Natural Gas Jobs

There are a number of jobs in the natural gas industry.

The natural gas industry, which includes the extraction, transportation, processing and sale of energy-containing gases, is a complex field that employs hundreds of thousands of workers. Positions range from white-collar executives in charge of managing petroleum companies to the blue-collar roughnecks responsible for drilling the gas wells.

Geologist

Geologists locate prospective sites for the extraction of natural gas. This is done by analyzing geological data and examining the terrain over which the gas could be located. Geologists consult with engineers to identify the best sites for drilling test wells to confirm the presence of gas.

Engineer

Engineers design and implement the equipment used to extract natural gas from the earth, such as drills, rigs and pumps. Engineers examine the area in which the well is to be located and adapt the infrastructure to suit the conditions.

Roughneck

A roughneck operates the drill on a natural gas platform. Although the term is native to the oil industry, roughnecks are also used to extract natural gas, which is often found in the same area as liquid petroleum. Roughnecks perform a number of semi-skilled jobs but are not as specialized as electricians or mechanics.

Regional Sales Manager

A regional sales manager sells natural gas to new customers in a geographic area. This includes pitching the benefits of natural gas to utility companies and to individual consumers who are seeking to have their homes heated. Sales managers market the product and fill orders.

Director of Exploration

The director of exploration for a natural gas company identifies locations in which to explore for natural gas. Working in concert with a geologist, the director attempts to identify new natural gas fields and then leads negotiations with the owners of that area to secure rights to drill in the field.

Pipefitter

Much natural gas is transported through a network of pipes that take the gas from the area in which it is extracted to places in which it can be sold and consumed. A pipefitter constructs and maintains these pipes.

Safety Officer

Extracting natural gas, which is flammable, is a dangerous business. Most companies employ one or more safety officers to ensure that personnel are following safety precautions in the extraction of the gas and that the equipment is operating within the specifications set by the manufacturers.

LNG Tanker Captain

LNG tanker captains drive tankers specially designed to carry liquefied natural gas, or LNG, over long distances. Because these tankers contain material that is highly flammable, the tanker captains must be trained in safety procedures.

Tags: area which, extract natural, natural industry, natural which, tanker captains

Importance Of Science Books For Classrooms

The photo show a stack of science books

Science books provide a sense of discovery, adventure, and knowledge and brings people together, inviting participation and understanding in an ever changing world and universe. Whether in the news, magazines or every day conversations the topics of science are always in the forefront of discussions.

Significance

Science books in school classroom have a significant influence on students. The daily issues that come up in the news-global warming, environmental challenges, medical advances-are the contents of science books. An understanding of these issues helps students to understand the things happening around them. This is an advantage that will give students the confidence to participate in the solutions of scientific problems.

Knowledge/Change

Science books help students understand the changes that have occurred in the world from the beginning of time. For example, students would not know about the origin of the universe or the nature of dinosaurs that roamed the earth millions of year ago. They would not know how modern medicines came to be or how technology has advanced to a state beyond imagination. Inventions that were thought impossible hundreds of years ago are commonplace now, such as the airplanes and automobiles, space travel and missions to Mars. The dynamic content of science books transfers knowledge from generation to generation.

Scientific Illiteracy

Lack of science books in the classroom can result in scientific illiteracy. Students will not know anything about the autonomy of their body or the order of the universe. They will not be able to appreciate the impacts of scientific discoveries or imagine the adventures of scientific quests. This is the main reason why science books must never be discarded in the classroom.

Types of Science Books

According to Bruce Lewnstein, Cornell associate professor of science and technology studies, there are four categories of scenic books: those that are important to public culture which includes bestsellers and prize winners; those that are influential because of content, textbooks, and books used in daily science. All of these books offer an invitation into the every changing world of science. Although content influential science books make less money,they are no less informative than the best sellers.

Discovering Wonders

Teachers must continually emphasize the significance of keeping science books in the classroom. They must inform students that science is the key to understanding the world as well as discovering other wonders of the universe. Students must recognize that scientific literacy is found in the contents of science books.

Tags: science books, science books, books classroom, changing world, contents science

Extract Fossil Fuel

Learn what machines are used to drill for fossil fuels.

Fossil fuels are formed over millions of years as plants and animals die and decompose into the earth. That decomposing matter is covered by water or soil, which over time forms into layers that go deep into the earth. Decomposing organic matter is covered in layers of rock and pressure and heat transform the decomposing matter into hydrocarbons, or fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), that can be extracted and used as energy to power cars, machines and power plants, which then create energy to power a multitude of electric devices.

Instructions

1. Extract coal, which is formed from the remains of land and swamp plants, by locating coal beds under layers of rock and then accessing those beds through strip mining or deep rock tunneling. Use heavy machines to strip away the top two hundred feet of surface material to access and remove the coal. Operate heavy machines to bore tunnels 200 to 1,000 feet beneath the surface of the earth to access deep coal beds. Use conveyor belts and miners to bring coal back to the surface.

2. Use imaging technology, thumper trucks and compressed air guns to locate geological formations likely to contain oil deep beneath ocean and river sediments. Extract oil, made from decomposing water-dwelling organisms, with large machines called oil rigs. On land, use an oil rig to dig a deep well to access the oil and a pump jack to extract the oil from the well. At sea, use an offshore rig atop a production platform to extract oil in water environments. Employ skilled workers to safely operate the machines and facilitate the extraction and transportation of deposits.

3. Use slimhole drills, hydraulic fracturing, sand fracturing, drilling rigs and offshore platforms to locate and drill for natural gas deposits on land and at sea. Drill a well and use a pump jack or production platform to remove the natural gas deposits, which are often buried near, but deeper than oil deposits.

Tags: coal beds, decomposing matter, energy power, heavy machines, into earth, layers rock, matter covered

Stratigraphic Law

Rock formations showing rock layers.

Geologists use many tools to study the Earth's origin, history and composition. Among these tools are the stratigraphic laws which are used to determine the relative age of rock layers.

The first official statement of these stratigraphic laws is attributed to Nicholaus Steno, a 17th century Danish geologist, priest and anatomist. His original laws on superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity and cross-cutting relationships are the main stratigraphic laws used today.

Law of Superposition

Nicholaus Steno's first law of stratigraphy, superposition (super in this case means "above" and position means "to place") is based on his study of the Amo River valley in Italy. He noted in 1669 that when the lower layers had already formed, any upper layers were "...fluid, and, therefore, at the time when the lower stratum was being formed, none of the upper strata existed."

This ultimately means that the lowest level of sediment is the oldest, and is covered with younger layers. The law assumes that this concept holds true except when the settled order has been changed.

Law of Original Horizontality

Steno wrote, "Strata either perpendicular to the horizon or inclined to the horizon were at one time parallel to the horizon." Layers that are flat are assumed to be undisturbed. Assuming rock layers are formed horizontally was necessary in order to analyze any later change.

Law of Lateral Continuity

This law covers how far a continuous layer (stratum) is spread. According to Steno, "Material forming any stratum were continuous over the surface of the Earth unless some other solid bodies stood in the way." When the rock was deposited it occupied distance in every direction of an area. However, if there is something that separates the deposit then the cause occurred after the original deposit of the rock.

Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships

When Steno saw a break in an otherwise continuous stratum, he concluded that the interruption (such as magma that had broken through the rock layer and crystallized, or when the stratum continuity was broken) is younger than the surrounding stratum.

He states, "If a body or discontinuity cuts across a stratum, it must have formed after that stratum."

Considerations

Steno's work was based on the theory of uniformitarianism. This theory's fundamental principle is the assumption that the geological processes at work in the past are identical to the geological processes observed today. As a result, geological structures and formations can be explained through observing current geological activity.

Tags: rock layers, stratigraphic laws, geological processes, Nicholaus Steno, when lower

Measure Latitude

Learn to measure latitude.

Latitude begins at the equator, which has a value of zero degrees, and then heads north or south to the North and South poles, which each have a value of 90 degrees. The poles are differentiated with an N or S suffix; in fact, all points off the equator get the same N or S depending, of course, on whether they are in the Northern or Southern hemisphere. Unlike longitude, latitude lines are evenly distributed across the globe.

