Definition Of Mineral Rights

The value of land isn't always in the well-kept yard or proximity to a lake or river for recreation. It can also include minerals underneath the surface that are worth hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of dollars. In order to benefit from that value, you must own the mineral rights to your land, not just the rights to the surface.

Definition

Mineral rights are owning the rights to minerals under the surface of a piece of land. Owning these rights allows you to drill and mine for them or not, depending on your preference. You can sell or lease them as well, should a mineral company want to recover the material. In the United States, mineral rights often accompany surface rights so that when you buy a piece of land, you're buying rights to what's on the surface and what's underneath. However, it is possible to sever the two. Whether you are acquiring mineral rights when you buy land should be listed in the deed or on other paperwork, which should be on record with the local government.

Minerals

Minerals are anything below the surface. However, no official definition exists. Oil and natural gas might be minerals, along with coal, clay, silver, gold, copper, natural gas, salt and any other material below the surface. Sales agreements and leases must clarify what exactly is meant by "mineral" because vague wording can lead to legal disagreements when it comes time to drill or mine.

Surface Vs. Subsurface

A sale of land in the United States that includes the mineral rights is called a fee simple estate. Geology.com notes that as drilling and mining techniques became more sophisticated, it became possible to split rights to the surface and to underground areas, and now you can find that when you buy land, you can buy only the surface because someone else gained the mineral, or subsurface, rights separately. Mineral companies can determine that a coal vein or gas shale is under the land and then send people out to locate the mineral rights owner to negotiate a sale or lease to explore. This can be profitable for the mineral rights holders, but not for those who own only the surface rights.

Environmental Cautions

Drilling and mining for minerals can adversely affect other natural resources in the area as well as the quality of life for those living on the surface. Handle negotiations for mineral rights carefully, especially if you have a well. Geology.com notes the recovery activity can damage aquifer walls, allowing water to drain into other underground cavities, which reduces the amount of water available to wells. Removing underground material might also result in settling and cracking of the surface. This is a particular concern because it might not happen immediately. Instead, it might happen years after the company recovering the minerals has closed, leaving no recourse for the surface owner.

Warning

Those who own only surface rights might be at the mercy of those who own the mineral rights, depending on state laws. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette reported in 2006 that severed mineral rights caused some landowners to have no say when dealing with companies setting up natural gas wells on the land, permanently stopping any plans those landowners had to develop the surface.

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Allow Clipboard Mapping On A Terminal Server

Clipboard mapping can be enabled on a terminal server by adjusting the terminal's client settings.

Clipboard mapping is the ability to copy and paste while logged into a terminal server session. This feature is enabled by default on a terminal server so that users may utilize the clipboard tool to copy, cut and paste without any restrictions. In cases where clipboard mapping has previously been disabled on a terminal server, it can be reactivated by configuring the client settings of the terminal server through the Control Panel.

Instructions

1. Click the "Start" button, then "Control Panel."

2. Double-click "Administrative Tools," then "Terminal Services Configuration."

3. Click "Connections" to display the connections on the terminal server. Right-click on the connection that you want to allow clipboard mapping on, then select "Properties" from the list.

4. Click on the "Client Settings" tab and locate the section titled "Disable the following."

5. Click the checked box next to "Clipboard Mapping" to enable clipboard mapping on the terminal server. Click "OK" to save the changes.

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Middle School Science Fair Projects In Earth Science

Acid rain can wear away limestone.

Earth science is a broad field that encompasses several scientific disciplines, including geology, oceanography and meteorology. It also incorporates many others, like physics, biology and chemistry. At the middle school level, there are several science fair projects on earth science that can help you learn more about the subject, and how it applies to nature and everyday life.

Frozen Erosion

The earth breaks down rocks and other materials using several natural processes, including freezing and thawing. According to Home Science Tools, you can recreate these processes using a plastic bottle, water, a freezer and several different rock samples, such as limestone, granite and sandstone. Fill the bottle with water, drop in your rock samples and then place the bottle inside the freezer until the all of the water has frozen. This will likely take a few hours. Then, remove the bottle, allow the water to thaw, and repeat the process three to five more times. Observe your rock samples and see which have incurred the most damage. The freezing of the rocks causes water to expand, which creates cracks, while the thawing pulls small pieces of the rock apart.

Heat and Ocean Currents

Water temperature plays an important role in generating the earth's ocean currents, including its most expansive one: the global conveyor belt, which circulates ocean water around the planet. According to Science Buddies, you can recreate how heat affects ocean currents using a casserole dish, some blocks (or other supports), a candle, cooking oil and flakes of thyme, or a similar herb. Pour some oil into the dish, add some thyme, and then set up the dish so it is suspended between the two blocks. Place a candle underneath the dish, light it and observe what happens. The flame will induce convection, and the oil will generate mini-currents, which swirl the thyme around.

Recreate the Effects of Acid Rain

Acid rain often occurs when there is an excess of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The rain can be incredibly harmful to living things as well as an area's local geological features. According to Home Science Tools, you can recreate the effects of acid rain using vinegar, a number of different rock samples, such as limestone and calcium carbonate (chalk). Simply place your sample in a bowl, pour on some vinegar and observe. The acidic vinegar will react with the alkaline rocks and cause them to deteriorate, producing a layer of leftover sediment. You can also experiment with other acidic liquids, such as lemon juice.

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Types Of Petroleum Engineering

Petroleum engineering is a branch of engineering that deals with the development and exploitation of natural gas and crude oil fields. The field began in the 1890s in California with mining engineering and geology. The petroleum engineer's job is to extract liquid and gas hydrocarbon products from earth and to deal with all areas that involve this process, including drilling, processing, producing and transporting.

