Usgs Energy Resources

The USGS studies distribution and quality of coal reserves.

The United States Geological Survey, or USGS, Energy Resources Program collects and disseminates research about geological sources of energy. These can include both conventional energy sources, or those sourced from fossil fuels, and non-conventional sources such as geothermal energy or natural bitumen (ref. 1). According to the USGS website, the program's purpose is to advance the "understanding of geologic processes and the economic, technical, and environmental factors affecting energy resource occurrence, availability and recoverability." Survey results are used to direct government energy policies and resource management.

Coal Research

The USGS has been researching coal for more than 100 years. As of 2010, coal resources supply more than half of the energy consumed in the U.S. (ref. 1). The USGS Energy Resources program concentrates research efforts in areas such as coal quality, quantity and availability of resources. With a recent push toward developing cleaner coal technologies, the USGS also focuses on issues such as coal's impacts on ecosystems, the health and environmental impacts of coal mining and combustion. The USGS coordinates access to several databases that provide information about coal resources, location and quality.

Petroleum Research

The USGS maintains a comprehensive approach to research into petroleum products, including oil and natural gas. Research projects have the goal of "estimating resource volumes in conventional and unconventional (continuous) oil and natural gas accumulations, including coalbed methane and gas from low-permeability geologic units such as 'tight gas sands'," according to the USGS website. Research results are used to develop estimates, or assessments, of amounts of petroleum products that are recoverable using currently-available extraction technologies.

The USGS operates three petroleum projects. The National Oil and Gas Assessment assesses the oil and natural gas reserves in the U.S. The World Petroleum Assessment's goal is to quantify and evaluate global natural gas and oil reserves. The Alaskan Petroleum Studies project explores the "origin, habitat and abundance" of Alaska's oil and gas reserves in order to develop accurate estimates (ref. 1).

Non-Conventional Energy Research

Though the USGS focuses on conventional, or fossil fuel-based, energy resources, the organization predicts a future shift toward non-conventional geological resources as the fossil fuel supply dwindles. Non-conventional energy resources can include gas hydrates, geo-thermal energy, heavy oil, natural bitumen, oil sands, oil shale, tar sands and uranium (ref. 1). Research in this area focuses on the geologic processes that influence the quality and distribution of non-conventional resources, according to the USGS.

Gas Hydrates Research

As of December, 2010, current research projects include studies into the endowment and recoverability of gas hydrates from Alaska's North Slope, the Gulf of Mexico, India and Canada's MacKenzie Delta. USGS defines gas hydrates as a "naturally-occurring, 'ice-like' combination of natural gas -- usually methane -- and water that has the potential to provide an immense resource of natural gas." Gas hydrate reserves lie under continental shelves and underneath land in Arctic regions.

Tags: according USGS, coal resources, energy resources, Energy Resources, geologic processes, more than

Know If You Own Your Mineral Rights

Use care when selling mineral rights to your property. The mining of these minerals can have a substantial impact on your quality of life.

When minerals, such as coal or even natural gas, are discovered in an area, many landowners in the surrounding areas wonder if they, too, will benefit. Indeed, the discovery of minerals beneath your property can be an unexpected windfall. But you will only receive the benefits of such a discovery if you own the mineral rights to your property, as well as the surface rights. If the mineral rights to your property were separated and sold, then this discovery will benefit the owner of those rights. Determining whether you own these rights is a well-defined, if difficult, process.

Instructions

1. Check your deed. Your deed may say that only the surface rights are being transferred. If this is the case, you do not own mineral rights to your property. If, however, the deed indicates that fee simple was transferred to you, you may own your mineral rights. Do not rely upon the deed alone, however. It is possible that these rights were transferred at some point in the past but that this transfer is not reflected on your deed.

2. Conduct a mineral rights search. The ease with which such a search can be conducted varies from state to state and county to county. Whatever the location of the property, however, a mineral rights search will have to be conducted using the files of the county clerk or recorder. You will need to determine every prior owner of the property, perhaps dating back as far as the 1800s (depending upon the area). You will then need to check the separate indexes for each of these owners to determine whether any of them transferred away mineral rights in the property.

3. Hire an attorney or specialty search company to conduct a search. If you are not confident in your ability to conduct the search yourself, hire an expert. Even if you do conduct all or part of the search yourself, a professional search can double-check your results and provide you with peace of mind.

Tags: mineral rights, your property, mineral rights your, rights your, rights your property

Past & Current Uses Of Radon

Radon is a colorless, odorless, tasteless radioactive gas which can cause lung cancer.

Radon forms from the natural radioactive decay of uranium. It constitutes one of the heaviest chemicals, and is gaseous at room temperature. Due to its density, it often accumulates in basements. It appears naturally, and at different concentrations depending on various geological factors. The Environmental Protection Agency says that radon acts as the second leading cause of lung cancer in the United States.

Treatment of Arthritis

Some evidence--such as by 1999 German study published in the Oxford journal of rheumatology--suggests that low doses of radon exposure can trigger natural repair mechanisms in the body and help treat arthritis. This type of treatment is called "radiation hormesis," and it remains controversial. Still, many people suffering from arthritis, multiple sclerosis, depression and other ailments visit "radon spas" in converted mines. Radioactive water baths and radon spas have been used since even before the specific discovery of radon in 1900, based on anecdotal reports that miners noticed a reduction in arthritis symptoms.

Cancer Treatment

Radon once saw use in radiation therapy to treat cancer, mostly from the 1940s to the 1960s. Since then, more modern radionuclides produced in particle accelerators and nuclear reactors have replaced radon. A form of "brachytherapy," which entailed a radiation source placed inside the body near the site of a tumor, constitutes one of the most common uses of radon for cancer treatment. It uses tiny radon-filled pellets made of glass, and then later gold, to destroy tumors. Gold replaced glass because it blocked alpha and beta radiation, which caused damage to healthy tissue, while allowing gamma radiation--the most useful in killing tumors--to escape.

Geology and Seismology

Radon concentrations have been used to map fault lines, because concentrations usually run higher above faults. Scientists investigated radon as a possible predictor of earthquakes, but this method has never proved to be especially reliable. It may still hold some potential, however, and studies still continue.

Tags: been used, cause lung, cause lung cancer, have been, have been used, lung cancer, radon spas

Identify Hematite

Hematite is easily identifiable by its characteristics.

Hematite can have important uses in society, including its role in the production of iron, which may make it an interesting mineral for geology enthusiasts to identify. The rock was the source of about 90 percent of the iron mined in the United States in 2002 and is also used to make jewelry. Its often unusual shape and density has led some people to mistake it for a meteorite. Hematite has several characteristics by which it can be identified.

Instructions

1. Look at the rock. If it is a black or rusty color it could be hematite, which can be found in both dark and reddish hues. Specular hematite may have a dark and reflective appearance with a metallic luster, while oolitic hematite has a brick-red coloring and contains tiny visible spheres.

2. Pick up the rock. If the rock seems heavy for its size, it may be hematite. The mineral has a specific gravity -- a measure of its density in relation to that of water -- of 5.25.

3. Rub the rock against the porcelain streak plate. If it leaves a reddish-brown streak, it may be hematite.

4. Scratch the surface of the rock with your fingernail. If you are not able to make a mark this way, use the copper penny, then the glass plate or steel knife, then the steel file. This is called the Mohs Hardness Test, and hematite is normally a five or six on the scale. This means that it may be scratched by the glass plate, steel knife or steel file, but the copper penny and fingernail would not make a mark.

Tags: copper penny, glass plate, glass plate steel, make mark, plate steel

Types Of Learning Materials

There is a variety of learning materials that can be used in class.

Different people learn in different ways; this is a fact of the classroom and something that teachers often try to overcome. Some students learn by hearing, others by watching and others by doing. To teach as many students as effectively as possible, educators need access to a variety of learning materials.

Textbooks

Whether it's an elementary school math book or a college criminal justice tome, a textbook is a standard learning material. A textbook acts as a reference, explaining a subject in a certain order that goes with the teacher's curriculum (although many teachers skip around in the textbook as they teach). Textbooks don't engage some students, though, especially since the writing style is rarely engaging.

Video

Video covers a wide variety of materials, but generally it refers to non-interactive video materials. For instance, if students in geology are learning about volcanoes, a Discovery Channel special about volcanoes in Hawaii or the Ring of Fire might be an engaging program to supplement other learning materials. Videos allow students to be entertained and educated at the same time, and they engage those who are more visual learners than those who are more auditory learners that otherwise would be fine with a teacher's lecture.

