geologist also must see that proper permits are obtained for solid waste and hazardous materials projects. The geologist also is responsible for gas collection and treatment systems. A bachelor of arts degree is required for employment. The annual salary is about $43,000, according to 2010 job postings.

Industrial Waste Analyst

As of 2010 as much as $6,000 per month could be earned by an industrial waste analyst in California. An analyst evaluates the impact of hazardous chemicals on local wastewater and storm water systems, develops procedures for municipal pretreatment programs and supervises pollution prevent programs. The analyst also collects and inspects samplings from industrial companies. An analyst must have a bachelor of arts degree in chemistry.

Recycled Materials Sorter

Recycled materials sorters earn slightly more than minimum wage at about $9 per hour, according to 2010 job postings. Sorters work at a conveyor belt and separate yard debris, plastics, metals and other recyclable material. A high school diploma is usually required for the position.

Refuse Collector

Refuse collectors, also called rubbish or trash collectors, travel an assigned route to collect residential and light commercial garbage. Two-person teams divide driving and pickup duties along the route. Collectors physically pick up containers to dump garbage into the truck or operate a robotic arm to lift the containers. A college education is not required. In 2010, the average annual salary for a refuse collector was $43,000.

Tags: 2010 postings, annual salary, arts degree, bachelor arts, bachelor arts degree, compliance with, hazardous waste

Basic Salary For A Bachelor'S Degree Holder In The U S

Depending on your salary, your bachelor's degree can take many years to pay off.

A basic salary for bachelor's degree holders is hard to pin down, as salaries vary widely depending on the discipline of the degree, job title and years of experience. However, the average salary for a bachelor's degree holder is between $30,000 and $100,000, according to PayScale. Additional factors, such as geographical location of employment and industry, also affect the basic salary for bachelor's degree holders.

By Job

The salary for a bachelor's degree holder in the United States varies depending on the job title of the individual. Elementary school teachers with a bachelor's degree earn a median annual salary of $43,046 as of 2011 while high school teachers earn a median salary of $46,416, according to PayScale. A project manager with a bachelor's degree earns $83,000; mechanical engineers with a bachelor's earn $59,869; general/operation managers earn $78,000; and physician assistants with a bachelor's earn a median salary of $86,709.

By Experience

The basic salary for bachelor's degree holders in the United States also varies by work experience. Someone who has been employed for several years likely earns more than an entry-level employee, even though both might have the same bachelor's degree education. New bachelor's degree graduates just starting out with less than one year of experience earn a median salary of $39,114, and those with one to four years of experience earn $44,714 on average in 2011, according to PayScale. On the other hand, bachelor's degree holders in the United States who have 20 or more years of experience earn a median salary of $77,918.

By Geographical Location

Salaries also vary according to the geographical location of employment. For example, individuals with a bachelor's degree in New York City earn a median salary of $67,695 in 2011, according to PayScale. Those employed in Chicago earn $77,576 on average. Bachelor's degree holders employed in Boston earn some of the highest salaries reported by PayScale in this category, with a median salary of $81,575. Those employed in Dallas can expect some of the lowest salaries, with a median salary of $65,694.

By Industry

The industry also affects the salaries of bachelor's degree holders. Those employed in education (K-12 schools) are reported to earn a median salary of $48,129, according to PayScale as of 2011, while those employed in the healthcare industry earn nearly $20,000 more each year with a median salary of $65,003. Those employed in the manufacturing and distribution industry can expect some of the highest salaries for bachelor's degree holders on average with a median salary of $70,678, while those employed in the college or university education industry can expect some of the lowest salaries with a median salary of $36,945.

Tags: median salary, bachelor degree, degree holders, earn median, earn median salary, according PayScale

Different Types Of Magma

Three recognized types of magma push toward the Earth's surface today.

You may first think of fiery orange eruptions when you think of magma, but the different types of magma behave differently. Three types of magma exist on Earth today, and an extinct fourth type is unable to form on our cooled planet. Each magma type has a different chemical make-up, though the types are all mostly made up of silica and other minerals. Underground pressure builds up to push magma to the surface, sometimes in a huge explosion and sometimes in a slow-moving trickle.