Off shore drilling

Early History

Between 1900 and 1920, petroleum engineering focused on problems primarily dealing with drilling (including design and mechanical operations) and, in the 1920s, engineers focused on ways to improve these drilling practices. This type of petroleum engineering is called drilling engineering, according to Britannica.com.

Introduction

In 1930, an economic crisis that resulted from numerous oil discoveries caused petroleum engineering to focus on oil-water-gas reservoir system instead of the individual well. Oil-water-gas system involved the study of optimum spacing of oil wells on a field and led to the development of another type of petroleum engineering called reservoir engineering.

Drilling Engineering

Drilling engineering is a type of petroleum engineering that deals with the management of technical aspects of drilling and the production and injection of wells. Drilling for oil and natural gas has two basic requirements, according to "Drilling Engineering" by Jamal J. Azar and G. Robello Samuel. These requirements are manpower (drilling-engineering group and rig-operations group) and hardware systems. The drilling-engineering group provides support for optimum drilling operations (including design of mud program and rig selection, hydraulics, casing and cementing, drill bit, well control, and drill string). Once drilling begins, daily operation is taken care of by the rig operations group and consists of a tool pusher and several drilling crews.

Reservoir Engineering

Reservoir engineering deals with maximizing profit from oil and gas fields by optimizing the recovery of the oil and gas reserves. This field provides support and expertise to other aspects of production and facility engineering, according to exxonmobil.com. Certain job duties include evaluating oil and gas reservoir performance and depletion strategies, analyzing actual field data and recommending new projects for increasing reserves, developing engineering models for integrating well performance, conducting reservoir simulations to predict performance, and performing reserve evaluations in order to estimate reserves and recovery.

Production Engineering

Production engineering is an area of petroleum engineering that involves the management of the interface between the reservoir and the well. This interface may include sand control, down-hole flow control and monitoring equipment, and perforations. Production engineering is found in all areas of engineering and basically involves the planning and control of the industry toward greater value and effectiveness.

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Petroleum Engineer Careers

Petroleum engineers have many different career paths to choose from.

An individual with a petroleum engineering degree has a wide variety of careers paths from which to choose. Job prospects are extremely good for this type of engineer; according to the Colorado School of Mines, job placement for petroleum engineer graduates with a BS degree is at 100 percent by graduation, as well as for those individuals who continue on to pursue a Master's degree or PhD. Your best career choice in this field of engineering will depend on your likes and dislikes, as well as your abilities.

Field Engineer

Field engineers are responsible for oil and gas extraction.

Field engineers develop methods for pulling oil and gas deposits out of the earth. Once these pockets of resources are located, field engineers work with geologists and other specialists to determine the nature of the rock the deposits are located in with the goal of determining the best procedure for extraction. Once removal has begun, they usually stay on-site to monitor the extraction process and consult as needed. Due to the fact that only a small amount of oil and gas flows out of a recovery site under natural forces, engineers develop and utilize extraction methods that involve injecting water, steam, or chemicals to force the resources out of the earth. A field engineer could be stationed anywhere in the world, from a small town to a large city, and even to a remote location far removed from any type of civilization.

In-House Economists

Petroleum engineers gain experience needed to become effective economists.

Since all oil production is evaluated in terms of cost versus benefit, petroleum engineers with several years of experience often go on to become in-house economists. Engineers in these positions have gained experience by analyzing the reports of field engineers and giving recommendations to management as to the best way to proceed. This sort of data review is a constant gamble, and this is why petroleum engineers who go on to provide economic analysis are so well-fitted for the position. They have learned over the years to determine what makes a safe bet, and when a company will give too much to get too little.

Consultants

Many petroleum engineers go on to become consultants.

Many petroleum engineers, after years in the field, see how dirty the oil extraction business is and desire a career change. Many of these engineers then go on to become consultants for private industry or even for the Environmental Protection Agency, or EPA. A consultancy position allows other companies to reap the benefits of knowledge obtained by an engineer in a way that they could not by themselves. Some companies may be embarking on new energy projects, such as natural gas extraction, that are new to the company. In cases such as this, consultants provide valuable information on proceed and obtain energy deposits efficiently and with a minimum of environmental damage.

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Oklahoma Environmental Problems

Farming is a major industry in Oklahoma.

The state of Oklahoma shares many of the same environmental problems found throughout the United States, with others reflecting the unique history and biodiversity of the area. The state has a wide diversity of ecosystems, from small mountain ranges to short-grass prairies to forests. Since Oklahoma is a major producer of natural gas and agriculture, environmental problems are likely.

Historic Perspective

Past land use practices continue to impact Oklahoma in 2010. Smelter facilities are found throughout the state. The Blackwell Zinc company is an example of an historic operation, long closed, yet still impacting the environment today. The facility processed zinc and cadmium. This operation introduced the chemicals used in the process to refine metal into the soil and surface water. Cadmium accumulates in plant and animal tissue, causing long-term environmental effects. Human consumption of meat from animals with high concentrations of cadmium can cause kidney disease, liver disease and high blood pressure.

Significance

Several Oklahoma ecosystems have been lost since European settlement in the area. Over 80 percent of bottomland hardwood forests of eastern Oklahoma and over 60 percent of wetlands in Oklahoma have been lost between the 1780s and 1980s. With these losses comes the reduction of available habitat for plant and animal species. Mussel populations in southeastern Oklahoma, for example, have been on the decline, with 19 species having been identified that are of special conservation interest.

Issues Affecting Water Resources

A serious issue affecting Oklahoma water resources is algal blooms. Shallow waters are most susceptible to this occurrence. An algal bloom is an explosion of algae growth that occurs when conditions are right for plant growth. The danger of algal blooms lies with the type of algae. Blue green algae or cyanobacteria can release toxins into the water which can cause liver and central nervous system damage in humans. Pets and livestock are also vulnerable.