Labs

Hands-on experience is a good way to learn. Laboratory experiments or field trips fulfill this goal. It's one thing to learn about how erosion affects the seashore by looking at pictures on a projector or in a textbook, but it's another to be there to see how the sand and soil are dropping into the ocean. Additionally, it's one thing to know that acid can dissolve copper completely into a solution, but nothing brings home the science more than watching a penny eaten away until it's gone.

Tags: learning materials, about volcanoes, those more, variety learning, variety learning materials

Facts About Rock Formations

The beautiful rock formations of Bryce Canyon in Utah are formed from sedimentary rock.

There are three main types of rocks on the planet: sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic. All visible rock formations are made up of one of these three types of rock. Surface outcrop rocks can be spectacular to view; the Grand Canyon in Arizona is one example. Does this Spark an idea?

Rock Formations from Sedimentary Rocks

The sedimentary rocks sandstone, limestone and shale form the breathtaking Grand Canyon rock formation.

Sedimentary rocks are formed from deposits of sand, limestone, fossils and organic matter, or other sediment. One outstanding example of sedimentary rock formation is the Grand Canyon, which is made up largely of sandstone, limestone and shale. Gradual but steady erosion over millennia causes rocks to turn into rock formations.

Igneous Rock Formations

The Devil's Tower is an igneous rock formation, formed from an ancient volcano.

Igneous rock is created when lava that once flowed from volcanoes dries and hardens. One prominent example of an igneous rock formation is the Devil's Tower National Monument, which rises 1,267 feet above the Belle Fourche River in Wyoming. The structure itself is the result of ancient volcanic activity.

Metamorphic Rock Formations

Marble quarries in the Alps of Italy; Marble is a metamorphic rock.

Metamorphic rocks are created by natural forces from sedimentary or igneous rocks. Pressure and heat combine to change, or metamorphose, the rock from one type to another. Marble is an example of a rock that is formed from limestone to become a more valuable and refined type of rock.

Tags: formed from, rock formation, Grand Canyon, Rock Formations, Devil Tower, from sedimentary, igneous rock formation

Hunt For Fire Opals In Nevada

Dig for opals.

While you see only bare hills when visiting Northern Nevada's Virgin Valley today, the area was covered in lakes and forests nearly 14 million years ago. Volcanoes periodically erupted in the area numerous times over the next million years, resulting in layers of accumulated blasted trees and ash. Fire opals were created from the blasted trees and ash combining with super-hot water bubbling upward from the earth. Mining for fire opals began in 1905 and since then millions of dollars' worth of opals have been taken from the area. You can dig for fire opals today at one of the area's mines.

Instructions

1. Research identify fire opals. Fire opals are translucent or transparent with a red or orange body color, according to Opals.info.

2. Call the various mines of the Virgin Valley of North Nevada for digging fees, times of operation and accommodation information, if applicable. Mines include the Bonanza Opal Mine, the Royal Peacock Opal Mine and the Opal Queen Mining Company. The Royal Peacock is open for public digging May through October while the Bonanza Opal Mine is open May through the end of September. Opal Queen Mining Company is open all year round for private digs.

3. Make accommodation arrangements, if applicable. Full RV hookup at Royal Peacock is $35 per day while camper or tent rental space is $7 per day per person and includes access to showers, restrooms and laundry rooms. Bonanza Opal Mine's website features a list of inns, hotels and motels near the mine while the Opal Queen Mining Company features a hot springs campground with shower but no hook-ups and a motel on-site.

4. Dig for opals in designated digging areas. Push the shovel or rake into the dirt for resistance, which can indicate the presence of opals. Although the ground may be hard from people walking on it, dirt will eventually move from the pressure put on it by the shovel, while opal rocks will not. Use your kneeling pad for comfort as you dig if desired. Push away the dirt around the uncovered opal and hit the opal with a hammer to break off a small piece. Examine the rock for the characteristics of fire opals and use a small pick to remove other pieces of opal from the larger rock. Place found opals in your bucket.

5. Clean and cut found opals as desired.

Tags: Opal Mine, Bonanza Opal, Bonanza Opal Mine, Mining Company, Opal Queen

Careers In Mining Engineering

Underground mining engineers are responsible for making sure mine shafts meet safety regulations.

Mining engineers' main function is to extract ore and other minerals from the earth. They typically spend their days in mining pits, supervising large crews of workers. When deposits of ore are discovered, mining firms send engineers to study maps, waterways and samples of rock. They then meet with scientists and government officials to assess whether mining the minerals is cost effective. If a specific project gets the green light, several roles open up for mining engineers.

Mining Engineer

The mining engineer is responsible for providing project management and technical support to the mine. This includes mine ventilation systems, rock mechanics, mapping, mine design, equipment design and selection, environmental compliance, safety compliance and record keeping.

Underground Mining Engineer

Underground mining engineers supervise the construction of the mine roof, which ensures safety for all underground mine personnel. They are responsible for planning and updating the long-term project. They are expected to have a vast knowledge of underground mine planning, blasting, and underground crushing and conveying.

Mining Inspector

A mining inspector is in charge of the safety of the mine. This includes making sure the day-to-day operations of the mining shafts, conveyor belts, mining equipment, blasting equipment and ventilation systems meet government safety regulations.

Consulting

A mining consultant typically works for an engineering firm and offers opinion and insight on all issues related to the mining project. Consulting positions are also available at equipment design firms, where consultants would advise mining companies on the designs of the mine shafts, choosing blasting equipment, and the intricate hand tools used by the underground miners.

Other Careers

Many experienced mining engineers become salespeople at mining equipment companies. Some go back to school and obtain doctorate degrees in engineering in order to teach and train potential mining engineers at major universities. And others are hired to do research or run engineering firms.

Tags: mining engineers, blasting equipment, equipment design, making sure, mine shafts, mine This

Visit The Best Of Utah Parks

Delicate Arch is located in Arches National Park and is one of Utah's most famous sights.

The state of Utah has six national parks and is revered by many as one of the most beautiful states in the country. In addition to these national parks Utah has countless acres of Bureau of Land Management (BLM) land as well as an extensive state park system. While most vacationers won't get to see everything this state has to offer, there are some sites that shouldn't be missed.

Instructions

1. A car is a necessity to see Utah's parks.

Having a car is a necessity to see the highlights of Utah's beautiful landscape. Whether you drive your own car or rent one, plan to hit attractions in a logical order. Utah is a vast state with lots of open land. Without proper planning entire days may be consumed by drive time. If you are renting a car or have a decision of what type of car to bring, do not be concerned with four wheel drive. There are many places in Utah only accessible by four wheel drive, but most of the most popular highlights do not require this feature.

2. Canyonlands National Park is huge. Plan enough time to see more than a small part of it.

Spend enough time in each park to warrant your stop. With the large size of many of Utah's national parks, this means that a minimum of one full day will be needed. A general guide of highlights you shouldn't miss as well as time to plan for each park are as follows. Remember, this list does not include many additional spectacular parks and sites, and the times listed are a minimum amount of time to spend. It is easy to spend much more time. Don't forget to include these drive times between sites!

Zion National Park: 1 Day

Bryce Canyon National Park: 1 Day

Capitol Reef National Park: 1 Day

Goblin Valley State Park: ½ Day

Little Wild Horse Slot Canyon: ½ Day

Canyonlands National Park Needles District: 1-2 Days

Canyonlands National Park Island in the Sky District: 1 Day

Arches National Park: 1-2 Days

3. Wandering through Goblin Valley can be an one hour or all day hike depending on your desires and hiking ability.

Hike a lot and see a lot. To see the best of Utah you will often have to hike. Some hikes are relatively short and easy, while others can be taxing, especially in the hot summer months. Know your body's abilities when you plan your trip. If you are a good hiker try to fit these attractions into your visits to each of the aforementioned parks: In Zion National Park, the most well-known and popular hikes are Angel's Landing and The Narrows. In Bryce Canyon National Park, take any of the hiking trails but make sure you walk down into the Hoodoos. In Capitol Reef National Park skip the better known hikes and hike up the four wheel drive trail to the Strike Valley Overlook. Wander through Goblin Valley State Park at your leisure, and hike at least the first two miles of Little Wild Horse Slot Canyon located nearby. In Canyonlands National Park Needles District, plan on visiting the Chesler Park area. In Canyonlands National Park Island in the Sky District, don't miss Mesa Arch or the Grand View Point. Finally, in Arches National Park make sure you hike up to Delicate Arch, the Windows loop, and the primitive trail at the Devil's Garden.