Basaltic Magma

Basaltic magma is made up of 45 to 55 percent silica. It is high in iron, magnesium and calcium and is low in potassium and sodium. The temperature of basaltic magma is around 1,000 to 1,200 degrees Celsius, based on laboratory measurement and limited field operations. Scientists find it difficult to determine an exact temperature because it is dangerous to get close enough to magma to measure it. Basaltic magma is the most fluid of the three types of magma, though it is still 10,000 to 100,000 times less fluid than water. It also has the lowest amount of gas of the three types. Basalt magma is found at Earth's "hot spots," such as Hawaii. When it cools, basaltic magma becomes basalt rock.

Andesitic Magma

Andesitic magma is the "middle" magma in terms of heat; fluidity, or speed of flow; and gas content. It is probably 800 to 1,000 degrees Celsius. It is made up of 55 to 65 percent silica with average amounts of iron, magnesium, calcium, potassium and sodium. When cooled, andesitic magma becomes andesite rock. Andesitic magma is somewhat explosive, coming to the crust of the Earth at reverse fault areas. In these spots, two plates in the Earth's crust move against each other in opposite directions, and the top piece moves up toward the surface rather than toward the planet's center. Small- to medium-sized earthquakes also release andesitic magma. An example of andesitic magma is the eruption of Mount St. Helens in Oregon.

Felsic Magma

Felsic-type magmas include ryolitic and dacite magmas, which are very thick and slow-moving. Felsic magma seems to form when the Earth's crust melts with seawater. It is highly explosive when erupting from volcanoes. Felsic magma is made up of 65 to 75 percent silica. It is low in iron, magnesium and calcium and is high in potassium and sodium. Compared to other types of magma, felsic magma is cool, reaching 650 to 800 degrees Celsius, and is high in volatile, or unstable, gases and melted rocks. Felsic magma forms huge calderas, like the Yellowstone caldera. When cooled, it forms ryolite or granite rock.

Ultramafic Magma

Today, our planet is too cool for ultramafic, or komatiite, magma to form. This is probably a good thing, since ultramafic magma would be the hottest and fastest-flowing of the magmas, running almost as fast as water down a volcano. In the distant past, ultramafic lava could reach as high as 1,600 degrees Celsius. Now lava rarely reaches above 1,200 degrees.

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What Is The Purpose Of Topographic Maps

What Is the Purpose of Topographic Maps?

A topographic map is a special type of map that uses contour lines to represent areas of equal elevation. The distance between the contour lines represents a difference in elevation that is defined by the map's legend, and may be a specific number of feet, meters, miles, kilometers or any number of other measuring units. While most maps allow a person to measure distance between points, a topographic map allows a person to determine the height or depth of the terrain and the steepness of slopes.

Function

A topographic map represents a portion of the Earth's surface, and may include bodies of water such as the ocean floor as well as land surface.

Features

Topographic maps frequently include standard symbols to indicate the presence of major natural and man-made features such as roads, rivers, streams, lakes and buildings.

Identification

Topographic maps frequently make use of color (identified in the legend) to indicated certain features, such as green for vegetation and blue for rivers, streams and bodies of water.

Significance

Contour lines on U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) topographic maps are brown. The closer the lines are together, the steeper the slope (see Resources).

Fun Fact

Because the contour lines on a topographic map represent a line of equal elevation, these lines will never cross.

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Information On The Kohala Volcano

Even though Hawaii has active volcanoes, shield volcanoes do not have violent eruptions, so the islands are relatively safe.

The Hawaiian islands were created exclusively by volcanoes. The main island of Hawaii alone hosts five shield volcanoes. The Kohala volcano, one of these five, is the oldest of the Hawaiian shield volcanoes.

Size

The Kohala Volcano rises approximately one mile above sea level and spans about 235 square miles, covering 5.8 percent of the island. Scientists estimate that thousands of years ago the Kohala volcano was twice this size.

Age

The Kohala has been above sea level for about 500,000 years. Its shield building stage, when it was highly active, was completed about 250,000 years ago. The Kohala has been silent for about 120,000 years.

Northern Side

Since the north side of this volcano gets more rain, its slopes have deep valleys caused by river erosion. The northeast section is made up of sea cliffs created by an ancient landslide.

Southern Side

The Kohala volcano is bordered by Mauna Kea and near Mauna Loa, two younger shield volcanoes. Lava from these volcanoes has covered the southern slopes of the Kohala.