Land Use Issues

Agriculture is the primary cause of water pollution, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The prairie ecosystems lend themselves well to rangeland for livestock. However, surface water runoff can introduce bacteria and other organic waste into streams and lakes. Surface water runoff also contaminates soils.

Prevention/Solution

Many of the environmental problems facing Oklahoma require long-term solutions. Clean-up and continued environmental monitoring of the effects of past industry is an on-going effort by the state government and the EPA. Homeowners can protect their natural resources by making good choices regarding their impact on the environment. Using phosphorus-free fertilizers, for example, can prevent deadly algal blooms. Maintaining native vegetation, especially around streams, can help prevent flooding.

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Education For Petroleum Jobs

The petroleum industry offers many career paths. Choose from careers as an engineer, technician, oil rig operator, oil refinery worker, chemist, salesperson, marketer or petroleum executive. Online education can give you many skills for a petroleum career.

Online Education

The Petroleum Institute for Continuing Education offers online courses, short courses and seminars for learners in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom. To develop professional knowledge in the petroleum industry, browse the online course catalog at the link included below. Choose from areas of the oil industry such as drilling, completion and workovers, petroleum refining and reservoir engineering.

Recruitment for Offshore Jobs

Getting a job in the offshore oil industry is challenging if you don't live near an oil rig industry or know a contact in the field. Using a recruiter such as Rigworker.com will get your resume to a field of more than 1,200 employers. This type of service teaches you find a job in a high-wage industry. A professional recruiter evaluates your resume and sends it out to employers; some recruiters like Rigworker charge a fee. Recruiters also advise what entry level jobs you qualify for and what education to pursue. Qualifying for higher-paying positions is easier with professional guidance.

Training for Extraction Workers

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), there are not that many formal requirements for becoming a new extraction worker in the oil industry. Oil-extraction workers will build the equipment down into an oil mine and remove the oil supply. You only need to be 18, with or without a high school diploma, and in good physical shape. An oil company will provide you with extensive safety training and other on-the-job training in operating oil-mining equipment.

Professional Occupations

Before oil can be extracted from its source, geologists and geological and petroleum technicians use seismic technology and core sampling to find oil deposits around the world, according to BLS. Geologists and techs work with engineers, including petroleum, mining, industrial, environmental and mechanical engineers. To become more than a technician in one of these fields, you will need to pursue a minimum of a bachelor's degree in engineering. Geologists usually have a master's or doctorate in their field.

High-Risk Occupations

Many jobs in the petroleum industry are high-risk occupations. When mining companies build drills supported by derricks, workers using these platforms are at risk of falling, being injured by equipment and contacting harmful substances, among other hazards. In this sense, it is educational for prospective petroleum workers to take a tour of a mining operation on land before deciding to send in a resume to a professional recruitment service.

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Economics Term Paper Ideas Transportation

Economics students have a wide variety of topic ideas regarding transportation.

The U.S. Department of Transportation outlines several strategies for 2011, including reduced congestion and increasing environmental stewardship. Accomplishing these goals at the state and national level requires economic considerations, including staying competitive in a global auto market, providing energy-efficient transportation and passing legislation promoting these goals. Such considerations provide economics students with a wide array of term paper ideas.

Automobile Protectionist Policies

The United States implements many protectionist regulations that make imported cars like Toyotas and Hondas more expensive than American-built cars, like Fords and Chevys: steel tariffs and import taxes are just two examples. However, whether these trade measures are beneficial and to whom is questionable. Robert J. Carbaugh, author of the textbook "International Economics," explains that such steel tariffs save roughly 6,000 American jobs, but cost U.S. consumers and firms between $800,000 and $1.1 million per job.

Thus, your term paper could discuss what effects these regulations have on the consumer, importers and exporters, and what dead loss weight is generated from these policies. The term paper should also include a proposal about how the government should lift or enforce these trade regulations.

Light Rail Public Transportation

Many urban cities are installing light rails. Though the issue of installing light rails is discussed in terms of the environmental impact, economic considerations must be weighed. In the term paper, create a simple model explaining the most cost-efficient method of implementing this mode of transportation. Discuss the high fixed costs of installing a light rail, like laying tracks, buying trains and installing electric poles. Weigh these high up-front costs with reduced variable costs like lower electricity per month than standard trains. Not all cities should install light rails: sprawling cities with few dense urban areas are unlikely candidates for this method of transportation. In your paper, mention what factors make your city a good (or bad) candidate for a light rail.

Additionally, cities install light rails with the long-term hopes of making a profit from ticket sales. Explain at what price the city should set tickets, how often trains should run and when the city should expect to see a rate of return on its investment.

Cash for Clunkers

Analyze the impacts of the "Cash for Clunkers" program in your economics term paper. President Barack Obama passed "Cash for Clunkers" in May of 2009 with the following goals in mind: improving carbon emissions, stimulating consumer spending in a down-turn economy, and boosting auto sales. In exchange for destroying their "gas guzzling" cars, consumers receive a rebate of up to $4,500 toward the purchase of a new energy-efficient vehicle. In terms of stimulating consumer spending, the program was such a resounding success in the U.S. that the European Union modeled a similar program.

In your paper, mention other factors that mitigate the success of the program. Include the cost of destroying the turned-in cars, the rebate costs to the government and the increase in emissions as consumers willingly put more miles on a new, energy-efficient car. Then, explain if the costs of the program outweigh the benefits.

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Things To Do In North Carolina On Field Trips

Field trips provide a wealth of hands-on learning for students. Seeing the places you're studying or visiting historical sites related to social studies or anthropology can make lessons come alive. The Discover NC website organizes options by county and offers lesson plans for educators to enhance or focus the field trip experiences. The A to Z Home's Cool website offers topically organized resources specifically for homeschooling families.