Arches National Park

PO Box 907

Moab, UT 84532

http://www.nps.gov/arch/index.htm

Bryce Canyon National Park

PO Box 640201

Bryce, UT 84764-0201

http://www.nps.gov/brca/index.htm

Canyonlands National Park

2282 SW Resource Blvd.

Moab, Utah 84532

http://www.nps.gov/cany/index.htm

Capitol Reef National Park

52 Scenic Drive

Torrey, UT 84775

http://www.nps.gov/care/index.htm

Goblin Valley State Park

P.O. Box 637

Green River, UT 84525-0637

http://stateparks.utah.gov/parks/goblin-valley

Zion National Park

Springdale, Utah 84767

http://www.nps.gov/zion/index.htm

Tags: National Park, Canyonlands National, Canyonlands National Park, Arches National, Arches National Park, Goblin Valley

Potomac Maryland Native Plants

Maryland's Piedmont Plateau Province has rolling hills covered with woodlands.

Potomac, Maryland is situated in the Upland section of the Piedmont Plateau Province in Montgomery County. This region has clay soil and hilly terrain. The growing season is usually from May 10 to October 10. Rocky outcroppings, stream valleys and hardwood forests beautify the landscape. When colonists first came to Maryland in the 1600s, forests covered almost the entire state. Today's forests have less of the hardwood species and more pine due to reforestation efforts

Trees

Common tall hardwood trees include red, white and chestnut oak, ash, tulip poplar, American basswood, red and silver maples, sweet and river birches, beech, persimmon, sycamore and black walnut. Pine trees include shortleaf, pitch, white and Virginia pines. Smaller trees that occur as forest understory are eastern redbud, flowering dogwood, American holly, serviceberry, crabapple, sassafras and sweetbay magnolia. (see Reference 4)

Vines

Native vines include red-flowered trumpet creeper and coral honeysuckle, which attract hummingbirds; American bittersweet, leather flower, Virgin's bower and Virginia creeper.

Shrubs

Shrubs occur primarily at forest edges, in thickets and as forest understory. Some native tall shrubs are American hazelnut, mountain laurel, staghorn and winged sumac, alder, possum haw and black haw. Medium-sized shrubs include chokeberry, buttonbush, witch hazel, rhododendron, azalea, elderberry, swamp rose, and deerberry. Some of the low shrubs that occur are black huckleberry, blackberry, lowbush blueberry, pasture rose and St. John's wort.

Water-loving Plants

Along streams and in pools, sweet and blue flags can occur, as well as rushes, fragrant and yellow water lilies, arum, sedges and cattails.

Herbaceous Wildflowers

Many kinds of wildflowers lend color to the landscape in spring, summer and fall. They occur on forest floors, meadows, fields and along roadsides. Some wildflowers that prefer shaded forest understory are jack-in-the-pulpit, columbine, snakeroot, spring beauty, Dutchman's breeches, trout lily, hepatica, alumroot, Virginia bluebells, Mayapple, Solomon's seal, bloodroot and Virginia spiderwort. Wildflowers that grow in more open habitats include bird's foot violet, goldenrods, blue-eyed grass, coneflower, beardtongue, horsemint, lilies, sunflowers, coreopsis and asters.

Groundcovers

Ground-hugging native plants mostly prefer shade or partial shade, and include stonecrop, wood sorrel, moss phlox, mayflower, wintergreen, partridgeberry and wild ginger.

Grasses

Most grasses grow in areas with dry to moist soil types. Common grasses include broom sedge, river oats, Canada and Virginia wild rye, Virginia switch grass, and Indiangrass.

Ferns

Most ferns occupy moist to wet soils and shaded or semi-shaded areas. Some fern types native to the Potomac area include maidenhair fern, southern lady fern, evergreen wood fern, New York fern, and Virginia chain fern.

Tags: forest understory, occur forest, Piedmont Plateau, Piedmont Plateau Province, Plateau Province

The Average Salary Of A Geophysicist

Most geoscientists, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, work for architectural, engineering and related services; oil and gas extraction companies; and state and federal government. These scientists include geophysicists, geologists and oceanographers, which the BLS includes together in its salary figures.

Starting Salary

According to the PayScale salary survey website, median starting salary for geophysicists in 2009 is about $57,000, with an increase to $91,000 with 5 years experience.

High-Paying Employers

PayScale shows geophysicists working for oil and gas companies earning a median salary of $110,000 to $113,000, and those working for other energy and utility companies earn about $98,000.

Government Opportunity

The National Association of Colleges and Employers states that in 2007, geophysicists working for the federal government were earning an average of about $100,500, compared to $93,000 for oceanographers and $87,000 for geologists.

Average Salary

According to the BLS, the average salary for all geoscientists in 2008 was about $43 per hour, or $89,000 annually. The top 10 percent were earning over $155,000.

Geography

The highest average salary for geoscientists is in Texas, a state which employs a large number of these workers. Geoscientists there can expect to earn about $124,000 annually. In Bakersfield, Calif., the average geoscientist salary is about $113,000, and in Oklahoma City, Okla., about $108,000.

Tags: average salary geoscientists, earn about, federal government, geophysicists working, Salary According, salary geoscientists, were earning

What Are The Standards For High School Graduation In Tennessee

What Are the Standards for High School Graduation in Tennessee?

The Tennessee Department of Education introduced the Tennessee Diploma Project ( TDP) during the 2009 to 2010 school year. The purpose of the Tennessee Diploma Project is to increase current standards and curriculum to better prepare its students for college and the workforce.

Students now need 22 credits to graduate instead of 20 and to complete new assessments. End-of-course tests are given for 10 core courses; such examinations are designed to test student knowledge as well as help plan their education.

End-of-course tests are weighted into the students course average. Beginning in 2011, the end-of-course tests are worth 25 percent of the course grade. Students do not need to pass individual exams as long as they have a passing class average.

Math

Tennessee requires four credits of math, including Algebra I, Algebra II, Geometry and a higher level math course, such as Statistics, Pre Calculus or Calculus. Algebra I, Algebra II and Geometry are core courses and have an end-of-course test that counts towards the final grade.

Science

Three credits of science are required. Science classes include Biology, Chemistry or Physics, and a third lab course, such as Earth Science or Geology. Biology, Chemistry and Physics all require an end-of-course examination.

English and Social Studies

Four credits of English and three credits of Social Studies are required. Social Studies curriculum includes United States History, World History/World Geography, Economics, and Government. English I, II and III and U.S. History require an end-of-course examination.

Physical Education, Wellness and Personal Finance

Tennessee requires 1.5 credits of Physical Education and Wellness, as well as 0.5 credits of Personal Finance.

Electives

Two credits of Foreign Language are required. One credit of Fine Arts is required, although the requirement may be waived for students not planning on attending a university in lieu of additional elective focus credits.

Three credits of Elective Focus are required. These include Math and Science, Career and Technical Education, Fine Arts, Humanities, Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB).

Tags: Social Studies, Algebra Algebra, Algebra Algebra Geometry, Algebra Geometry, Biology Chemistry, Biology Chemistry Physics

Create A Fossil

The process of an animal or plant becoming a fossil is usually taught in the elementary grades. Children will learn the different types of fossils such as petrified fossils or trace fossils. After the paleontology lesson is complete, students will benefit from creating their own fossils. This will allow them to witness the process first hand. These fossils can then be displayed in the classroom to act as a reminder of the lesson.

Instructions

1. Place the flour, salt, vegetable oil, and alum in a large bowl. Mix these ingredients together.

2. Add the water slowly, mixing all the ingredients at the same time. Cold water works best. Stop when you have added all of the water.

3. Knead the mixture like you would bread dough.

4. Separate the dough so that each student gets a one-inch ball of dough.

5. Lay down a sheet of wax paper for each student, and then lay the fossil dough on top of it.

6. Flatten the dough. Once the dough is flat, the students can press an object in the dough. Leaves, shells, and stones will all make good fossils. Students can even use acorns if they want.

7. Remove the object after the student has made the impression and then set the dough out to dry. The fossil is now complete.

Tags: each student

Geologist Instruments

Geologists will often carry a variety of small specimen bottles and containers in order to collect rock, water and soil samples.

Geologists work with the earth as it is now to understand how it was in the past and how it might be in the future. Certain tools and instruments make a geologist's job easier to complete. Some of these tools are very simple and haven't changed much over decades, while others are more high-tech, specialized and expensive.