Instructions

1. Go to terraserver-usa.com. This gets you started in a process that takes only a few steps and is valid for any street address or place in the United States. This method is somewhat similar to locating a terrestrial location by using a U.S. Geological Survey map.

2. Locate "Advanced Find" at the top of the page. It is right underneath the magnifying glass symbol, which is next to the house symbol. Click on the magnifying glass.

3. Choose between "Address" and "Place." Click on "Address" if you know the street address, or click on "Place" if the place is a landmark. For example, if you are trying to find the latitude of Mt. Katahdin, the highest point in Maine, click on place because there is no street address for a mountaintop.

4. Wait for the screen to change, and then fill Baxter State Park, for example, into the place search box along with the state (Maine in this case). Click on either "Aerial Photo" or "Topo Map." "Topo Map" is the recommended choice for finding places. If you have a street address, you can go directly to the address instead.

5. Locate Mt. Katahdin, for example, on the topographical map that comes up on the screen. You can enlarge or diminish the map if need be. And, you can move in any compass direction on the map if that is what is necessary. Without much difficulty, you can move the map around and place your cursor right on the summit of Mt. Katahdin. You may have to shrink the map first.

6. Read the latitude in degrees (0 to 90), and then the computer gives a partial reading in decimal points. Mt. Katahdin was located at 45.95 degrees N. If you have a topographical map of Baxter State Park, you can easily find the degree measurement with a ruler once you locate the actual peak on the topographical map. (The reading for longitude is also displayed at the same time.)

Tags: street address, Baxter State, Baxter State Park, degrees then, magnifying glass, State Park

Choose A Winning Astronomy Science Fair Project

Astronomy science fair projects can be on any of a wide array of topics. If you're going for a winning astronomy science fair project, you need one that stands out, that showcases your knowledge of the field and that will leave the judges feeling that you were well-prepared.

Instructions

1. Pick a project with a clear focus. Your astronomy science project should be clearly in one of the four basic areas of astronomy: solar energy, optics, physics and observational astronomy.

2. Find an astronomy project topic that is focused enough to explain briefly to judges. For example, you might choose: testing the sun's intensity in different areas, designing of solar panels, the spectrum of light, lasers, the property of colors, exploring gravity, advanced formulas to explain black holes, tracking constellations, charting stellar bodies or looking for new stellar bodies.

3. Select a topic that allows you to bring in real-life examples for your project. Pick a topic that allows you to bring in a telescope, solar panels or something similar to illustrate your point. Judges like very visual science fair projects.

4. Choose a project topic that interests you and that would be interesting to other people. If you select an astronomy project that can demonstrate something to the judges that perhaps they haven't seen before and you can show that you're knowledgeable in the subject area, you have a great chance at winning the science fair.

Tags: topic that, science fair, allows bring, astronomy project, astronomy science

Why Do Plants & Animals Need Nitrogen

Nitrogen is essential for plant and animal growth and function

Nitrogen is a building-block element both in the atmosphere, where it is the most abundant gas, and in organisms. Its flow through earth's atmospheric, geological and biological systems---the nitrogen cycle---is one of ecology's grand choreographies.

Nitrogen's Biological Role

Nitrogen, fundamental for cellular structure, is required by plants and animals for production of proteins and amino acids.

Photosynthesis

One of the components of chlorophyll, the plant pigment that facilitates photosynthesis, is nitrogen. It plays a role in this immensely important transformation of solar energy.

Availability

Although 78 percent of our atmosphere is comprised of nitrogen gas, usable nitrogen is a limited commodity. Most organisms can tap the element for growth and function only when, through a process called nitrogen fixation, it has been converted into ammonia or nitrates.

Nitrogen Fixation

Fixation accomplished by bacteria in soil---often in symbiotic relationship with fungi and plants---provides the bulk of nitrogen available to the biotic community.

Nitrogen Cycle

This gas passes through the atmosphere, rocks, lightning, plants and animals, facilitating growth and being liberated by organic waste and decay in a fundamental biogeochemical cycle.

Tags: growth function

Oceanography Duties

Oceanography, also called marine science, involves the study of the world's oceans and coastal waters. It consists of four main disciplines: geological oceanography, physical oceanography, biological oceanography, and chemical oceanography. Most oceanographers have a master's degree or doctorate with backgrounds in biology, chemistry, physics, geology, and mathematics. They study a diverse range of topics such as waves, tides, currents, the structure of the sea floor, marine organisms, and the chemical composition and properties of seawater.

Explore the Ocean Floor

Geophysicists and geological oceanographers explore the topography of the ocean floor and map the structures they find. They study the chemical and physical properties of the rocks, sediments, rises, ridges, and trenches found on the seabed as well as the erosion processes that occur at the bottom of the ocean.

Investigate Ocean Properties

Physical oceanographers examine ocean properties such as tides, currents, wave motions, density, and temperature. They investigate how the ocean's relationship with the atmosphere influences weather and climate as well as how the water interacts with its boundaries on the ocean floor and at the coast.

Examine the Chemical Properties of Seawater

Chemical oceanographers and marine geochemists analyze seawater components and desalination of seawater as well as study the effects of pollutants. They also study the interaction of seawater with the ocean floor and the atmosphere as well as the chemical processes occurring in the marine environment.

Study Marine Life

Oceanographers who study marine plants and animals include marine biologists, fisheries scientists, and biological oceanographers. They study how marine organisms develop, adapt to their environment and relate to one another. To do this, they observe these creatures in their natural habitats where they collect data such as population numbers and animal behavior.

Process and Analyze Data

The data collected while performing their duties at sea must be processed and analyzed in laboratories and offices. This usually involves using specialized instruments to examine any specimens that were collected and computer programs to analyze this data. The oceanographer writes reports concerning their findings.

Tags: They study, marine organisms, ocean floor, tides currents

Facts About Crystals & Gems

Crystals and gems have been prized for both their aesthetic beauty and monetary value for thousands of years. Their value is determined based on factors like luster, clarity and rarity. There are many kinds of crystals and gems that display varying characteristics.

Uses

Crystals and gems are most commonly used in jewelry pieces such as earrings, necklaces, rings and bracelets. They are also used as decorative features in clothing and home decor.

Characteristics

Specific characteristics of crystals and gems vary considerably. A crystal or gem may be large, small, durable, brittle, shiny or dull. Some appear transparent while others are colored.

Source

Crystals and gems are extracted from caves and mines around the world. However, scientists are now able to produce high-quality synthetic gems and crystals in laboratories.

Gem Types

There are about 16 specific types of gems that are determined to be the most highly valued. Among them are diamond, jade, garnet, topaz, quartz and opal.

Crystals

Crystals fall into several categories including molecular solids, metals, alloys, insulators, minerals and semiconductors. These categories are differentiated based on their tendency to rust.

Tags: gems that

Science Fair Project Ideas On Sharks

Many people fear sharks.

Sharks are ancient, fascinating creatures offering a wide range of project topics. Whether you are a lifelong shark aficionado or are just looking for a topic that will make your science fair project interesting, these ideas will inspire you to dive deep into the world of shark science.

Freshwater Sharks

Don't worry --- most lakes are still shark-free.

Unlike most sharks, bull sharks boast the ability to regulate the salt content in their bodies relative to their surroundings, so they can live in salty or fresh water. They are known to swim up rivers and even inhabit lakes, including Lake Nicaragua, a vast, inland lake in Central America. Research the biological mechanism by which bull sharks are able to adapt to fresh water. Your project display should include a world map colored to show the vast range of the bull shark and an illustrated explanation of how the sharks' salt-balancing process works.

Shark "Sixth Sense"

Sharks don't see dead people --- wrong "sixth sense."

Sharks have a sense organ called the ampullae of Lorenzini which allows them to feel or read electric fields, including the weak electric fields surrounding living things. Design a display that explains sharks' "sixth sense" --- how it works, how sharks use it, and how it was discovered.

Ancient Mega-Sharks

A megalodon's dorsal fin would have been about five feet tall.