Natural Resources

At the southern tip of Topsail Island you find the Karen Beasley Sea Turtle Rescue and Rehabilitation Center. The center exists to find and care for injured sea turtles, nursing them back to health and returning them to their natural habitats.

In Brunswick County, have your students explore the North Carolina Maritime Museum to discover more about the coastal ecology and maritime history of the state. You can also make a stop at the Museum of Coastal Carolina to learn about wetland animals, shells and minerals of the Barrier Reef, and Native American and Civil War history. Nearby is the Ingram Planetarium, which offers interactive science studies of the universe.

For a geology lesson in Cleveland County, take your students to Crowders Mountain State Park, where they can learn about mountain formation and the wildlife surrounding the mountain area. In Catawba County, visit Bunker Hill Covered Bridge and learn about the engineering of this landmark, one of two original remaining covered bridges in North Carolina.

Reliving History

For historical sites, visit Montgomery County and the Town Creek center, which was once the home of the Pee Dee Native Americans. The Town Creek Indian Mound is one of the artifacts that students can explore while learning about this 600-year-old culture. Archeological excavations beginning in the 1930s set a foundation for reconstruction artifacts that are now on view.

Durham County makes several offerings for historical sites. These include Bennett Place, which is the Civil War landmark designating the largest Confederate troop surrender of the war, and the Duke Homestead and Tobacco Museum, where students can learn about the Duke family's effects on the state and national culture via the tobacco industry. Visit Randolph County to see North Carolina's Aviation Museum for views of preserved historical and military aircraft.

With such a rich cultural and ecological space, North Carolina offers nearly every kind of field trip from historical museums to time-period reconstructions to natural resources from ocean to mountains. Finding field trips won't be the hard part---choosing which few you can take your students to each year will be the greater challenge.

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What Is Happening To The Plate Boundaries In California

The San Andreas Fault, pictured here near Sleepy Valley, California, was the source of the great San Francisco earthquake in 1906.

The devastating earthquakes and tsunami experienced in Japan in 2011 served as a stark reminder of just how violent nature can be. For residents of California, it was an unwelcome reminder of the dangers they live with on a daily basis. The two locations, though an ocean apart, share the same fundamental reasons for their geological threats, namely the convergence of tectonic plates. Although the movement of these colossal plates is measured in terms of millions of years, when they do shift, they unleash untold devastation.

Plate Tectonics

Born in the 1960s, the theory of plate tectonics and continental drift holds that the Earth's crust is comprised of about a dozen rigid plates, like a cracked eggshell. These plates move, or drift, on top of the Earth's fluid mantle. These plates interact with each other, creating divergent, convergent and transformative plate boundary zones. New crust is created in divergent zones, generally found in the oceans, while old crust is recycled in convergent zones.

Convergent Zones

Convergent zones are created wherever two plates are colliding against each other. If one of the plates is forced under the other, it is called a subduction zone. For instance, when a heavier oceanic plate collides with a lighter, more buoyant continental plate, it is forced underneath. As this downward path reaches a depth of 100 kilometers, trapped water and gases are released. As these rise to the surface, they create a chain of chemical reactions that melt the mantle. This creates magma chambers, leading to the rise of volcanoes.

California Boundary Zone

California is situated on top of one of these collision zones, resulting in a convergent boundary. Furthermore, it is an example of a subduction zone, as one plate is being forced under the other. Here, the Juan de Fuca plate is colliding with the North American plate. The Juan de Fuca plate, a heavier oceanic plate, is forcing its way under the lighter, more buoyant North American plate. This tectonic boundary is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, stretching from the Kermadec trench of New Zealand to the Peru-Chili trench in South America, including Japan and the western coast of the United States.

Effects of the California Subduction Zone

As is to be expected with a subduction zone, one effect is the volcanic activity that is prevalent along the Northwest coast of the United States. On May 18, 1980, the violent eruption of Mount St. Helens provided vivid evidence of this volcanic product of subduction zone activity. Furthermore, the San Andreas Fault is another product of this ongoing collision. This infamous fault line runs along the collision zone and extends southward through California. Subduction zones are known for producing extreme earthquakes. As the pressure builds between the two plates, massive amounts of energy are stored in the plates. When friction is no longer able to hold them in place, the plates shift, releasing their potential energy in the form of earthquakes. This is what occurred along the San Andreas Fault during the great San Francisco earthquake on May 18, 1906.

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What Forces Cause Weathering & Erosion

Weathering is the breakdown of rock into smaller fragments.

Weathering and erosion are two different, but related, processes. Weathering is the breakdown of materials through physical or chemical actions. Erosion occurs when weathered materials such as soil and rock fragments are carried away by wind, water or ice. Many forces are involved in weathering and erosion, including both natural and man-made causes.

Physical Weathering

Physical or mechanical weathering is the disintegration of rock into smaller pieces. Physical weathering is often caused by atmospheric changes such as heat or freezing temperatures. Frost wedging results when water freezes and expands in crevices, causing rock to crack. Also, extreme temperature changes such as rapid heating and cooling can cause rock to expand and contract. Plants cause weathering when roots growing on or under rocks gradually break the rock apart. In addition, animals such as rodents, earthworms and insects often disrupt and break rock apart by burrowing and digging. Wind is another force that causes abrasive weathering by blowing sand against rock faces.

Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering is the disintegration of rock caused by chemical alteration of the mineral structure. According to Tulane University, the main cause of chemical weathering is the presence of weak acids in water coming in contact with rock. For example, the reaction of carbon dioxide gas in rainwater can produce carbonic acid that dissolves some minerals, especially limestone. Acid rain caused by pollution such as factory and car exhaust is another agent of chemical weathering. Chemical weathering also occurs when iron in rock oxidizes or rusts. In addition, certain types of lichens and fungi growing on rock secrete acids that etch stone surfaces.