Brunton Compass

The Brunton compass is a specific type of magnetic compass created by geologist David W. Brunton in the 1890s. With this compass, a geologist can measure "strike and dip" -- the physical orientation of rock layers, faults and other geographical features. By knowing the exact measurements of sediment layers, the geologist can make more accurate guesses as to when, why and how the earth was disrupted. The Brunton compass has been a fixture of geological surveying since its invention, though nowadays it may be accompanied by all-purpose GPS devices and computer or smart phone applications that help calculate strike and dip.

Hand Lens

A hand lens, also known as a magnifying glass, is used to give a geologist a magnified view of the earth or rocks she's examining. Sediment, fine-grained earth, soil and rocks often have much more detail than the human eye can see without magnification. Many geologists use small foldable hand lenses that can be worn on a cord around the neck so that they are always at the ready.

Hammers & Chisels

Geologists use a series of small hammers and chisels for breaking rocks. The outer surface of a rock is rougher and more eroded than the protected inside. To uncover the history and composition of a rock, a geologist will split it in half to reveal the inside layers. The color, texture and patterns of the inside of a rock can help a geologist discern things about the immediate environment. A geologist can also determine what the rock is made of based on how easily it splits, and the way it splits, chips or breaks.

Rock hammers come with pointed tips, best for igneous or metamorphic rocks, or chisel tips, best for sedimentary rocks and soils. Chisels, paired with small sledge hammers called crack hammers, are additional precision tools for working with minerals and fossils.

Field Book

A geologist working outside requires a durable field book, both for quick reference and for taking field notes. Charts, tables, shorthand notes about rocks, soil and minerals, and blank paper for taking new notes are included in a field book. Field books are often water- and weather-proof to withstand harsh conditions. Detailed field books include a scale against which to compare rock, mineral, soil and fine-grain samples. Waterproof pens and topographical maps are also key accessories included in a geologist's daypack.

Tags: Brunton compass, field book, tips best

The Highestpaid Jobs In Petroleum Engineering

Petroleum engineers design methods of extracting petroleum.

Petroleum engineers design methods of extracting petroleum and gas products from their ores or deposits. Once deposits have been discovered, engineers work together with geologists and other experts to understand the area's geology to determine drill the petroleum products from the ore. Petroleum engineers design the equipment and processes that will generate maximum profitable recovery of the petroleum products.

Average Salaries

Petroleum engineers are among the best paid citizens in the U.S. According to the Occupational Employment Statistics of May 2010, engineers earned an hourly mean salary of $61.53, bringing the annual mean salary to a total of $127,970. The Occupational Employment Statistics shows that only 10 percent of the petroleum engineers earned $30.52 per hour, or $63,480 annually. More than 75 percent of the petroleum engineers made an average of $76.24 per hour and a yearly salary of $158,580.

Highest Paying Jobs

The Occupational Employment Statistics of May 2010 show that among the highest paying jobs for petroleum engineers were those in administrative services and management. Natural science engineers and those working in computer and information system jobs also earned high salaries. The highest salaries averaged above $130,000 annually.

Top Paying States

According to the Occupational Employment Statistics of May 2010, petroleum engineering salaries varied depending on the location or the state where the engineer was employed. For example, the state of North Dakota was the best place for a petroleum engineer to be employed during that year since he could make an average of $99.29 per hour, totaling up to $206,530 annually. Alaska, Oklahoma, Texas and New York states were also in the highest paying states category in that order.

Top Metropolitan Areas

The top metropolitan area for a petroleum engineer to be employed as of May 2010 was Anchorage, Alaska where petroleum engineers made a mean wage of $81.64 per hour and a total of $169,810 annually. Other top metropolitan paying areas included Pittsburgh, Fort Smith and Oklahoma, respectively.

Top Non-Metropolitan Areas

The top non-metropolitan area that paid the highest wages in 2010 was Far Western North Dakota where a petroleum engineer made $107.93 per hour and $224,500 annually. Other non-metropolitan places paying high incomes included Eastern Texas, Northwestern Texas and North Central Texas in that order.

Tags: Employment Statistics, Occupational Employment, Occupational Employment Statistics, Employment Statistics 2010, engineer employed, engineers design, petroleum engineer

Make A Realistic Erupting Volcano

Volcano

Volcanoes are always an interesting natural phenomenon to kids, especially when the volcano is erupting and spewing lava from the top. Making realistic erupting volcanoes is a staple of elementary and high school science fairs. This guide shows create a realistic-looking erupting volcano using household supplies. It is a simple project that can be embellished as much as the creators choose.

Instructions

1. Make the material for the outside of the volcano. The outside of the volcano will be sculpted with a flour mixture, not unlike that of papier-mâché but thicker like a cake batter. Mix the 6 cups of flour, 2 cups of salt, 4 tablespoons of cooking oil and 2 cups of water in a large bowl until the mixture is smooth and firm. Add some food coloring to color the dough as the color of a real volcano -- a kind of a dark brown (use some red and blue food coloring). Place the dough on a flat surface coated with flour and roll it out into a large thin sheet with a rolling pin (it should be large enough to cover the soda bottle and the rest of the volcano parts).

2. Assemble the volcano. Cut a sheet of cardboard from a box (about 2 foot square) and lay it on a flat surface. Place the 1-liter soda bottle (with the bottle cap removed) in the center of the sheet of cardboard and attach it with superglue. Roll the old newspaper into large balls and tape or glue them together around the outside of the bubble to form the cone shape of the volcano (make sure they go around the top of the bottle but not blocking the spout of the bottle. Lay the sheet of dough over the bottle and the newspaper balls. Place a hole in the dough over the top of the spout of the bottle. Tease the surface of the wet dough with a metal fork to give it the appearance of the surface of the volcano rock. Allow the dough to dry.

3. Decorate the volcano. Paint the dough with earthy colors for the rocks, dark green for vegetation, and orange, yellow and red around the outside of the top to represent the lava starting to flow out. Be as creative as you want.

4. Make the volcano erupt. Pour 1 tablespoon of dish soap, 1 tablespoon of baking soda, food coloring to make the liquid look like lava (red and yellow) and a few tablespoons of water into the spout of the soda bottle. Prepare the volcano and spectators for the eruption. Pour 1/4 cup of vinegar into the bottle on top of the other ingredients; the chemical reaction between ingredients causes the colored liquid to foam and shoot out through the bottle spout and over the edges of the volcano.

Tags: food coloring, soda bottle, around outside, dough over, dough with, flat surface, into large

Meteorology In North Carolina Colleges

Several North Carolina colleges offer meteorology degrees and coursework.

Several North Carolina colleges offer degrees and coursework in meteorology, which is the study of the atmosphere, weather and forecasting. Meteorologists learn to predict tornadoes and hurricanes and to monitor the effects of atmospheric change on the earth's climate. The most popular application of meteorology is weather forecasting. However, other fields include air pollution control, transportation, defense and the study of climatic global warming and ozone depletion trends.

North Carolina State University- Raleigh

North Carolina State University in Raleigh offers a Bachelor of Science degree in Meteorology in the Department of Marine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences. Students can also concentrate on two meteorological areas: marine science and air quality. Classes include "Global Atmosphere," "Weather Measurement and Analysis," "Atmospheric Physics" and "Marine Meteorology."

North Carolina State University

Department of Marine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences

Campus Box 8208

Raleigh, NC 27695

919-515-3711

ncsu.edu

University of North Carolina at Asheville

University of North Carolina at Asheville offers a Bachelor of Science program in two concentrations in the Atmospheric Sciences Department: climatology and mathematics and weather forecasting, both of which fulfill "federal civil service requirements for employment as a meteorologist," according to the school's website. Students focusing on climatology can prepare for graduate work with a specialization in climatology and mathematics. Students in the weather forecasting concentration learn weather analysis and forecasting and relay the information to others. The National Climatic Data Center is located in Asheville and provides students with an opportunity to practice weather forecasting skills.

University of North Carolina at Asheville

One University Heights

Asheville, NC 28804

828.232.5000

unca.edu

University of North Carolina at Charlotte

University of North Carolina at Charlotte offers a Bachelor of Science degree in Meteorology through the Department of Geography and Earth Sciences. The program prepares students for television and radio weathercasting, operational forecasting and atmospheric sciences with a series of courses in mathematics, chemistry, physics and earth science, along with meteorology research.