Not long ago (in geological terms), immense sharks called Carcharias megalodon, or "megalodons," glided through the oceans. Once thought to be the giant predecessors of modern great white sharks, megalodons grew up to 60-feet long and wielded a mouthful of 7-inch teeth. For your project, explore what we know and don't know about megalodons. For example, explain how scientists calculated the size of megalodons based upon fossil teeth discovered in places like California and North Carolina. Your project display should include a drawing showing the size of a megalodon compared to the size of an average human adult.

Tags: bull sharks, display should, display should include, electric fields, fresh water, project display, project display should

National Geography Games

Learn geography online and with interactive games.

Whether you consider yourself a geography wiz, cannot find Washington, D.C., or the Pacific Ocean on a map, nor point north or south, national geography games will help you learn. They are quite educational and entertaining and you can explore and learn about the world. National Geographic Society has some fantastic games that are downloadable to an iPhone, iPad and iPod. Others can be played on television, with a gaming console or online.

Download "National Geographic" Games

Open iTunes to buy and download applications such as "Spot It!: Nature." "Jigsaw Animals," "GeoBee Challenge," "Herod's Lost Tomb" and other "National Geographic" games to your iPhone, iPad or iPod. Downloadable games average $0.99 per app and are designed to stimulate learning about geography, geology, natural phenomena, animals and their habitats and more. These games have single and multiple player modes and can be enjoyed at any age.

Online Games, Puzzles and Quizzes

Enjoy free online games, puzzles and quizzes on "National Geographic" magazine's website. Choose from several match and geometric games, slide and jigsaw puzzles and travel and animal quizzes. There are also interactive world maps. The quizzes allow you to test your knowledge of countries and continents, cities, national parks, international foods, holidays, festivals, national treasures and one-of-a-kind and remote places.

National Geographic Kids

Visit National Geographic Kids online to find and play fun and educational games, puzzles and more. The games are action packed and perfect for teenage learners and explorers. Kids and adults can also play interactive games that are based on some of National Geographic's most popular television shows.

Great Migrations

Download games such as "Move!", one in a series of interactive games named after the miniseries "Great Migrations" that aired on the National Geographic Channel. The series of games help gamers learn about animals and their habitats, migratory species and their natural landscapes, the science behind migration, geography and exploration. National Geographic filmmakers traveled the world for more than two and a half years capturing these stories. Gamers can also connect on Facebook through the official page for National Geographic Channel's Great Migrations.

Tags: National Geographic, Great Migrations, interactive games, animals their, animals their habitats

Become A Certified Gemologist

If you have dedicated yourself to a professional career in the jewelry business, you may wish to pursue a Certified Geologist title. The American Gem Society bestows the title to its highest level of members. Certified gemologists may advertise their specialty with a diamond logo near their name in ads and on business cards. Less than 5 percent of jewelers in the country have earned the Certified Gemologist title.

Instructions

1. Know that "Certified Geologist" is a title offered by the American Gem Society (AGS) (see Resources below). The title holder must be employed by an American Gem Society Firm Member and must pass an annual recertification exam.

2. Begin your gemology education with seminars, classes and online courses from a recognized school. The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) and the International Gem Society (IGS) offer educational programs, as do many colleges and universities (see Resources below).

3. Find work as a jeweler. In order to eventually qualify as a certified gemologist, you must gain experience in the field.

4. Earn a "Graduate Gemologist" degree from GIA or a "Professional Gemologist" certification from the IGS (see Resources below). Completion of one of these programs puts you in an excellent position to earn a Certified Gemologist title.

5. Complete the AGS "Way Course," which is available to AGS members only. The six-lesson home-study course provides the foundation for the principles of ethics, knowledge and consumer protection while defining the AGS Diamond Grading Standards.

6. Grade two diamonds provided by AGS. Successfully grading the diamonds acts as an exam of sorts for earning the Certified Gemologist title.

7. Remember to follow recertification procedures every year. The titleholder must maintain a professional and ethical reputation, as well as keep his knowledge up to date. Courses are available to prepare for the recertification exam.

Tags: Certified Gemologist, American Society, Certified Gemologist title, Gemologist title, Resources below

National Geographic Society Grants

Researchers, conservationists and explorers can apply grants.

National Geographic's mission goes beyond producing a magazine and television documentaries. The organization awards thousands of dollars to researchers, conservationists and explorers for projects in geography, anthropology and other scientific fields that National Geographic explores. The National Geographic Society's grants have funded projects on all continents, from protecting lions from poachers in Africa to collecting data on California's redwood forests. The application process for most grants can take as long as 10 months, and most programs look for applicants with advanced degrees or extensive research or conservation experience.

Committee for Research and Exploration

The National Geographic Society's Committee for Research and Exploration awards grants, typically ranging between $15,000 and $20,000, to help researchers finance projects involving environmental or ecological issues. Eligible projects can involve the fields of geography, geology, anthropology, archaeology, astronomy, biology, botany, paleontology, oceanography and zoology. The CRE looks for applicants with advanced degrees in the fields their projects address.

Conservation Trust

The society in 2001 awarded its first Conservation Trust grant to a botanist for forest canopy research and outreach. Other recipient projects have involved preserving one of the world's largest species of catfish and preventing conflicts between Zimbabwean farmers and elephants. The grants are usually for $15,000 to $20,000. Recipients do not need to have advanced degrees, but they need experience in conservation or research in their field.

Expeditions Council

The National Geographic Expeditions Council, which is made up of editorial representatives, awards between $5,000 and $35,000 for the direct expenses of expeditions. The program is "editorially driven," meaning it looks for projects that can produce compelling stories for National Geographic's publications and programming. The grant program encourages international applicants, but the applications must be in English. The grants do not require recipients to have advanced degrees, but they should have extensive experience in their fields. Money is to be used for costs such as transportation or supplies.

Young Explorers

Budding researchers, conservationists or explorers can receive $2,000 to $5,000 for projects related to those areas from the Young Explorers program. Recipients must be between 18 and 25 and have experience in the fields they wish to pursue projects in. The projects must be consistent with goals and credentials set by the Committee for Research and Exploration, Conservation Trust or Expedition Council's grant programs.

Waitt Program

Unlike most of the National Geographic Society's grants, which require lengthy application processes and extensive education, the National Geographic Society/Waitt Grants program awards research funding relatively quickly and to people with lower levels of education. The application and review process typically takes about 10 weeks. The program does not require applicants to have PhDs or other advanced degrees, but it does seek candidates with extensive experience in their fields. Grants usually are $5,000 to $15,000.

Tags: National Geographic, advanced degrees, Geographic Society, National Geographic Society, Committee Research

National Geographic Research Grants

For more than a century, National Geographic has worked to support numerous endeavors.

National Geographic has several grant committees and programs, all of which are in some way based on research. From the testing of new technology in their Big Cats Initiative, to grants for field research and exploration, there are a range of project goals. Grant proposals should be submitted to the committee most suited to the research being done.

Big Cat Initiative

All across Africa, lions are a rapidly declining species. Today, their population has dwindled to a mere 20,000 of these magnificent animals. The goal of the Big Cat Initiative is to halt the population decline and restore the population to a sustainable level. Grant proposals should focus on quick results projects that save lions, anti-poaching programs. Testing of new technologies, community-focused educational projects, and projects establishing economic incentives to aid local people in ensuring the survival of lions are also suggested.

Research and Exploration

The Committee for Research and Exploration is looking for projects that have a geographical aspect and are relevant to other fields of study with broad scientific interest. Applications are typically limited to given fields, including: anthropology, astronomy, oceanography, botany, geology, geography, and zoology. This committee emphasizes multidisciplinary projects that also address environmental issues. Applications that only seek support for laboratory work and archival research aren't considered.

Conversation Trust

The Conservation Trust was created in March of 2001 to support efforts in the field and public education campaigns that make individuals aware of the global issues and to connect conservation issues with day to day life. Their goal is to empower people to take action. Their first grant was awarded to botanist Nalini Nadkarni for her work on an outreach-geared study of forest canopies.

World Cultures Fund

Part of the Conservation Trust, the World Cultures Fund is meant to support the work of archaeologists, cultural anthropologists and other professionals in places where the history of civilization is somehow at risk. Their projects include the conservation of antiquities, expeditions to research and share the stories of people all over the world, record conservation, and the use of film, music, and various media to celebrate the cultures of the world.