Water Erosion

Heavy rainfall and flooding can wash soil, rock and sediment away into rivers and streams. Water erosion reshapes shorelines and deposits soil in new locations. Materials can be swept away by the water's force or dissolved in the water and washed away. In addition, when organic material, which helps retain soil structure, is washed from topsoil, the soil becomes more prone to erosion.

Wind Erosion

Wind is a powerful erosive force, especially when soil is depleted and dry. Sand and soil are swept up and carried away in clouds of dust. A classic example of soil erosion caused by wind and other factors occurred during the "Dust Bowl Years" of the 1930s. Severe drought and wind, combined with 100 years of poor soil management, led to the devastating erosion of topsoil and formation of giant dust clouds that moved across the prairies of the American Great Plains.

Gravity

Gravity is another force that contributes to erosion, especially when combined with slope. Gravity pulls rocks and boulders down mountainsides and chunks of ice down glaciers. Gravitational pull also helps move water laden with dirt and weathered materials to low-lying areas.

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Gold Ore Identification

Thousands of years ago, the people of the first sub-Saharan Nubian kingdom were extracting gold from within gold ore rocks at a processing center along the Nile river. Solid gold nuggets are rare, but you don't need to find solid nuggets to identify and stake a claim on gold. Despite the rarity of gold nuggets, valuable deposits gold ore exist in the veins and crevices of common looking rocks.

Considerations

Since gold is one of the six platinum-group noble metals, it resists mixing with non-metallic elements. This feature makes gold visible within certain forms of gold ore. Its resistance to mixing also makes extraction from its surrounding material possible.

Common Locations

Mining and identification of gold ore occurs in Alaska, California, Colorado, Montana, Nevada, South Dakota and Utah. Contributors to the world's processing of gold ore include Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Peru, South Africa and Russia.

Deposits

Two types of gold ore deposits contain gold. They are known as lode and placer deposits. Lode deposits are a prospector's dream because they contain nearly pure gold. These large ore bodies of shimmering gold appear surrounded by metamorphic rock in mountainous regions. Placer deposits form when lode deposits gain exposure to the Earth's surface. Water transports the exposed gold ore and it later cements into host rocks. Consequently, you can identify gold in the sedimentary rocks near ancient river channels.

Methodology

Three D technology and remote sensing procedures accelerate the process of identifying gold ore lode and placer deposits. Optical and radar data expedite the prospecting process by helping prospectors anticipate which spots may contain substantial quantities of gold ore. The resulting structural maps from this preparation contain topographic data on fault structures and patterns. When image analysis combines with knowledge of the tectonic process, a powerful means of identifying the location of gold ore emerges.

Expert Insight

The RDIF Journal, a radio frequency identification publication, reports that South African gold miners employ a radio frequency tracking system as a means of identifying millions of gold ounces from within tons of ore. The system prevents processing gold as waste or waste as gold. Identifying gold ore with radio frequency technology prevents costly mistakes during gold processing.

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Geology Field Trips In Michigan

Michigan is home to one of the world's largest copper mines.

The state of Michigan is a wonderland for geology enthusiasts because of the wide variety of mineral deposits and rock formations located in the area. Michigan is known as one of the largest producers of rock salt in the United States, and the state is also home to one of the world's largest copper mines. Areas suitable for field trips and explorations focused on geology in Michigan can be found across the region.

Keweenaw Peninsula

Located in the upper area of Michigan, the Keweenaw peninsula is surrounded by Lake Superior. This region is toured often by geologists and mineral enthusiasts because it contains one of the world's largest copper mines. With some deposits dating from the Precambrian and Pleistocene eras, rocks have been found at the Keweenaw peninsula with ages in excess of one billion years. In addition to copper specimens, other mineral discoveries at the site include copper arsenides, calcite crystals, chalcocite, silver crystals and datolite. Chlorastrolite, the state gemstone of Michigan, is found here occasionally as well. Mining at the Keweenaw peninsula is currently restricted to the Caledonia copper mine. However, other mines in the region offer walking tours that relate the history of the mine along with geological information.

Isle Royale National Park

Isle Royale National Park is located in the far northern region of Michigan in the city of East Harbor. Surrounded by Lake Superior, this park is the site of two bedrock formations, the Portage Lake Lava series and the Copper Harbor Conglomerates. Approximately 85 percent of the island is covered by Portage lava rocks, while copper deposits cover the remaining land. The bedrock formations were created as a result of a natural rock folding process, which also formed the Lake Superior basin. The deposits are thin, ranging from inches to about four feet in depth. In addition to these rock formations, the Greenstone Ridge is located in Isle Royale and is believed to be a part of the largest lava flow on earth. Easy accessibility makes Isle Royale National Park a popular field trip for those interested in the geology of Michigan.

Middle Devonian Transverse Group

Positioned in Charlevoix and Emmet counties, the Middle Devonian Transverse Group is a geological formation in the northern area of Michigan's Southern Peninsula. This group consists of five different formations sites: Gravel Point, the Petoskey Formation, Jordan River, the Charlevoix Limestone formation and Whiskey Creek. These formations contain shale beds and carbonates that have been mined since the late 1800s. Some of the quarries are still active, but many, such as the Northern Lime Company Quarry, are now abandoned. Exploring the Middle Devonian Transverse Group delights those interested in geology because of the wide variety of deposits and rocks that exist in the area.

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Louisiana Engineering Graduate Schools

Four Louisiana universities offer graduate degrees in engineering.