University of North Carolina at Charlotte

Department of Geography and Earth Sciences

9201 University City Blvd.

McEniry Building, Room 324

Charlotte, NC 28223

704-687-5973

uncc.edu

Appalachian State University

Appalachian State University offers several courses in meteorology, including "Introduction to Meteorology," "Physical Principles of Meteorology" and "Global Climate Change." The university is also home to the Appalachian Atmospheric Interdisciplinary Research Program (AppalAIR), which is an air quality and climate research initiative with the goal of "interdisciplinary research and teaching program for exploring atmospheric processes," according to the college's website.

Appalachian State University

Boone, NC 28608

828-262-2000

appstate.edu

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill offers meteorology courses such as "Earth and Climate" and "Climate Change" as part of the Geology Department and "Global Climate Change" in the Environment Sciences Department. The college is also home to the Southeast Regional Climate Center, one of six regional climate centers in the United States. It covers Alabama, Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, according to its website.

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

210 Pittsboro Street

Chapel Hill, NC 27599

unc.edu

Western Carolina University

Western Carolina University offers basic meteorology education, including "Weather and Climate" and "Environmental Geography," both in the Geosciences and Natural Resources Department.

Western Carolina University

Geosciences and Natural Resources Department

331 Stillwell Building

Cullowhee, NC 28723

828-227-7367

wcu.edu

Tags: North Carolina, University North, University North Carolina, State University, weather forecasting

The Difference Between Physical Science & Social Science

Natural science includes fields like biology, chemistry, physics and geology.

Physical and social sciences, two large categories that each include a variety of fields, are each concerned with scientific description of observable phenomena. The approach each takes in that pursuit and the phenomena each chooses to study, however, differentiates the two as separate intellectual methods with different conceptions of observable reality. The two have different objects of study, methodology and experimental philosophies, yet the boundaries between the two are not always completely clear.

Objects of Study

The social sciences include fields like economics, anthropology, sociology and psychology.

Generally speaking, the object of physical science (also called natural or exact science) research is physical phenomena in their concrete reality, without being concerned with cultural context. Natural sciences like chemistry and physics, for instance, study the physical behavior of objects like cars in motion or acid solutions, only concerned with how the objects behave and what conclusions can be reached in order to understand those behaviors in the past or predict them into the future. Social sciences like anthropology and economics, however, tend to ask questions about the social context in which those objects find themselves, assuming that social forces like supply and demand or cultural affinity are more likely to explain how the world works (and will work in the future) than natural laws. In response to a research problem involving numerous deaths in automobile accidents, for instance, a physicist might study the behavior of bodies in motion upon collision in order to build safer automobiles, while an anthropologist might study the motivations for speeding in order to design effective, culturally appropriate anti-speeding campaigns.

Epistemological Approach

The scientific method, the approach of repeated trials until a pattern is discovered or another conclusion can be proved false, is the well-known basis of physical sciences. In fact, the development of the natural sciences relies on repeated laboratory testing of hypotheses, the reproducibility of results and the constant challenging of established laws and theories. Experimental data is turned into theories and laws about the way the world operates, theories that are used to predict future observations until laboratory testing manages to produce a different result. Using a different approach, the social sciences tend to collect experiential data in order to establish a broad social phenomenon. The inability to place all of society in a laboratory creates an experiential (as opposed to experimental) methodology where the results or observations of changing phenomena are not as easily reproduced in a laboratory.

Methodology

The methodology used by natural sciences is fairly straightforward: an experimental observation is abstracted to a natural constant like a law--water at standard temperature and pressure, for example, boils at 100 degrees Celsius--and used to describe and predict natural phenomena until the hypothesis can be disproved. Natural sciences assume that every molecule of water will behave like every other molecule of water in accordance with this rule, a methodology highly criticized by social scientists who begin with the assumption that they are studying complex and changing social phenomena that can only be described in a specific place and time. Human beings, as members of a social unit, have certain characteristics of the collective, but also respond to personal traits and characteristics drawn from other cultures. As a result, social scientists use methods like field observation, data collection and focus groups to generate positions and theories, acknowledging that a similar study at another time may produce different results.

Complexity and Interdisciplinary Study

While physical and social sciences are often described as two exclusive categories, the reality is that each draws from certain approaches and methodologies of the other. Economics, for example, a social science, includes both research using traditional social science methods like interviews and focus groups to predict consumer behavior and studies using complex mathematical modeling more reminiscent of physics or chemistry. Similarly, the study of ecology, a physical science, recognizes that its object of study is involved in such a complex web of ecosystem inter-dependencies that it is often forced to use sampling methods innovated by the social sciences in order to begin to make sense of a complex situation.

Tags: social sciences, concerned with, chemistry physics, fields like, focus groups, laboratory testing

How Is A Natural Disaster Classified

Tornadoes are categorized by the Enhanced F-scale.

According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, natural disasters are naturally occurring events that can cause severe threats to the public health. Tornadoes, hurricanes, volcanoes and earthquakes each have developed classification systems that gauge the intensity of an event by assessing a number of set factors. These classification methods help researchers study disasters patterns, and help educate the public to plan and prepare for potential disasters.

Hurricanes

The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale, revised in 2010, categorizes hurricanes from 1 to 5 based on the hurricane's strength at the indicated time. The scale provides examples of the type of damage associated with winds of the indicated intensity, with wind damage increasing by a factor of four from each category increase, according to the National Hurricane Center. Category One hurricanes feature "dangerous winds that produce some damage," with sustained wind speeds from 75 to 95 mph; Category Five hurricanes indicate that "catastrophic damage will occur," and feature sustained wind speeds of over 155 mph.

Tornadoes

The Fujita Scale, also known as the Fujita-Pearson Scale, is the official classification system used to rate tornado intensity, from F0 to F5. According to NOAA, it works by measuring how much destruction is caused after a tornado has passed over a man-made structure, correlating damage to wind speed. Professor Tetsuya "Ted" Fujita and Allen Pearson (director of the National Severe Storm Forecast Center) invented the method in 1971. The F-scale is very subjective, largely depending on the judgment call of the surveyor.

Weather researchers now use the "Enhanced F-scale," which classifies the original F0-F5 damage by using 28 different types of damage indicators, set by engineers and meteorologists. A customized approach is employed to assess the damage of buildings and other structures, depending on materials and foundations. Just like the original F-scale, the enhanced version rates the tornado as a whole based on most severe damage within its path, and is subjective. The enhanced F-scale took effect February 2007.

Volcanoes

The Volcanic Explosivity Index is a scale designed to measure the intensity of volcanic eruptions, using a VEI index of 0 (non-explosive) to 8 (mega-colossal). In the 0-8 scale, each category represents an increase in intensity by a factor of ten. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, the VEI measures the volume of ash produced, the height of the eruption cloud over the vent, and the duration of the eruption.

Earthquakes

The Richter Magnitude Scale is a mathematical method that compares the intensity of earthquakes. Seismic waves are vibrations within the earth that are measured on instruments called seismographs. Charles F. Richter invented the scale in 1935, which employs a logarithm to measure the amplitude of seismic waves recorded on seismographs, according to the U.S. Geological Survey. The magnitude of an earthquake is quantified by whole numbers and decimal fractions. A magnitude of 2.0 or less is called a microearthquake, 4.5 is strong enough to be recorded on seismographs globally. A magnitude of 8.0 or higher is called a great earthquake; and the USGS reports that on average, at least one of these occurs somewhere in the world each year. The Richter Magnitude Scale is used only to measure seismic activity, not damage.

Typhoons

According to the National Institute of Informatics, the strength of a typhoon is measured by the maximum sustained wind speed, as reported by the World Meteorological Organization. The international standard measures a Class 2 cyclone, or Tropical Depression, as wind less than 33 knots. Class 3, a Tropical Storm, has wind speeds of from 34 to 47 knots; while Class 4, a Severe Tropical Storm, features winds of 48 to 63 knots. A Class 5 tropical cyclone is called a typhoon, and sports winds from 64 to 105 knots and beyond.

U.S. meteorological organizations classify the intensity of typhoons in concert with hurricanes, utilizing the Saffir-Simpson Scale's categories 1 through 5 (see hurricanes, above). A typhoon refers to storms that begin in the Western Pacific (Japan, Philippines, Guam), which are usually stronger than hurricanes, but generally involve less land mass.

Tags: sustained wind, wind speeds, each category, Enhanced F-scale, from knots, Geological Survey

Mesozoic History Of Colorado

The Mesozoic Era lasted more than 180 million years and was marked by a generally tropical climate where plants and animals -- especially dinosaurs -- thrived. Today, Colorado retains evidence of its Mesozoic history in fossils, geographic formations and natural history landmarks.