Expeditions Council

The Expeditions Council is made up of representatives from the various National Geographic editorial divisions. This council is seeking projects that have the potential to tell powerful stories and use powerful images. They judge applicants on their qualifications, as well as the merit of the project and its uniqueness. While the council doesn't require advanced academic degrees, applicants should have some previous qualifications and experience that relates to their project.

Young Explorers Grants

National Geographic offers Young Explorers Grants to people between 18 and 25 years old so that they can pursue research goals, conservation efforts, and exploration projects that are in line with National Geographic's other grants and programs. Grants from National Geographic have helped start the careers of many renowned scientists and explorers. These grants are intended to aid in covering field project costs to help individuals pursue the work for which National Geographic is known.

Tags: National Geographic, projects that, Conservation Trust, Cultures Fund, Expeditions Council, Explorers Grants, Grant proposals

Tell If A Rock Has Been Faulted Or Intruded

Intrusions cut through layers of rock, and faults cause displacement.

Faulting commonly occurs in rock due to the natural stresses and strains of the earth. Intrusions are often associated with faulting and result from magma movement along weaknesses in rock. The different types of faults and intrusions can be distinguished from each other by characteristics such as shape, orientation, or sense of movement. Most faulted or intruded rocks occur on a large scale.

Instructions

1. Find the type of fault that may be occurring in the rock. Normal faults occur when the hanging wall on one side of the fault drops down relative to the foot wall on the other side (See Resources). Reverse faults occur when the hanging wall goes up relative to the foot wall. Transform faults occur when rocks slide past each other, usually with little to no vertical displacement.

2. Look for displacement in the rock. Displacement is sometimes identifiable in outcrops. Strata usually lie in horizontal layers, according to Steno's laws of stratigraphy. If a normal or reverse fault occurs within a stratigraphic column, displacement of the layers will be visible.

3. Look for a repeating section in the rock. Within a stratigraphic column, each layer represents a different point in time. Therefore, if you are walking on top of a certain type of rock and then the rock type changes to one you know to be older, this indicates a reverse fault is the culprit. This can also be seen in drill cores through the faults themselves.

4. Look for dikes in the rock. A dike is a discordant igneous intrusion. These are injected from magma chambers along weaknesses in the rock and sometimes fracture the rock as they intrude. Identifying a dike in an outcrop is often quite simple, as it will have a different composition as the rock through which it has intruded. Dikes can be identified as having intruded a rock if they cut through the rock.

5. Look for sills in the rock. Sills are igneous intrusions that lie parallel to bedding, so they are often horizontal. They can be identified in the same fashion as dikes -- they will have a different composition and will cut through rock or be spread in between layers of pre-existing rock where there had been planes of weakness.

6. Look for laccoliths in the rock. Laccoliths are mushroom-shaped igneous intrusions. They can be identified in outcrops by their differing composition and their shape, and will often bend the rocks above them so the rocks on top of either side of the laccolith dip in opposite directions.

7. Look for batholiths in the rock. Batholiths are large igneous bodies that are the crystallized remains of former magma chambers. They can be identified by their very large size and their composition, often crystalline rock such as granite. Smaller versions of batholiths are called stocks.

Tags: faults occur, faults occur when, occur when, They identified, along weaknesses

Create A Timeline On A Computer

Creating a timeline on the computer may seem overwhelming. Surprisingly, you don't need any fancy software or advanced computer skills. Instead, you can use MS Word and some photos or illustrations of the time period (taken from free websites or drawn with art software) to put together a simple timeline that looks semi-professional.

Instructions

Creating a Timeline

1. Open a new Word document.

2. Click on the "Insert" tab, then on the "Shapes" icon, and then choose the rectangular shape. Drag your mouse across the page to create a thin horizontal rectangle. This rectangle will be the body of your timeline. You can click on a colored box from the options that appear in order to fill in the color of the rectangle.

3. Select a line from the menu (the shape menu that contained the rectangle), and draw vertical lines in the appropriate places on the rectangle to divide the timeline into eras or periods.

4. Under the "Insert" tab, click the "Text Box" icon and choose the "Simple Text Box" option. Type in the text needed to label the first era or period, and change the font, size, and color of the text as desired. Drag the text box to the proper place on the timeline.

5. Remove the border on the text box by right-clicking on it, choosing "Format Text Box," and changing the line color to white. Copy the text box and revise the text to label the other eras on the timeline.

6. Add illustrations by finding free illustrations online, right-clicking on them, and selecting Copy. Then right-click on the timeline and select "Paste." For examples of free illustrations or photos, see the links in the Resources section.

7. Use the line-drawing tool under the "Insert" tab to draw lines from the pictures to the correct areas of the timeline.

Tags: free illustrations

Study Of Meteorites

Scientists study meteorites to learn more about the solar system.

Meteorites are chunks of space rocks that fall to Earth. They are thought to be left-over remnants of the early solar system. Some meteorites are pieces of rock from the moon, Mars or other planets, and some are pieces of comets. Astronomers study meteorites to learn about the geology and atmosphere of other planets and the chemical makeup of the solar system.

Identification

Meteorites are rocks that originate in space and fall to the Earth's surface. As meteorites pass through Earth's atmosphere, they heat up and produce a bright streak of light. Small meteorites may burn up in the atmosphere, but larger ones can land and create large impact craters. Some scientists think that meteors emit radio waves that can cause nearby objects to vibrate and produce a hissing noise.

What Meteorites Are Made From

Meteorites may be made from stone or iron. About 90 percent of meteorites are stony or stony-iron. Stone meteorites are the most common types of meteorites found, and they are divided into two categories: chondrites and achondrites. Chondrites contain microscopic spheres of silicates, and achondrites are chondrites that have been melted and recrystallized. Silicated iron meteorites contain iron and other materials. Stony-iron meteorites are a combination of stone and nickel-iron. Iron meteorites contain nickel, which identifies them as being extraterrestrial.

Where Meteorites Are Found

Meteorites can fall almost anywhere on Earth, but finding them after they've landed is a problem in areas that are wet or overgrown with vegetation. The best places to find meteorites are usually in dry climates, such as the desert areas in the southwestern United States. Meteorites are subject to erosion and decomposition, and iron meteorites will corrode just like any other metal. Meteorites have even been found within the Arctic Circle, lying on top of the snow.

Life on Other Planets

Scientists study meteorites to try and determine if where they came from conditions that might support life. For instance, they study how a meteorite is crystallized, which gives them clues to help determine where it came from. Gas bubbles trapped within the meteorite provide information about the atmosphere of its planet of origin. Scientists examine the minute amounts of gas within these bubbles. One meteorite found in Antarctica in 1984 was thought to have evidence of microscopic life, but this is still under debate.

Mass Extinctions on Earth

Scientists study meteorites and their impact craters to determine what effect the meteorite had on the Earth and its inhabitants. For instance, the element iridium is rare on Earth, but often found in meteorites. Scientists have discovered an iridium-rich deposit that may mark the impact of a huge meteorite. This meteorite may have been responsible for obliterating the dinosaurs.

Tags: Scientists study, Scientists study meteorites, solar system, study meteorites, came from, determine where, fall Earth

What Skills Does It Take To Be An Astronomer

Astronomers study the planets, the stars, other galaxies and other heavenly bodies.

Astronomy is a science that studies celestial objects. These include planets, moons and other objects in our solar system; other stars and their planets; the Milky Way and other galaxies; more exotic objects such as quasars and black holes; and the large-scale structure of the universe. Astronomers examine the movements of heavenly bodies, investigate their composition and interactions, and speculate about their origin and ultimate fate.

The Basics

Astronomy is a broad field with a number of different areas of interest. Planetary science, for instance, looks at the structure and evolution of planets and satellites, both in our own solar system and around other stars. Stellar astronomy examines the composition and life cycle of stars, while galactic astronomy focuses on the structure and interaction of vast collections of stars. Cosmology studies the large-scale structure of the entire universe and attempts to explain its birth and evolution.

Observation and Theory

Each of the astronomy fields can be approached in two different ways. Observational astronomy, for one, involves the use of specialized instruments such as telescopes to gather information about heavenly bodies. In addition to visible light, this data can be obtained through other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum such as infrared, ultraviolet, X-rays, radio waves and gamma rays, and even by means of neutrinos and gravitational waves.