Engineering degrees offer recipients opportunities in fields such as science, health care and construction. Many students who graduate with undergraduate degrees in engineering choose to attend graduate school to be more competitive in the job market or gain extra experience. Several schools in Louisiana offer master of science and doctoral degrees in engineering fields.

Louisiana State University College of Engineering

The College of Engineering at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge offers master of science degrees in materials science and engineering, environmental and technological hazards engineering, and information technology engineering. Prospective students must apply for admission online. Certain departments in the College of Engineering have other minimum requirements for admission. Prospective students should contact department graduate advisers for information on meeting these additional requirements. The Office of Graduate Admissions will contact applicants after they meet all admission requirements.

Tulane University School of Science and Engineering

Tulane University in New Orleans offers master's and professional degrees in biomedical engineering and chemical and bimolecular engineering. Master's degree programs at Tulane typically take between one and three years to complete. Admission to the School of Science and Engineering requires submission of a Graduate Record Examination (GRE) score, a competitive grade point average and an online application. Admission is competitive, and the final decisions on admision are made by the dean of the School of Science and Engineering.

University of Louisiana at Lafayette College of Engineering

The University of Louisiana at Lafayette offers master of science degrees in chemical, civil, mechanical and petroleum engineering. Engineering graduate degrees require from 30 to 36 credit hours. Admission requirements include an online application, a one-time application fee, and submission of undergraduate transcripts, three recommendation letters and a GRE score. Application deadlines typically are in February.

University of New Orleans College of Engineering

The University of New Orleans College of Engineering offers master of science degrees in engineering, engineering management and environmental engineering. Professional degrees are offered in engineering and applied science. Applicants should have a bachelor's degree in engineering, mathematics or science to be considered for admission. Other requirements include a minimum 3.0 grade point average on a 4-point scale and submission of a GRE score. Most graduate engineering degrees require 30 credit hours.

Tags: College Engineering, degrees engineering, master science, offers master, Engineering University, master science degrees

Choose A Needlepoint Project

Needlepoint, or tapestry, is a form of needlework done on a grid-like, open-weave fabric, or canvas. All of the stitches in needlepoint are worked parallel to or diagonally across the canvas threads.

Instructions

1. Look to the Internet, libraries, bookstores, and craft stores for information on needlepoint and ideas for projects. This initial exploration will be especially useful if you have never done needlepoint before.

2. Choose a needlepoint project - pillow, wall hanging, eyeglass case, etc.

3. Select a pattern, which comes with full instructions and a materials list, or a kit with both the instructions and the materials needed to complete your project.

4. Consider your skill level and choose a project accordingly. Projects that use only one basic stitch are good for beginners. Increase the level of complexity once you have gained some experience.

5. Consider the amount of time you want to spend on a project. Large wall hangings, rugs and the like are lovely, but will you have the time needed to complete such a large project? Are you likely to become frustrated with a project that may take months to complete?

6. Start with a small project if you are a beginner. Decide if needlepoint is a craft that you want to explore further, and then move on to larger projects from there.

7. Choose a design and transfer it to the canvas of your choice. See "Transfer an Embroidery Design" and "Transfer a Design to Fabric" for instructions. Purchase enough yarn to cover your design in the desired colors.

Tags: instructions materials, needed complete

Ohio Mineral Rights Laws

Mineral rights laws in Ohio.

Mineral rights refers to the ownership of minerals, such as oil and natural gas, that are beneath the ground surface. These rights often come into question in states like Ohio, where there are reservoirs of naturally occurring minerals under the land. In the United State, a landowner has rights and ownership over the land as well as any minerals found under the surface. The owner, however, can choose to sell his mineral rights and subsurface rights.

Ownership Rights

In the United States, an individual who holds a title in fee simple absolute, his land and ownership rights extend to all minerals and gases below the surface. A fee simple absolute title, also known as a fee simple title, is a type of title where the title holder has the total and absolute right of ownership to the land indefinitely. Fee simple titles are the most common titles to land in the United States. Owners who have fee simple titles have the right to sell, lease or gift any part of the land, including minerals below the surface.

Mineral Leases and Royalties

In Ohio, since owners have surface rights and mineral rights below the surface, many owners choose to lease rights to any subsurface minerals rather than sell the mineral rights outright. Mining companies also tend to prefer leases of lands when they are unaware how rich the area might be. Often it is unknown to the owner and the mining company how rich or poor the area is until excavation has commenced. When an owner leases rights to his subsurface minerals the mining company typically pays an initial fee to enter the property and pays the owner a percentage, or royalty, of production profits.

Damage to Surface

In some instances, underground mining may cause damage to the surface. In extreme circumstances, the earth can buckle and houses fall in. More commonly, homes on top of the surface experience structural damages or the land itself becomes damage. Often this damage occurs years after the mining has been completed. When surface damage happens, however, the owner typically does not have a right to sue the mining company for damages sustained to the surface property, particularly if the mining has been complete for several years. Most lease and sale agreements for mineral rights include a provision protecting the mining company from surface damage liability.

Tags: mining company, below surface, rights subsurface, have right, land United, mining been

Build Erupting Models Of Volcanoes

Model volcanoes simulate the appearance of real volcanic eruptions.

While the eruption of a real-world volcano is produced by the pressure of magma (molten rock) from below the Earth's crust, the bubbly, fizzing eruption of a model volcano is a product of common household chemicals. Namely, a model volcano erupts because of the reaction between an acid (vinegar) and a base (baking soda), which combine to produce a large volume of carbon dioxide gas.

Instructions

Construction

1. Spread newspaper over your work area.

2. Cut a sheet of cardboard from the box that will fit into the bottom of the cookie sheet. This will be the base of the volcano.

3. Cut off the top of the plastic bottle. This will provide a larger outlet for the products of the chemical reaction, and also produces a more realistic looking model.