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Fossil Hunting In Oklahoma

Trilobites are a common fossil found in Oklahoma.

Fossils are defined as any remains of ancient life that has been preserved in the Earth's crust. Fossils can be from plants or animals, whether actual remains of animals or evidence of their movement, such as footprints. Fossils can be found throughout Oklahoma, especially in the Arbuckle Mountains in south-central Oklahoma.

Geological History of Oklahoma

About 490 million years ago, the land that is now Oklahoma was actually located south of the Equator and was covered by a shallow sea. Over the next 300 million years, the land drifted slowly northward and alternated between being dry and being covered by sea. By 144 million years ago, Oklahoma was in its current position but was part of a giant inland sea stretching from Texas to Canada.

Dinosaur Fossils in Oklahoma

While dinosaurs probably once roamed Oklahoma, erosion has removed most fossil evidence of dinosaurs. However, dinosaur bones have been found in Atoka and Cimarron counties. One of these dinosaurs was a large meat-eating dinosaur called Acrocanthosaurus atokensis that lived between 146 million and 100 million years ago. Fossil remains indicate this dinosaur could have been as much as 18 feet tall and 43 feet long.

State Fossil of Oklahoma

The state fossil of Oklahoma is the Saurophaganax maximus. This carnivorous dinosaur was about 40 feet long and lived during the Jurassic period, about 150 million years ago. A group from the University of Oklahoma found skeletal remains of this dinosaur in Cimarron County in the 1930s.

Other Fossils in Oklahoma

Oklahoma is best know for its abundance of trilobite fossils. Trilobites were marine arthropods that lived from from 540 million to 250 million years ago.

Finding Fossils in Oklahoma

FossilSites.com lists areas throughout Oklahoma where you may find fossils. Another option for finding fossils is to join a fossil dig expedition through the Sam Noble Museum of Oklahoma History.

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Educational Dinosaur Games

Children love learning dinosaur facts.

Many children find dinosaurs fascinating. It is important to engage this interest with educational and entertaining ways to pass the time. Luckily, many companies are discovering that they are able to incorporate ways to engage a child's love for dinosaurs with a parent's love for education. It is truly a win-win for both parties.

Monopoly Junior Dig'n Dinos Board Game

This game also reinforces math skills because children can play the banker.

Monopoly Junior Dig'n Dinos is for two to four players ages 5 to 8. The game is designed to teach children about different types of dinosaurs and dinosaur fossils. The players challenge the other players, or paleontologists, to create their monopoly. You move your paleontologist token from geological dig to geological dig on the board. As in traditional monopoly, you have the option of purchasing these digs. As you travel around the digs, you will pick up fossils and learn about different eras such as the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. The game's duration is usually 45 minutes.

Dinosaurs and Things Board Game

The Dinosaurs and Things Board Game allows two or more players ages 8 and above to challenge their knowledge of dinosaurs and beyond. The game moves through the evolutionary cycle from the prehistoric age to today. Various levels in play will allow the game to remain challenging for years to come.

Discovery Kids Reconstruction Lab

With an adult's help, this game lets children ages 5 and above make inquisitive observations about dinosaurs and actively learn about the dinosaurs that once roamed our planet. Children learn conduct scientific experiments of their own. The Reconstruction Lab teaches through trail and error, and walking children through the scientific process.

Kidsdinos.com

Kidsdinos.com features free, interactive dinosaur games that test a child's knowledge of all things dinosaur. There are matching games, dinosaur hangman, dinosaur classification, dinosaur flashcards and dinosaur memory games on the website.

National Geographic Dinosaur Expedition Kits

As of August 2010, four of these kits are available; children can excavate a brachiosaurus, stegosaurus, triceratops, or a tyrannosaurus. The kits are recommended for ages 7 and up, and offer children can hands-on experience learning about dinosaurs. Much of what is included in the kit is found at digs, like a mallet and pick tool, a brush and a chisel. Also included are a fact sheet on the specific dinosaur being dug up, instructions, a dinosaur quiz and fact cards.

Dino-Dig Excavation Kit

If you are an educator, Lakeshore Learning sells a classroom set for preschools and kindergartens. Each kit comes with four sieves, brushes and 24 plastic dinosaur skeletons to hide in the sand for students to find.The skeletons come in 12 different species, making it possible for your classroom to conduct interesting and varied digs.

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