The Mesozoic Era

The Mesozoic (meaning "middle life") Era, or the Age of Dinosaurs, occurred 248 to 65 million years ago at the end of the Paleozoic Era. At that time, the Colorado Plateau separated from Pangea, the supercontinent. The Mesozoic is divided into three time periods: Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous. Dinosaurs evolved and early mammals first appeared during the Mesozoic Era.

Colorado During the Mesozoic

Colorado was desert-like for a good portion of the Mesozoic, although it was also above and below water many times. Volcanic mountain ranges to the east erupted and coated what is modern-day Colorado beneath layers of ash. Later, lakes, rivers and inland seas developed, evidence of which can still be seen in the earth's sediment. These bodies of water created massive geological formations that still can be seen today, like the Chinle and Kayenta in Arizona, Utah and Colorado. Uplift -- or the collision of two continents -- in the Colorado Plateau was created by orogenies (or mountain-building events), and there are a series of sandstone cliffs in the central Colorado Plateau.

During the mid-Mesozoic Era, Colorado got cooler and more damp, and plant life increased. Dinosaurs and small lizards moved in. Most of today's oil and coal deposits are from the Mesozoic. At the end of the Mesozoic, Colorado was covered by a shallow sea. This sea receded slowly to the east, and left behind a swampland that was rich with vegetation and ideal for dinosaurs.

Plants

During the late Mesozoic, subtropical forests covered parts of Colorado. Plants in these areas included palms, ferns, cedar trees, cycads, horsetails, gingkos, figs, magnolias and oaks.

Animals

During the Mesozoic, large amphibians, small early mammals (most no larger than a cat) and dinosaurs roamed the lands of Colorado. Some of the more well-known dinosaurs of the Mesozoic were Stegosaurus, Riojasaurus, Triceratops, Ichthyodectes, and Tyrannosaurus rex. There were also turtles, fish, snails, frogs, lizards, crocodiles, early sharks, marine invertebrates, and insects, including termites.

Preservation of the Mesozoic Era in Colorado Today

One of the most famous Mesozoic fossil locations in Colorado is Dinosaur Ridge in Morrison, Colo. Apatosaurus, Diplodocus, Stegosaurus and Allosaurus remains were found there in 1877 by geologist Arthur Lakes. Visitors can still see bones and tracks of different Mesozoic creatures. The area was designated Morrison Fossil Area National Natural Landmark by the National Park Service in 1973.

Another popular site is Dinosaur National Monument, located between Colorado and Utah where the Green and Yampa rivers meet. Paleontologist Earl Douglass first discovered fossils there in 1909. Eleven different kinds of dinosaurs have since been discovered in the area.

In a tribute to its Mesozoic past, Colorado's state fossil is a Stegosaurus, designated in 1982.

Tags: Mesozoic Colorado, Colorado Plateau, early mammals, Mesozoic Mesozoic, million years, still seen

Explain Different Kinds Of Scientists To Children

Explaining science to your child doesn't have to be a tricky formula.

Many children love science and want to learn as much as possible about the subject. However, you may feel lost in trying to explain the different types of science and scientists to your child. From biologists to geologists to oceanographers, each discipline of science is unique and has distinct similarities and differences to other types of science. Knowing generally explain each discipline can help you to explain each type of scientists to your child.

Instructions

1. Check out books from the local library about the different science disciplines, such as biology, chemistry, geology, physics, astronomy and meteorology. Read the books with your child to help her understand the different roles a scientist can have and to explain that not all scientists study or do the same thing.

2. Watch shows on television depicting science and how it works. For example, Dragonfly TV on PBS Kids features real scientists doing work in their environment. You can check out their website for more information. Or you can watch the Weather Channel or Discovery TV for more science-related programs.

3. Utilize the Internet to find information on scientists for help explaining different types to your child. You can find lists of scientists who shaped the world and influenced others, as well as brief biographies of each. You can teach your child what each scientist contributed to today's modern world and how they think life would be different if those discoveries never happened.

4. Play pretend games with science to help your child learn what each type of scientist does. For example, you can teach your child about geology and go into your back yard to look for different types of rocks. Spend a night under the stars and teach your child about astronomy or do some simple experiments in your kitchen to learn about chemistry.

5. Take a field trip to a museum or science center. These are places where children can learn about all types of science in one place. Your child will learn about how science works and may even be able to talk to experts in each field to learn more and ask questions.

Tags: your child, your child, different types, learn about, teach your, teach your child

Difference Between A Canyon & A Gorge

A canyon is a deep, narrow valley with steep, rocky sides.

Canyons and gorges refer to the same basic landforms. A canyon or gorge is a deep, narrow valley with steep, rocky sides. "Narrow" as used to describe these formations is relative to the length of the valley. Some canyons are several miles wide. The only technical difference between a canyon and a gorge is linguistic. "Canyon" comes from Spanish, while "gorge" is a French word. From a geological standpoint, the two are exactly the same.

Characteristics

In addition to its craggy shape, a canyon is extremely narrow relative to its depth. The Grand Canyon of the American southwest, for instance, is 277 miles long and 6,000 feet to the bottom at its deepest, but at its widest is only 18 miles from rim to rim. Because canyon and gorge formations result primarily from erosion, most canyons have bodies of running water at their bottoms.

Formation

Canyons and gorges form as a result of extended periods of erosion. A river exerts force on the surrounding landscape as it is drawn down to the elevation of the nearest large body of water. Once this river has reached the water body, the pressures on the landscape decrease and the rates of erosion begin to stabilize. Most canyons and gorges on the planet today are relatively young compared to the planet itself. The beginning of canyon formation is believed to have coincided with the melting of the glaciers. Glacial waters combined with existing water bodies to create rivers with a reach far beyond their glacial mountaintop sources. Occasionally, a canyon forms due to a monumental collapse of a land feature or a tectonic event. These cases are the exception rather than the rule. In general, canyon formation occurs as a result of a long process of erosion.

Common Distinctions

Regional folklore and custom influence whether the word "canyon" or "gorge" is used to describe a particular area. "Canyon" is more commonly used in the United States, while "gorge" is frequently used in Europe, Australia and New Zealand. A common misconception is that "canyon" and "gorge" suggest different sizes for this type of land feature. This is inaccurate. The Columbia River Gorge, which runs through the Cascade Mountains on the border of Washington and Oregon, is 4,000 feet deep in places and 80 miles long. The Little River Canyon of northern Alabama is only 600 feet deep and 24 miles long.

Similar Landforms

Many terms exist to describe landforms that are similar to gorges and canyons. Ravines, gullies and ditches are all similar to canyons, but are much smaller and more likely created by a small stream than a river.

Tags: canyon gorge, miles long, canyon formation, canyon gorge, Canyons gorges

Ph D Programs In Hawaii

Earning a Ph.D. is an important professional milestone that identifies you as an expert in your field. Opportunities to pursue Ph.D. studies in Hawaii are limited to programs at the University of Hawaii. Two campuses, Manoa and Hilo, offer Ph.D. programs across a range of disciplines. The University of Hawaii at Manoa offers the vast majority of Ph.D. programs, while the University of Hawaii at Hilo offers just a single Ph.D. program.

University of Hawaii at Manoa

The University of Hawaii at Manoa (UHM) is the largest university in Hawaii. Located in Honolulu on the island of Oahu, UHM offers Ph.D. programs in numerous academic fields, including American studies, anthropology, astronomy, botany, cell and molecular biology, chemistry, Chinese, civil and environmental engineering, communication and information sciences, computer science, developmental and reproductive biology, economics, education, educational psychology, electrical engineering, English, entomology, epidemiology, geography , geology and geophysics, history , international management,

Japanese, Korean, linguistics, mathematics, mechanical engineering, meteorology, microbiology, molecular biosciences and bioengineering, music, natural resources and environmental management, nursing, nutrition, ocean and resources engineering, oceanography, philosophy, physics, political science, psychology, second language studies,

social welfare, sociology, theater, tropical medicine, tropical plant and soil sciences,

tropical plant pathology, urban and regional planning and zoology.

University of Hawaii at Manoa

2500 Campus Road

Honolulu, HI 96822-2217

(808) 956-8111

manoa.hawaii.edu

University of Hawaii at Hilo

The University of Hawaii at Hilo on the island of Hawaii, often called the "Big Island," offers a single Ph.D. program in Hawaiian and Indigenous Language Revitalization.

University of Hawaii at Hilo

200 W. Kawili Street

Hilo, HI 96720-4091

(800) 897-4456

uhh.hawaii.edu

Distance Learning

There are many universities that now offer online Ph.D. programs. You could be based in Hawaii and pursue these studies through distance learning.