4. Glue the bottom of the bottle to the center of the cardboard base using the multipurpose white glue.

5. While the glue is drying, mix the clay, which will make up the bulk of the model. Start by combining the flour and salt in the mixing bowl, then add water slowly as you mix with your hands. Stop adding water as soon as the clay is able to hold its shape, as too much water will increase the time it takes for the clay to dry.

6. Starting with a wide base, build the clay up around the bottle into the shape of the volcano. If you require more clay (which is likely), then make more batches using the same recipe. You may require three or so batches for a volcano built around a 16 oz. drink bottle. Make sure to let the volcano dry for a time in between batches, so that the base can build up the structural integrity to support the weight of the clay above it.

7. Once the model has had some time to dry, carve gullies and channels into the outer surface to give the appearance of a real volcano. When the model has completely dried, you can paint it in any color scheme you desire.

Eruption

8. Set the volcano into the bottom of the cookie sheet so that the products of the eruption will be contained.

9. Using the funnel, pour the vinegar, dish detergent, and food coloring into the bottle at the core of the volcano. Remove the funnel when this is done.

10. Put the baking soda into a small pouch made of tissue paper and drop it into the top of the volcano. The eruption should begin in seconds! You can repeat this process as many times as you wish.

Tags: appearance real, baking soda, base build, bottom cookie, bottom cookie sheet, clay which, cookie sheet

Of What Kinds Of Rocks Are Fossils Made

Fossilized leaves are exposed in the sediment that preserved them.

Sedimentary rock deposited over much of Earth's existence contains a fossil record of plants, animals, and micro-organisms dating back hundreds of millions and even billions of years. Only sedimentary rocks or preserved materials such as amber, tar or ice can preserve remains, traces, tracks, or imprints of once-living things. Igneous rock, once molten, was far too hot before it took its final cooled form to preserve fossils. Metamorphic rocks have been transformed by heat and pressure, destroying any fossils the original sediments might have contained.

Types of Fossils

A petrified ammonite is revealed by weathering of the rock that preserved it.

Fossilized evidence includes traces such as tracks or footprints, mummified or calcified remains, or rock-encased remains and imprints. Fossils can, in rare cases, be entire remains of large mammals, encased in sand, peat bogs, and ice under specific conditions. In most cases, fossils show evidence of smaller flora, partial skeletal remains, marine or insect imprints, or small calcified birds. Rocks that house fossilized remains must withstand heat and pressure for over 10,000 years, providing a optimal tablet for evidence of prehistoric life.

Sandstone Fossils

Sandstone is composed of sand particles bound together over time by a mineral matrix deposited between the sand grains by groundwater. Sandstone is evidence of an ancient environment where sand accumulated, such as a beach, streambed, lake, desert, flood plain or delta -- the same kinds of places where sand accumulates now. When you look at layers of rock exposed in a road cut, you are looking at a record of processes and changes that took place over time millions of years ago, right where you're standing. Fossilized fauna remains such as insect exoskeletons or mammal imprints or shells of marine animals are often found in sandstone. Dinosaurs, mammals and other vertebrates often have left their marks in sandstone. Whatever the traces are, they are part of the key to understanding Earth's geologic history and how life forms have changed over that history in distribution, form, and function.

Shale Fossils

Shale is a rock formed of very fine, evenly sorted sediments deposited as mud, and then solidified. It is made up of clay, mica, and fine sedimentary particles. Shales form very fine layers that can be separated, and sometimes fossils such as fish scales can be found between the layers. Because of the fineness of the particles, some shales have trapped large quantities of natural gas between their layers, which can be extracted for use by modern techniques. Shales also are great sedimentary rocks in which to hunt fossilized marine life such as trilobites, an extinct paleozoic marine arthropod. Trilobite fossils are found in large numbers in the Burgess Shale on the U.S.- Canada border in the Rocky Mountains, and in Utah's Spence Shale. Shales often also contain the fossils of ancient foraminifera, tiny protozoa that still inhabit modern oceans and that have been so abundant and widespread throughout Earth history that their evolutionary changes allow them to serve as specific markers of points in geologic time.

Limestone Fossils

Limestone is sedimentary rock that is formed by collected particles of CaCO3, or Calcium Carbonate. Limestone is made up of plankton shell fragments, coral, algae, as well as fecal debris found in calm, marine waters. The calcification process that creates limestone can also be found in stalactites hanging from the cave ceilings formed during evaporation. Although many fossils are discovered in shale deposits near the ocean floor, many types of fossilized marine life, including both flora and fauna, are most commonly found in limestone.

Tags: fossilized marine, fossilized marine life, have been, heat pressure, marine life, over time

Methods For Forecasting Volcanoes

Venting gases from a volcano

Although weather forecasts are common, forecasts of geologic events like volcanic eruptions present a greater challenge because each volcano has its own characteristics. Scientists use a combination of common pre-eruption activity, data and monitoring tools to predict eruptions. According to Emily Brodsky, a University of California, Santa Cruz associate professor of Earth and planetary sciences, a volcano's personality complicates forecast methodology by requiring each observatory to tweak the forecast model for its specific volcano.

Pre-Eruption Activity

Scientists study a volcano's pre-eruption activity to determine its personality. Before eruption, volcanoes cause ground vibrations, small earthquakes and rumbling noises. The magma movement beneath the volcano collects in a reservoir or chamber, and as it comes to the surface, the magma releases measurable gases. The magma collection also causes the volcano's slopes to swell slightly. Forecasters take into account these indicators, as well as information such as the length of the earthquakes, the time interval between eruptions, the silica content from lava of each eruption and rising temperatures in nearby gas vents, hot springs and surface rocks.