Meanwhile, theoretical astronomy goes from the other direction. Theoretical astronomers attempt to develop physical and mathematical models to explain phenomena in the universe. They then look for evidence in the observational data to support their theories.

Minimum Qualifications

Since astronomy is a natural science that studies physical phenomena, it is best described as a branch of physics. Astronomers typically study a great deal of physics and mathematics at the college level. Usually, they will take courses in mechanics, electromagnetism, optics and quantum mechanics. In mathematics, astronomers need a significant degree of training beyond calculus; nearly all astronomers will have taken differential equations, probability and statistics, linear algebra, mathematical modeling and the calculus of variations. Following these, they proceed to master's and doctoral studies in their particular fields of interest.

Related Knowledge

In addition to the physical and mathematical basics, astronomers generally take additional courses in areas that touch on their own subfields. Planetary astronomers, for instance, need to learn about geology and mineralogy, while stellar astronomers study chemistry and fluid dynamics.

Finally, both observational and theoretical astronomy are heavily dependent upon computers. Telescopes and other observational methods require knowledge of networking and data analysis, while theoretical astronomers make use of detailed computer modeling and simulations. Therefore, astronomers require significant knowledge of computer science.

Tags: heavenly bodies, large-scale structure, other galaxies, other stars, physical mathematical, science that

What Are The Causes Of Change In An Ecosystem

The interactions of the physical world and biological components make an ecosystem.

Ecosystems contain a multitude of living organisms that have adapted to fill a particular physical environment. Anything that causes a change in the physical characteristics of the environment has the potential to change the ecosystem. Any activity which removes or adds organisms can change the ecosystem. Things causing change to an ecosystem are called drivers. Volcanos and invasive species are drivers that cause change in an ecosystem. Events causing an animal population to become extinct are drivers.

Drivers Cause Change in an Ecosystem

Glaciers are natural occurring drivers that change an ecosystem.

Ecosystems consist of the biological and physical components of the Earth, and their interactions with each other. They provide services to man like cleaning the air and water. Drivers cause changes in either or both of the components, and the interactions between them reduce the ecosystem's ability to provide services. The drivers can be man-made or natural. A tornado knocking down a forest would be a natural driver, while a lumber company clearing the same forest would be a man-made driver. In both cases the death of the trees changes the ecosystem. However, in the case of the lumber company, the trees are removed, creating a loss in materials from the ecosystem.

Direct Drivers Stress an Ecosystem

Fire, a direct driver, drastically changed this forest ecosystem.

Direct drivers are physical or biological events that change an ecosystem. They are things like climate, land conversion, disease and invasive plants. Tsunamis, typhoons, hurricanes, fires and earthquakes are physical drivers that change an ecosystem. Floods wash plants and animals away. They also cause erosion, which reshapes the face of the landscape and removes top soil. Some examples of biological drivers are diseases and invasive organisms, such as Dutch elm disease and zebra mussels. Dutch elm disease kills trees in Europe and North America. Zebra mussels replaced native shellfish in the Great Lakes ecosystem.

Indirect Drivers of Change in an Ecosystem

Scientific and technological changes have allowed man to support more people per square mile causing changes in the ecosystem.

Indirect drivers affect the direct drivers by altering the rate of change in an ecosystem. Indirect drivers are demographics, economics, sociopolitical, cultural, religious, scientific and technological. Demographic changes indirectly cause change to an ecosystem. For instance, the movement of people from an area of low resources to high resources changes the rate of use of ecosystem goods. In the Amazon rainforest, as farm soil loses its nutrients, the farmer moves to a new forest region, burns it and starts a new farm. Wars cause people to move, increasing the population in the new area and creating a stress on limited resources.

Ecosystem Management

By understanding the drivers that cause change in ecosystems, land managers can protect resources.

Understanding the processes by which changes occur in an ecosystem provides the opportunity for policy designers to make decisions favoring sustainability. It helps land managers such as the U.S. Forest Service predict outcomes based on similar situations in other parts of the world. They can maintain ecosystem services in a sustainable fashion to meet the increased pressure from direct and indirect drivers that cause ecosystem changes.

Tags: change ecosystem, drivers that, cause change, drivers that cause, ecosystem Indirect

Present At A School Career Day

Your child's class has invited you to speak at their school career day. Presenting at a school career day can be educational and fun. Always consider the age and interests of your audience when planning your talk. Follow these tips to give an effective school career day presentation.

Instructions

1. Make your presentation age appropriate. An elementary class does not need to know medical or legal terminology. Talk to the class in terms that they can understand.

2. Bring show-and-tell type items. Kids love handling and exploring objects. Firemen can bring fire hats and doctors can bring stethoscopes. For a really exciting time, firemen, police and emergency workers can come in fire trucks, police cars and ambulances. Ask the school for permission to let the kids climb on the fire truck and examine the ambulance.

3. Involve the kids in a "Career for the Day" scenario. Teach the kids on their level do something in your field. An accountant could bring play money and have the kids count it. An engineer could bring building blocks and have the kids create a structure.

4. Allow time for questions. Invite the kids to ask questions about your line of work and answer honestly.

Tags: could bring, have kids, school career

Music Colleges In Louisiana

There are many colleges that offer music programs in Louisiana.

There are a lot of factors to consider when choosing a music college. Location is important, as is the types of programs offered. Louisiana is home to a variety of music colleges. Research the schools that meet your interests, and choose a college that best meets your career goals and aspirations.

University of New Orleans

The University of New Orleans offers undergraduate degrees in jazz studies, music education and music studies, as well as a minor in music. Graduate degree music programs offered include conducting, composition, jazz studies and performance.

The University of New Orleans

2000 Lakeshore Drive

New Orleans, LA 70148

504-280-6000

uno.edu

Louisiana State University

Louisiana State University (LSU) offers undergraduate and graduate programs in performance, education, composition and music theory. They also boast the only Ph.D program in music in the region. The renowned LSU marching band features woodwinds, brass and a drumline.

Louisiana State University

College of Music & Dramatic Arts

Baton Rouge, LA 70803

225-578-3261

music.lsu.edu

Centenary College of Louisiana

The Hurley School of Music, part of Centenary College of Louisiana, offers a bachelor's of music program that includes coursework in music education and sacred music. There are also classes in music theory, music history, music literature and applied musical study. Students also have the opportunity to participate in musical ensembles and concerts.

Centenary College of Louisiana

2911 Centenary Boulevard

Shreveport, LA 71104-3396

318-869-5011

centenary.edu

Loyola University of New Orleans

Loyola University of New Orleans offers undergraduate programs in music therapy, jazz studies, music education, music performance and several other areas. Their graduate programs include a master's degree in music performance and music therapy.

Loyola University of New Orleans

6363 Saint Charles Avenue

New Orleans, LA 70118

504-865-2011

loyno.edu

Tags: University Orleans, Centenary College, Centenary College Louisiana, College Louisiana, jazz studies

How Is Bullion Gold Formed

Gold Bullion Coins

Bullion is the term used to define precious metals, including gold, that are as pure as refining processes can make them. The gold referred to as bullion gold is 99.9 percent pure and is usually smelted into bars, ingots or coins. These are traded on the open market by bullion dealers and may be purchased by anyone, from private investors to businesses, corporations and banks.

Where Gold Comes From

There are hundreds of gold mines all over the world, on every continent except Antarctica, where mining is not allowed. Worldwide gold production amounts to roughly 2,485 tons annually. As of 2010, that figure had remained stable in recent years. According to the Goldsheet Mining Directory the biggest individual gold producing countries in 2008 were China, the United States and South Africa.

The Growth of the Gold Industry

During the California Gold Rush of the 19th century, the '49ers scrabbled in riverbeds, manually panning for gold in the fast-flowing water. Back then finding gold was left to luck and chance. Today geologists use modern technology like remote sensing and airborne geophysics to discover possible drilling sites.

Drilling for Gold

Once a likely-looking location has been found, test drilling is done at various sites within the area to discover the quantity and quality of any gold deposits. Mining engineers decide whether or not mining is worthwhile and what type of mine is needed. It may be either open-pit on the surface, or underground.