Tags: University Hawaii, Hawaii Hilo, Hawaii Manoa, University Hawaii Hilo, University Hawaii Manoa

Natural Hazards In California

Wildfires are a common natural hazard in California.

California is the third largest and the most populous state in the United States. It sits below Oregon and above Mexico, with the Pacific Ocean to the west. Known for its diverse climate and scenic beauty, California has also been the site of many serious and deadly natural hazards such as earthquakes and wildfires. Does this Spark an idea?

Wildfires

A wildfire is any uncontrollable fire in a wilderness area such as a forest or hillside. Southern California is particularly prone to wildfires because of its naturally dry climate and year-round warm temperatures. The area is also particularly breezy, which helps spread and accelerate fires rapidly once they have started. The California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE) is tasked with preventing, mitigating and stopping California wildfires.

Mudslides

When a large mass of mud, composed of dirt and water, slides down a hillside like an avalanche, it is considered a mudslide. Hurricanes, heavy rainfall and/or melting snow are common causes of mudslides. Large mudslides can cause severe damage to a hillside, particularly if their content is in part clay or other heavy debris. Mudslides occur frequently in and around the hills of Los Angeles, California, particularly when the area gets severe rain. In February 2010, several counties in and around Los Angeles were declared major disaster areas because of several mudslides and others were still being evacuated.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes are the type of natural disaster most commonly associated with California. An earthquake is caused when the earth's crust suddenly releases a pocket of energy, forcing the ground to shake and tremor. California experiences minor earthquakes almost daily because of its proximately to a fault line, but it has also experienced severe and deadly earthquakes. In 1906, a major earthquake hit San Francisco, causing an estimated 3,000 deaths and $400 million in property damage. Then in 1994, another severe earthquake hit Northridge, just outside of Los Angeles, killing 72, injuring 9,000 and causing $20 billion in property damage. The Southern California Earthquake Data Center (SCEDC) charts all earthquakes and provides information on planning and preparing for an earthquake.

Tags: California particularly, property damage, Southern California

What Is A Psychrometer

What Is a Psychrometer?

A psychrometer is an instrument that measures both the wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures. Two thermometers are needed to measure these parameters. Using these readings the relative humidity can be obtained. Relative humidity is the percentage of moisture in the air relative to the maximum that can be in the air at the current temperature. It is the most accurate type of hygrometer, which is any instrument that measures humidity.

History

According to Institute and Museum of the History of Science, psychrometer means "cold measurer" in Greek and the term was originated by German inventor Ernst Ferdinand August in 1818. Meteorology, Practical and Applied states Sir John Leslie (1776-1832) is to whom we really owe the psychrometer.

Identification

Recognizing a psychrometer is easy once you know what to look for. There will always be two thermometers one or both of which will have a metal extension at the bottom. This is the wet bulb. Instruments for placing in a traditional weather station box will simply have a hole above the thermometers for mounting onto a pivot within the station. A hand held device has a handle, and either a chain connected to some sort of swivel, or the handle will be connected directly to the swivel.

Operation

The "sock" is placed on the bottom end of one thermometer to make the wet bulb. Next the instrument is either swung within the weather box or at arms length for about 30 seconds to reset both thermometers. The sock is then dipped into distilled water until saturated. Swinging the instrument once again for about one minute should allow enough time for the moisture to evaporate. The user will then look at both thermometers and mentally record the readings. Finally it is swung again for about 30 seconds and looked at to see if the wet bulb is still dropping. If the wet bulb has stayed the same both numbers are recorded, if not it is swung for 30 seconds again until the temperatures don't change.

Figure Relative Humidity

Obtaining exact relative humidity and dew-point from a psychrometer requires calculations that can get time consuming without the use of software. The easiest route to glean this information is through the use of a psychometric chart. These can be purchased, often with your psychrometer, or one can be downloaded from the Internet. Generally these charts require you to find both of your readings on the chart and match them up to the corresponding relative humidity. Dew point temperatures can also be found on these charts.

Warning

Mercury has many well know negative health and environmental effects. Swinging a sling psychrometer can thus be dangerous. Extra caution must be taken when operating these weather instruments.

Tags: relative humidity, about seconds, again about, both thermometers, instrument that, instrument that measures

How Much Money Does A Fire Chief Make

A fire chief has the ultimate responsibility for the performance of the fire department.

A fire chief is typically the highest-ranking officer in a community's fire department. In many ways, a fire chief functions much like the chief executive officer of a company. Fire chiefs normally do not coordinate the department's efforts at the scene of a fire; rather, their job is to make sure that the department is prepared to respond efficiently and appropriately to the needs of the community it serves.

Average Salary

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the average base salary for a fire chief ranged from $78,672 to $104,780 in 2008. The average pay for lower-level chiefs -- such as battalion, division and assistant fire chiefs -- ranged from $65,691 to $88,571.

Location

The pay for fire chiefs varies according to the size of the community, the size of the department and the local requirements of the fire chief's job. As an example, the fire chief's base pay in San Jose, California was $107,781 in 2010; in the smaller town of Pelham, New York, the fire chief's position is part-time, with a base pay range of $45,000 to $55,000 per year.

Benefits and Other Compensation

Paid time off, and an attractive benefits package, may comprise a large portion of a fire chief's annual compensation. For instance, while the base pay for San Jose's fire chief was $107,781 in 2010, the position's total annual cash compensation -- including paid time off and bonuses -- was $427,621. In 2011, the fire chief of Schenectady, New York earned $106,080 in base pay, but the total compensation was $164,055.

Promotion and Education

The BLS states that most fire chiefs began their career as firefighters, and moved up the department ladder to engineer, lieutenant, captain, battalion chief, assistant chief and deputy chief before being promoted to fire chief. Many municipalities require fire chiefs, and some lower-level chiefs, to have a bachelor's degree in a relevant field like fire science.

Tags: fire chief, fire chiefs, fire chief, base Jose, fire department, lower-level chiefs

Difference Between Older & Younger Granite

As an intrusive rock, the elements are absorbed into granite's surface pattern.

Granite is an igneous rock, which means that it's related to volcanic elements just under the earth's crust. It's formed by the cooling and solidifying of magma, collecting other minerals to produce the grainy pattern that distinguishes it from other rocks. Granite colors are unique and traceable to its origin location by the mineral content. Differences between older and younger granite are a result of environment conditions that occur over time as granite slowly erodes.

Weathering

Physical weathering is a natural occurrence with seasonal weather conditions; winter frost can wedge between layers of rock and expand when it freezes, changing the rock's shape and size. In some cases, environmental conditions, like rain, can cause chemical reactions that are acidic, altering the mineral content and disintegrating the granite. Overtime obvious changes in composition between older and younger granite becomes visible.

Erosion

Granite contains a percentage of quartz and feldspar and is susceptible to the environment. When feldspar comes into contact with acid and water, it will convert to clay and quartz and will become eroded down to a fine sand. Nature's elements of wind and rain affect the surface of granite, especially with higher levels of exposure. The hardness of granite makes erosion a slow and tedious process for older and younger granite.

Thermal Expansion

Temperature changes that occur repeatedly from hot to cold cause the rock to expand and contract, changing the rock's structure. Radiant heat or natural fires cause the minerals to breakdown, changing the inner layer appearance and mineral forms. Sectional cuts in older granite appear more weathered, with breaks or veins running through the rock. Younger granite retains an inner layer of coarse crystals.

Oxidation

Red coloring in granite comes from a presence of iron, which gives it a reddish-brown color. Environmental water that seeps into the rock's core with exposure to oxygen causes oxidation, or rusting. Outer surfaces are broken down, covering the rock's surface with layers of red, yellow or brown-colored substances, making no distinction between older or younger granite.

Tags: older younger granite, younger granite, between older younger, older younger, between older, changing rock

What Is Silicate Weathering

Silicate minerals are found in approximately 95 percent of rocks.

There are three forms of weathering, constituting physical, chemical and biological processes. Though weathering can be confused with erosion, there are subtle differences. Erosion occurs with the breakdown, transportation and deposition of material, while weathering alters or disintegrates material at its original position. Silicate weathering can help shape the Earth's surface, regulate global and chemical cycles and even determine nutrient supply to ecosystems.

Identification

If you go outside and pick up a rock in your backyard, chances are you are holding a rock that contains silicate minerals. Silicates make up approximately 95 percent of the Earth's crust and mantle and are a major component of igneous rocks--crystalline or glassy rocks formed by the cooling and solidification of magma. Minerals with this combination of silicon and oxygen are also found, though less abundant, in sedimentary rocks (formed by other rock fragments and cemented together) and metamorphic rocks (formed by the heating and pressurization of existing rock).

Makeup

The prime makeup for all silicate minerals is the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron--a solid bounded by polygons with four faces. The composition includes a central silicon cation bonded to four oxygen atoms that are located at the corners of a regular tetrahedron. Approximately 25 percent of all known minerals and 40 percent of the most common ones are silicates. The bonds that tie silicon and oxygen are developed by oppositely charged ions and shared electrons.

Weathering

Weathering affects the landscape.

The Earth's surface is shaped via weathering, from either physical, chemical or biological factors. These factors can act separately or as a combined force. Physical weathering causes the disintegration of rock material without the presence of decay. Thermal expansion--the alternating process of freezing and thawing as evident in the northern part of the United States and most of Canada--is the primary source for physical weathering. Chemical weathering occurs when the mineral composition of a rock is altered.

The Big Picture

According to Sigurdur R. Gislason, Institute of Earth Sciences (Iceland) and Eric H. Oelkers, Géochimie et Biogéochimie Experimentale (France), "silicate weathering (chemical weathering) is thought to control climate by consuming atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)" over a geological time scale. The CO2 is eventually stored as carbonates in the ocean. One third of silicate weathering is the result of weathering on volcanic islands and continents. The atmospheric CO2 consumption flux is due largely in part of the high weathering rate of basalt. For each increase of one degree in temperature, chemical weathering rates increase by approximately 10 percent. But most silicates dissolve inconsistently with weathering as they are attached with other minerals such as clays. These suspended silicates carried to the oceans are highly reactive in ocean waters and thereby dependent on climate.

Impact

Volcanos weather rapidly thereby affecting marine life.

Of the rocks exposed at the Earth's surface, approximately 90 percent constitute silicates. Approximately a quarter of that rock is intrusive--for example, granite--a quarter is extrusive--volcanic--and the other half is metamorphic and "Precambrian"--a period of time that extends from about 4 billion years ago (the approximate age of the oldest known rocks) to 542 millions years ago. Being of silicate makeup, volcanic rock weathers the quickest. But it will take over 1 million years for silicate weathering to stabilize atmospheric CO2, even though silicate weathering accelerates CO2 removal. Given this timescale--vegetation suppression and rates of weathering--the CO2 levels will return to above those of pre-industrial times.

Tags: approximately percent, Earth surface, rocks formed, silicate weathering, chemical biological

Look For Dinosaur Fossils

Finding complete dinosaur skeletons is very rare.

Dinosaurs roamed the Earth between 65 and 225 million years ago before going extinct. Many dinosaur bones were preserved in rock layers that formed over great periods of time. Scientists, known as paleontologists, spend numerous hours unearthing the dinosaur remains, known as fossils. The fossils are often pieced back together to form the skeletal system of the dinosaurs from which they came. However, you don't have to be a scientist to find dinosaur fossils. With some preparation and know-how you can make a major discovery with the family; or maybe just a few small ones.

Instructions

1. Learn as much as you can about fossils so you are ready to identify them when you find one. Resources such as the Internet and local libraries contain ample information. Universities such as Valdosta State University (valdosta.edu) provide free information on their websites for amateur paleontologists.

2. Locate areas with plenty of old rock formations like old, dried out riverbeds. Seek out spots with heavy erosion and few plants such as the southwestern deserts of North America. Find these areas with the help of geological maps.

3. Gain permission from the landowner to search if the land is private. Check with local state park authorities if the land is a state park. Some parks allow fossil hunting, while others may not.

4. Study the area with the help of U.S. Geological Survey (usgs.gov) maps to familiarize yourself with the land structures you encounter.

5. Walk the area as much as possible, looking for signs of fossils protruding from the rocks. After a heavy rainfall, fossils are often uncovered in plain sight.

6. Record data about your searches and locations of your finds in a notebook or on a laptop. Take pictures to document the discovery as well.

7. Collect the fossils you find in cardboard boxes. Wear gloves to avoid getting skin oils on the specimens.

Tags: areas with, fossils often, state park, with help

Sell Rough Kyanite

The heat resistant property of Kyanite makes it valuable to porcelain makers.

Kyanite is an exotic gemstone that is more often found in a recipe for porcelain than a fine cut piece of jewelry. This silicate crystal is extremely heat resistant making it valuable in refractory manufacturing as well. The blue version of this stone is popular as a gemstone, but. the elongated structure of the crystals requires a master gem cutter to shape it into a jewelry ready piece. You can sell uncut Kyanite to a variety of buyers, each of whom may have a unique plan for the stones.

Instructions

1. Obtain rough Kyanite in bulk from miners, brokers or other suppliers. Bulk lots can be found online on classified and auction sites. Kyanite is a rare stone that can only be found in a few places around the world. Central Virginia is the only place in the United States where Kyanite is mined in quantity. The names and addresses for these mines can be found in the yellow pages.

2. Visit porcelain and refractory manufacturers. Meet with purchasers at each operation and discuss selling your Kyanite to each manufacturer as a raw material.

3. Find artisan shops that make exotic, custom jewelry. Sell your Kyanite to these buyers as rough stones that can be faceted into gemstones.

4. Separate your rough stones into groups of ten to twelve stones each. Take pictures of each lot and sell the stones to individuals through online auction sites.

5. Find professional jewelers that offer exotic, one-of-a-kind pieces. Sell your stones to these buyers. Remember that professional jewelers will not pay top dollar for uncut Kyanite. These will be a buyer of last resort for your supply of uncut stones.

Tags: auction sites, heat resistant, professional jewelers, rough stones, Sell your, these buyers

Fossil Projects For Middle School

Fossil projects can enhance the middle school earth science curriculum.

Fossil projects are a way to teach middle school students about both fossil formation and earth science. Through working on fossil projects, middle school students can learn how rocks are formed, the foundations of evolution and identify animals by the impressions they make in the earth or sand. Middle school project topics include trace fossils, fossil formation and identifying fossils.

Fossilization

Demonstrate the process of fossil formation on the seabed with this activity. Mix around 1 cup of fine sand with 3 cups of plaster of Paris. Separate the mixture into three plastic containers. Color the mixture in one container a shade of dark brown, using dry tempera paint. Color the mixture in the second container a shade of light brown. Leave the third container as it is. Place some shells into the third container. Tell students this represents the ancient seabed. Pour around 1/2 cup of water into the container. Using a sifter, sift a small amount of each of the two brown colors over the shells. This is sediment drifting down to cover the shells. Continue until the shells are covered in a soft "mud" (you may need to add a bit more water). Let the "seabed" dry for a few days.

Digging Out

Use the fossil seabed from the previous activity to demonstrate dig for fossils, or prepare some fossil seabeds in advance. Once the ancient oceans receded, dry land that contained fossils was left behind. Give students small, dull knives or small screwdrivers, magnifiers, small paintbrushes and vinegar and an eyedropper. Students should carefully chisel away the "rock" to reveal the fossils. They can use vinegar to melt some of the rock and the brushes to brush away bits of rock. Students should scrape gently around the edges of the fossils, and not chip or hammer.

Fossil Bag

This makes a good introduction to fossils. Place small fossils into cloth bags -- one fossil per bag. Discuss fossils with the students, and the fact that they are very old. Ask students to describe how they would handle something that was millions of years old. Hand around the bags and ask students to feel the fossil in each bag, but do not open the bag. Students should describe how the fossil feels and what they think it may be. Students could draw a picture of what they think the fossil looks like. Have students open the bags and examine the fossils. Discuss whether they look similar to what students thought.

Make a Fossil

Fossils are formed when an animal dies and the soft parts of its body are gradually replaced with minerals contained in groundwater. These minerals harden as the water evaporates. Students cut a shape from a piece of sponge, such as a bone shape. Make a few small holes in the bottom of a plastic cup and place this on a saucer. Add about one inch of sand to the cup, place the sponge shape on top and add another two inches of sand. Mix 4 tbsp. of bath salts (they must contain magnesium sulphate) with 4 tbsp. of warm water and pour this into the cup. Leave the cup in a warm place. Each day, for five days, add more water and bath salts, as before. Let the cup sit until dry and remove the fossil sponge. The bath salts will have become trapped in the sponge and then hardened, creating a fossil.

Tags: bath salts, fossil formation, Students should, Color mixture, container shade, earth science, Fossil projects