How Bullion is Extracted from Gold Mines

Gold, before it is mined and processed, is contained within ore that is either dug from the surface or blasted from underground rock. The ore is then milled and the gold separated from the ore. The gold is then melted down and cast into bars. The bars are further refined until they are at least 99.5 percent pure. Further refining can increase the purity to 99.9 percent.

Closure of Gold Mines

There is only so much gold that can be taken from a mine to be processed and sold as bullion. In bygone days gold mines would have been simply boarded up and abandoned. With the modern awareness of the environment and the impact of our activities on the Earth, spent gold mines are returned to as natural a state as possible. In the case of open-pit mines this may mean planting trees and reintroducing wildlife.

Tags: gold mines, gold that, into bars, percent pure

The Definition Of Tectonic Activity

The Himalaya Mountains were formed by the collision of continental plates.

Plate tectonics is a geological theory that explains the phenomenon of continental drift. According to the theory, the Earth's crust is made up of continental and oceanic plates, which move across the surface of the planet, meeting at plate boundaries. Plate tectonics cause volcanic activity, mountain-building, ocean trench formation and earthquakes.

Continental Drift

The theory of continental drift was first proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1915. It had long been noted that continental coastlines appeared to fit together like giant puzzle pieces, most notably the west coast of Africa and the east coast of South America. Wegener hypothesized that a supercontinent, named Pangaea, existed 200 million years ago; this supercontinent subsequently broke apart in to several continental pieces. Since Wegener's hypothesis, substantial fossil and geological evidence has been compiled to validate continental drift theory.

Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

Continental drift is explained through the activity of tectonic plates. According to plate tectonics theory, the Earth's lithosphere, which is composed of the crust and a portion of the upper mantle, is broken into plates that float independently on top of the more liquid asthenosphere. There are eight major plates and many minor plates, which move relative to each other at plate boundaries. Plate boundaries are defined as convergent or colliding, divergent, or transform.

Plates and Plate Boundaries

Tectonic plates are divided into continental plates and oceanic plates. At convergent boundaries, subduction takes place as one plate slides beneath another, recycling the plate material into the mantle. With convergent oceanic plates, subduction always occurs. Ocean plates also always subduct below continental plates, often producing zones of volcanic activity and earthquake faults, such as occur along the West Coast of the United States. With colliding continental plates, neither may subduct, resulting in rising continental crust and the building of mountains and plateaus. The Himalayas are an example of mountains produced by the convergence or continental plates.

Sea Floor Spreading

As the lithosphere is recycled due to plate subduction, additional crust is created at divergent plate boundaries. Most divergent boundaries occur between oceanic plates, with the greatest amount of crust formation occurring at mid-oceanic ridges. At these boundaries, as the plates move away from each other, volcanic activity results in molten magma rising from the mantle to fill the open space. Activity can be pronounced at some divergent boundaries, resulting in volcanic islands, such as the Hawaiian Islands and other volcanic islands of the Pacific.

Tags: continental plates, oceanic plates, volcanic activity, boundaries Plate, divergent boundaries, each other, other volcanic

What Are Deep Ocean Trenches Surficial Evidence For

The tallest mountains in the world would still be beneath one mile of water in the Mariana trench.

Deep ocean trenches are formed through interactions between tectonic plates, also called lithospheric plates. As these plates slide past one another, the heavier of the two plates slide beneath the lighter plate, creating a convergence point. This point creates an ocean trench, which is long, deep but very narrow. These trenches are surficial proof that lithospheric plates are returning to the mantle of the Earth.

Lithospheric plates

Lithospheric plates make up the fractured surface of the earth. These plates come in two types: oceanic and continental. The oceanic plates are typically composed of basaltic type rocks. Continental plates are composed of granite based rocks. Trenches are formed when heavier oceanic plates are forced down into the mantle, since basaltic rocks are heavier than granite rocks and create the steep V shape of an deed oceanic trench.

Plate Tectonics

According to plate tectonic theory, new crust is being produced on the plates at a rate of a few centimeters a year. With new crust being created, you might expect that the size of the Earth would grow over time. However, this has not been the case. One theory to explain why is that the subduction zone present at deep ocean trenches is pushed under another at roughly the same rate as new crust is being created.

Island Volcanic Arcs

Deep ocean trenches typically run parallel to island volcanic arcs. Islands such as the Marianas and the Aleutian are located very closely to deep oceanic trenches. It is theorized, these volcanic islands are the result of magma partially melting the plates at the subduction zone and creating new islands. Around the Pacific, volcanic island arcs are found along the oceanic plates, creating what is known as the "Ring of Fire."

Earthquakes

Another natural phenomenon associated with deep oceanic trenches are earthquakes. The earthquakes occur as the two plates are sliding past one another. The two plates move very slowly and pressure builds between the plates as they try to pass one another. When the pressure becomes too great, the plates move and the energy released creates earthquakes.

The Challenger Deep

The deepest oceanic trench is the Challenger Deep located in the Mariana trench. Challenger Deep is 10,911 meters or 35,798 feet below sea level. This point was first reached by Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh with the Bathyscape Trieste in 1960. The trip to the bottom of the world took more than five hours and the observers were only able to stay for 20 minutes. Fish and shrimp were observed at this location. Many unmanned robotic vehicles have traveled to Challenger Deep but Piccard and Walsh are the only explorers to reach the depth in a manned vehicle.

Tags: Challenger Deep, crust being, ocean trenches, oceanic plates, being created, crust being created, Deep ocean

Mount Tambora Interesting Facts

Mount Tambora is a stratovolcano, layered with pumice, rock, ash and hardened lava.

One of the most deadly natural disasters in recorded history occurred in 1815 on Mount Tambora, located on the island of Sumbawa in Indonesia. A volcanic eruption claimed as many as 117,000 lives in Indonesia alone, and subsequently killed hundreds of thousands of people across the Northern Hemisphere.

Mount Tambora Erupts

At approximately 7 p.m. on April 10, 1815, Mount Tambora's volcano exploded. The super-colossal eruption caused 16-foot tsunamis along the coast of Indonesia. The spewing hot lava reached speeds of 124 mph, immediately killing 10,000 victims in its path. Mount Tambora's volcanic eruptions continued until July 15, 1815.

Year Without a Summer

In the summer of 1816, the dense volcanic ash from Mount Tambora's eruption blew into the skies over the Northern Hemisphere. The haze of suspended ash filtered the sun from the people and crops below. Unseasonably low temperatures caused frost, crop failure, famine, disease and death across Europe and North America. Historians refer to this isolated event as "The Year Without a Summer."

In 1920, American climatologist William Humphreys was credited with connecting the Northern Hemisphere's extreme weather conditions to Mount Tambora's airborne volcanic ash.

Indonesian Famine

After the volcanic eruption of Mount Tambora, thick layers of ash ruined crops on the islands of Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi and Sumbawa. The resulting famine throughout Indonesia turned so severe, islanders sold themselves as slaves to traders and gave away their children in exchange for rations of rice.

Tags: Mount Tambora, Northern Hemisphere, Year Without Summer, 1815 Mount, 1815 Mount Tambora

Endangered Quaternery Animals

Endangered Quaternery Animals

The Quaternary period is the time when most animals on land became extinct; the changing climate and overkill by humans meant that many large mammals, like the woolly mammoth and saber-toothed tiger, were wiped out. A number of mammal families date back to the Quaternary period, and some species still survive but face endangerment.

African Elephant

Some piano keys are made of ivory from the African elephant's trunk.

During the Quaternary period, many species of mammals became extinct in Africa, particularly because the first humans originated from the continent. Several species of elephants became extinct, including Loxodonta adaurora and Elephas recki. The African elephant (known as Loxodonta Africana) is today the largest land animal on earth and lives in Central and South Africa. It's endangered because of habitat loss and poaching; their ivory tusks are used in jewelry and piano keys, while their meat is used by local people. Although ivory trade has been banned since 1989, the black market for trading can be very profitable, which is why the African elephant is endangered.

Fin, Sei and Blue Whale

Whales and sharks dominated the seas during the Quaternary period, usually hunting for otter, seal and other fish. During the climate change of the period many species of whales became extinct because the animals they ate didn't survive the changing climate. Today three types of whales are considered endangered species; the fin whale, Sei whale and blue whale. Although they were rarely targeted by hunters in early times, with technology today they are being over-killed. The whales' threat also comes from seismic operations, entanglement in fishing nets and pollution.

Rhinoceroses

The rhinoceros species can be traced back to Northern Eurasia, and as land masses changed, they eventually settled in Africa. Species like the woolly rhinoceros and Merk's rhinoceros became extinct during the Quaternary period, and those species of rhinos that have survived are facing extinction today. The black rhinoceros and white rhinoceros live in very small numbers in Africa. Their numbers have fallen dramatically in the last three centuries mainly due to loss of habitat and hunting. Asia has a large black market for rhino horns, which are ground up and used in traditional medicines. According to the International Fund for Animal Welfare, less than 3,000 black rhinos survive in the world, meaning they are very close to extinction.

Pygmy Hippopotamus

Hippopotamus gorgops, a giant hippopotamus, became extinct as the climate changed in Africa at the start of the Ice Age. The pygmy hippopotamus is a descendant species of the animal that is very much endangered. It only lives in Liberia, Guinea and the Ivory Coast (West Africa). The loss of their habitat due to the timber industry has kept their numbers extremely low in the wild, especially since they prefer swampy forests for their home. They are often killed by local people because of the damage their teeth do to riverside gardens. An estimated 2,000 or fewer pygmy hippopotamuses are left in the wild, according to Smithsonian National Zoological Park.

Tags: became extinct, Quaternary period, African elephant, black market, changing climate

Physical Science Research Topics

Physical sciences are natural sciences that deal primarily with non-living objects, such as chemistry, astronomy, physics and geology. There are many methods that can be used to get ideas for research topics, whether that research is for a school paper or involves time in the lab or with home equipment. Science journals, science books and textbooks, newspapers, magazines and the Internet are valuable tools for inspiring research ideas.

Chemistry

One chemistry research topic is hydrogen fuel cells. Extracting power from hydrogen is an environmentally friendly solution because water vapor is the main byproduct. The chemical energy in hydrogen can be converted into electric energy for powering small devices that use batteries and larger machines such as vehicles. Fuel cells also have an advantage over combustion-based power plantsin being two to three times as efficient as traditional combustion technologies.

Astronomy

An astronomy topic is the study of other galaxies. Astronomer Edwin Hubble categorized galaxies into four types: spiral, elliptical, barred spiral and irregular. Angular momentum and star formation of galaxies are possible research topics, since it is theorized that a galaxy's type is determined by the angular momentum it contains and the star formation rate. Another topic idea is dwarf galaxies, the smallest and most common type of galaxy.

Physics

A topic of physics exploration is carbon nanotubes, which are long, thin cylinders of carbon about 10,000 times thinner than a human hair. They can be pictured as a sheet of carbon in a hexagonal lattice that is rolled into a cylinder. They have potential for use as tiny wires or in miniature electronic devices. Nanotubes are tricky to manipulate in a controlled way. Their physical properties change dramatically with adjustments to length, diameter and twist.

Geology

A geology research topic is the study of the effects, history and mechanics of earthquakes. Active tectonics is the study of tectonic movements that are expected to occur in the future. Paleoseismology is the study of prehistoric earthquakes. It differs from other aspects of earthquake geology because it focuses more on deformation of landforms and sediments during individual earthquakes. This permits the study of earthquake distribution over time periods of hundreds to tens of thousands of years.

Tags: research topic, research topics, star formation, topic study

When To Plant Soybeans In Northern Kansas

Soybean planting in northern Kansas is dependent on location.

Sections of northern Kansas fall into three different USDA plant hardiness zones, which are designed to help farmers and gardeners ascertain the ideal time frame for the planting of soybeans and other crops. Does this Spark an idea?

Zone 1

The state of Kansas is covered by four planting zones. All or part of 15 counties in the extreme northwestern part of the state -- counties like Cheyenne and Thomas -- fall into zone 1, an area where soybeans should be planted between May 10 and June 1.

Zones 2 and 3

A significant number of northern Kansas counties, including Jewell and Mitchell, are in zone 2, a section of the state where soybeans are best planted between May 5 and June 10. Meanwhile, a smaller number of northeastern counties -- like Douglas and Shawnee -- are situated in zone 3, where soybeans should be seeded between May 15 and June 15.

Warning

The National Soybean Research Laboratory cautions that growers should consider more than the date when determining a prime time for the planting of soybeans in Kansas or elsewhere. Soil temperature is the most important factor as soybean seeds require a ground temperature of at least 55 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit for proper germination.

Tags: between June, northern Kansas, where soybeans, counties like, fall into, planted between

Differences Between Metamorphic Rocks & Other Rocks

Marble, a metamorphic rock, has long been prized for its beauty and durability.

Geologists classify rocks as belonging to one of three categories: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Metamorphic rocks are those that have undergone a major change in appearance, composition or form due to extreme heat or pressure. The original, or parent, rock may have been igneous, sedimentary or even another metamorphic rock.

Basic Geology

If you were to begin a journey to the center of the Earth, you would first pass through the Earth's crust and mantle. You would then arrive at the molten outer core before reaching the solid inner core. At the core, you would be about 6,375 miles below the surface. The temperature at the inner core is no cooler than the outer core, but the inner core is under so much pressure that it cannot remain molten.

Igneous Rocks

Magma is molten rock that is underground, and lava is simply magma that has broken through the crust. Igneous rocks form as magma or lava cools. Since the Earth was once entirely molten, all rocks began as igneous rocks. The length of time it takes the magma to cool, the pressure to which it is subjected, whether it cools in water or air and the gases within the magma, all play a part in determining the type of rock that will result. The two most common types of igneous rocks at surface level are granite and basalt.

Sedimentary Rocks

To maintain stability, the conditions under which a rock formed must never change. If conditions change, the rock can crumble, melt or harden. When it crumbles, the individual components can be washed or blown to a new location and mixed with components from a variety of rocks. Over time, more and more layers can build up, forming sedimentary rocks. River deltas and beds, shorelines and sand bars are common sites for sedimentary rocks, but they can form anywhere that is flat and conducive to layering. This is the type of rock in which fossils may be found. Examples of sedimentary rocks are limestone, sandstone and shale.

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks develop within the Earth under intense heat and extreme pressure, conditions that cannot occur at the surface. Most metamorphosis is either contact or regional metamorphism. Contact metamorphism is when the parent rock is exposed to magma. The magma's heat changes the rock, forming crystals that are larger or introducing additional minerals to change the rock's chemical composition. Regional metamorphism is the result of pressure exerted when tectonic plates collide to form new mountain ranges. The pressure rearranges the rocks' crystals, and many metamorphic rocks have curves or folds that reveal the direction of the pressure. Metamorphic rocks may have layers or they may show no obvious layers. One parent rock can transform into a variety of metamorphic rock, depending on the conditions under which the change occurs. Examples of metamorphic rocks include slate, marble, schist, anthracite or hard coal, quartzite and gneiss.

Tags: inner core, metamorphic rock, Metamorphic rocks, parent rock, sedimentary rocks, change rock, conditions under

Draw A Geologic Cross Section

Geologic cross sections display the different layers of earth and minerals.

Geologic cross sections are representations of the earth. Imagine cutting into the ground or into a mounting with a laser and then lifting out of the earth a huge square. The square of laser-cut earth would show different layers, depending on how deep the laser cut, that represent different types of earth as well as different minerals and time periods. In grade school, students learn the earth consists of a core, at the center, then the mantle and the crust; the crust is the surface of the earth we walk on or plant seeds. For many children, these images of the core, mantle and crust are the first examples of geologic cross sections they experience. The type of cross section is determined by the purpose for drawing it and the needs of the artist.

Instructions

1. Determine the subject for your geologic cross-section drawing. It may be imagined, simply to demonstrate the layers of the geology, or it may be specific such as from a map or geological study or dig.

2. Draw the basic outline for your geologic cross section. Typically, this could begin at one side of the page near the top and travel across to the other. The line is usually not straight as it should represent the natural surface of the earth. An exception would be if you were drawing a geologic cross section with a paved road on top and perhaps layers of earth, or even a sewer system beneath.

3. Sketch the layers of the cross section very lightly. Without measuring, sketching lightly allows you to easily erase and adjust spacing if one layer seems disproportionate later. On a separate paper it may be helpful to number and label the layers for adding details as you complete the cross-section drawing.

4. Color in the different layers of the cross section, if desired, to represent the differences between the types of minerals or earth found in each layer. For layers that are close together and similar, but not the same, use different shades of the same colors. If you have limited colors, you may also simply use dark and light versions of the same colored pencil to show geological differences in the layers.

5. Label the layers with a pen, if desired, or a dark-colored pencil sharpened to a point. If helpful, you may add dates or date ranges for the layers such as those in cross sections of earth showing the changes for paleontological representations.

Tags: cross section, cross sections, different layers, cross-section drawing, geologic cross, Geologic cross, geologic cross section

Motels In Paonia Colorado

Guests to the area can go hiking in the local parks.

Located in Delta County, Colorado, Paonia is situated along the North Folk River and is about 150 miles southwest of Denver. While individuals began settling the town in 1880, it was officially incorporated in 1902. According to Colorado.com, Paonia has an official population of about 1,600 citizens, as of 2010. Each July, the town holds the Paonia Cherry Days, which feature parades, barbeque, fireworks and cherry pies.

Rocky Mountain Inn

The Rocky Mountain Inn is located in Paonia and sits on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains. The rooms are designed to accommodate individual travelers or large families and groups. The downtown is within walking distance of the motel, and activities in the area include hunting, fishing, biking, wilderness exploring and cross-country skiing. Guests can also visit the local brewery and vineyards. Most of the rooms are equipped with full kitchens, and guests are responsible for washing their own dishes.

Bross Hotel

The Bross Hotel is a bed and breakfast in Paonia and first opened in 1906. In the mid-1990s the hotel was remodeled and refurbished. Guests can eat breakfast in the main dining room and entertain themselves in the 600-square foot TV/Library/Game/Conference Room. The room features video games, puzzles, books and board games. Attractions in the area include the Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park, Raggeds Wilderness Area and Blue Safe Center for the Arts.

Redwood Arms Motel

The Redwood Arms Motel is a family owned and operated establishment and sits 5,500 feet above sea level. The ranch-style motel features traditional amenities, and guests can take scenic drives along the West Elks Loop. Other activities include river rafting, wildlife photography, camping, rock climbing, hunting and fishing. Wineries near the motel include the Stone Cottage Cellars, Black Bridge Winery, Terror Creek Winery and Jack Rabbit Hill Winery. Horse facilities are also located on the premises, and guests can bring their own horses.

Tags: area include, Arms Motel, Bross Hotel, Colorado Paonia, hunting fishing

Motels In Lava Hot Springs Idaho

Lava Hot Springs in Idaho has several accommodation options for visitors.

Between Salt Lake City and Yellowstone National Park is Lava Hot Springs. This town is known for its natural hot, pools of mineral water. Visitors can enjoy all kinds of water activities here including the hot springs, indoor and outdoor water parks and tubing or kayaking down the river. Several accommodation options are available in town including quaint motels and hotels built in historic buildings.

Lava Spa Motel

The Lava Spa Motel has 22 rooms with en-suites, TV, air-conditioning, wireless Internet, fridge and microwave. Rooms come in a variety of sizes starting with a standard room with one queen-sized bed. The largest room is a Jacuzzi suite with a king-sized bed, jetted tub and flat-screen TV. The motel also has an RV park with sites along the river. The Riverwalk Cafe is only steps away.

Lava Spa Motel & RV Park

359 East Main

Lava Hot Springs, ID 83246

208-776-5589

lavaspamotel.net

Alpaca Inn

The Alpaca Inn highlights old-fashioned hospitality and a rustic decor. Eight rooms are available at the Inn and include a dining area, microwave, fridge, coffee station, en-suite, TV with DVD player, Internet access and air-conditioning. Rooms come with one to three beds and a two-story family suite is also available. The family suite has a fully kitchen and eating area. The Inn is only steps from the Blue Moon Bar and Grill.

Alpaca Inn

90 South 1st East

Lava Hot Springs, ID 83246

208-776-5200

lavaalpacainn.com

Home Hotel

Home Hotel is in a historic building that was established in 1918. The hotel offers eight rooms with modern updates like mineral, hot springs waters brought into the rooms. The eight rooms all have an artist theme. The Vincent van Gogh Room is decorated with prints from the artist and has a king-sized bed and two person tub and shower. In the Mary Cassatt room, prints from the Pennsylvania artist are featured. Spacious, courtside rooms are also available and include a family suite, economy units and several two-bed rooms. If you are looking for larger accommodations check out their guest home which has two bedrooms, a daybed and a full kitchen. The hotel is only steps from the Riverside Restaurant and Lounge.

Home Hotel

306 E. Main St.

Lava Hot Springs Hotel, ID

208-776-5050

homehotel.com

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Slate Rock Information

Slate is the finest grained of the metamorphic rocks. Characteristics such as strength, color, density and absorbency vary by geographic location because of varying geologic forces, like heat and pressure, imposed upon it at the time of formation.

Composition

Slate is morphed from shale, a sedimentary rock with high clay content. Slate also contains varying degrees of chlorite, kaolinite, micas and quartz, among other minerals. Colors vary but are characteristically grayish blue.

Hardness

The majority of slate is considered a soft rock; you can scratch it easily.

Cleavage

Slate cleavage appears as paper-thin, extremely strong planes that are oriented at right angles to the source of imposed pressure.

Absorption

Slate generally has a low rate of absorption, but slate with a high content of a type of clay called kaolinite will absorb liquid at a faster rate.

Function

Slate's qualities make it a good choice for roofing, flooring, tombstones and as landscaping and garden decor because it is more durable than synthetic materials.

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Science Projects On The Evolution Of Dinosaurs

The skulls of dinosaurs evolved to ideally fit the lifestyles of individual species.

Dinosaurs are a fascinating aspect of the natural history of out planet. Those majestic and sometimes terrifying creatures dominated the Earth for 180 million years from the Triassic period to the Cretaceous period. This gave them ample time to evolve into ruthless predators and successful herbivores. Science projects focused on this evolution are highly effective ways of engaging your students and teaching them about the principles of evolution.

Evolution of Dinosaurs over Geologic Time

This project allows high-school students to use their accumulated knowledge of several subjects with regard to the evolution of dinosaurs. Assign your students to produce posters or computer presentations about their findings. They will research the periods of geologic time using the school's resources and examine the changes that took place over this period. These include changes in climate in certain areas of the globe, changes in landmass and changes in the positions of continents. The students will then apply this information to their knowledge of dinosaurs in the Cretaceous period and make observations on evolution.

Dinosaur Variations

A major variation in the bodies of dinosaurs occurred in their hips. Dinosaurs were divided into bird-hipped or reptile-hipped animals. Give your class a dinosaur classification chart and ask them to research which dinosaurs were bird-hipped and which were reptile-hipped. They will discover that Saurapods, such as Diplodocus and Apatosaurus, as well as Allosaurus and other carnivores were reptile-hipped, while other dinosaurs, including Stegosaurus and Ankylosaurus, were bird-hipped. Ask your class to use their knowledge of evolution to hypothesize why these types of dinosaurs evolved differently.

Are Birds Dinosaurs?

Ask your class to research the similarities between birds and dinosaurs. Your students might be surprised to discover just how many similarities there are between the two. When a fossil of the Archaeopteryx was discovered in a German quarry, it was described as a "transitional form" between the two vertebrate groups. Using their knowledge of evolution, ask your students to create a presentation arguing either for or against modern birds being descendants of the dinosaurs. This presentation should include information about how birds were able to continue existing after "traditional} dinosaurs became extinct.

Mammals vs. Dinosaurs

This research project requires the class to explore the possible reasons behind the extinction of the dinosaurs and how mammals were then able to take over the planet. Students should use all their knowledge of evolution to produce a poster or presentation outlining why mammals survived almost unaffected while the dynasty of the dinosaurs came to an abrupt halt. This project will engage your students in thinking about biodiversity, natural selection and other theories behind evolution.

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