One deciding factor that varies volcano to volcano is the speed of the ascent of the magma, which is based upon the viscosity of the magma. The viscosity depends on the magma's silica content. The lower the silica content, the thinner the magma. Runny, thin magma fills a volcanic chamber more quickly causing a quicker eruption. Thick, sticky, high silica-containing magma takes longer to fill the chamber, causing a longer time to pass until eruption.

Tools

A number of measuring and monitoring tools help scientists compile necessary modeling data. Tiltmeters and geodimeters measure the volcano's pre-eruption swelling, while seismographs monitor earthquakes. Scientists use correlation spectrometers to measure sulfur dioxide, a gas released in increased quantities pre-eruption. Airborne magnetometers measure magma-caused changes in the Earth's magnetic field, while sensitive resistivity meters measure changes in the Earth's electrical currents. Geographic information systems (GIS) help scientists map lava, pyroclastic and debris flows to aid in eruption response planning.

Prediction Periods

The scientific community has had better luck with long-term volcano forecasts than with short-term forecasts. Part of this is due to inconsistencies between volcanoes' pre-eruption behavior. For instance, with respect to pre-eruption rumbling noises, some volcanoes rumble constantly while others stop and start. For some, the rumbling indicates a same-day eruption; for others it's months or longer before the eruption. Also, the longer a volcano remains dormant, the greater the time between pre-eruption earthquakes and eruption. A volcano with frequent eruptions provides little warning pre-eruption. Due to this erratic behavior between systems, forecasters at local observatories issue alerts based on the volcano they study and observe. These alerts can vary in length but commonly remain open for a period of 10 to 100 days, according to Brodsky.

Research Problems

False alarms present a major problem for observatories. Although volcanoes make noise before erupting, "they don't erupt every time they make noise," Brodsky states. Another of the indicators, magma, can also behave erratically. Sometimes its movement doesn't lead to an eruption because it cools beneath the surface. Scientists also need to test their assumptions and models against reality. This means future eruptions provide the best test of the accuracy of analytical models of magma movement through a volcano's channels. Volcanoes vary in structure and mineral composition, requiring observatories to tweak forecast models to suit the volcanic system. Finally, the expense of monitoring equipment and personnel precludes studying every volcano in real time.

Tags: silica content, changes Earth, help scientists, magma movement, make noise

Things To Do In Starkville Mississippi

Adjacent to the campus town of Mississippi State, in Oktibbeha County, Starkville, Mississippi, is a college town. Approximately 120 miles northeast of Jackson, the state capital, Starkville offers visitors a variety of things to do, both educational and recreational. A number of museums and historic sites are available as well as ample cultural events and outdoor activities to occupy, educate and entertain visitors.

Cultural Activities

Mississippi State University (MSU) holds a number of cultural events including professional theatrical and musical performances, as well as performances by staff and students of the institution. The university campus is also home to a number of art galleries open to the public on a regular schedule. Starkville's downtown Arts Walk is a self-guided tour of businesses and historical sites displaying the works of local artists. Visitors to Starkville can also access the Mississippi Blues Trail nearby; the blues style of music claims its roots in the region and many museums, shops and stops along the Trail are devoted to this rich history, including Muddy Waters' cabin and B.B. King's birthplace.

Museums

The Oktibbeha Heritage Museum, on Fellowship Street in Starkville, includes exhibits of Native American artifacts and those from the Civil War Era in Mississippi. On the campus of MSU, a number of museums are available to the public including those focusing on geology, archaeology and music, along with a museum featuring clocks and one devoted to BMW motorcycles. The entomological museum is home to a collection of around one million insects.

Outdoors

For outdoor enthusiasts and nature lovers, the Starkville, Mississippi area offers beautiful lakes and waterways for fishing, boating and skiing, campgrounds for overnight stays, and managed forests for hiking, hunting and bird watching. Just a few miles south of Starkville, the Noxubee National Wildlife Refuge Complex, managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), offers visitors several places to observe and photograph wildlife and natural scenery at its finest. According to the USFWS, 254 species of birds have been spotted in the refuge.

Sports

In addition to the diverse number of cultural and educational activities the university offers, Mississippi State's athletic teams draw a large following. Competing in the Southeastern Conference of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the university dresses Division I teams in baseball, football, softball, and men's and women's basketball. The Starkville area is home to several golf courses, both public and private, and a highly regarded 18-hole course owned and maintained by the university. The Mississippi Horse Park and Agricenter holds a number of equestrian events and livestock shows.

Tags: Mississippi State, Starkville Mississippi, cultural events, holds number, number cultural

Science Museums In Paris

Paris, France is home to a number of science museums.

With its hundreds of museums, art galleries and landmarks, Paris is one of the most interesting cities in the world. Aside from art, Paris has also played a significant part in science and scientific discoveries. Because of this, the city houses a number of science museums, the most popular of which are the Cit des Sciences et de l'Industrie, Mus e National des Arts et M tiers and Mus e National d'Histoire Naturelle.

Cit des Sciences et de l'Industrie

Built over the settlement of La Villette, construction on this museum started in 1974. Former French President Francois Mitterrand officially opened it in 1986. The Cit des Sciences et de l'Industrie is the largest science museum in Europe. The museum is almost entirely glass and steel in its construction and is characterized by the silver sphere that catches the attention of tourists and passersby. The museum has three levels with attractions ranging from a planetarium, an aquarium and a library of science and industry.

Cit des Sciences et de l'Industrie

30 Avenue Corentin Cariou

75019 Paris

France

+331-4005-7000

cite-sciences.fr

Mus e National des Arts et M tiers

The Mus e National des Arts et M tiers, or the Museum of Arts and Crafts, was built in 1794 by Abbot Gr goire. It is in the priory of Saint-Martin-des-Champs and is home to a collection of about 80,000 scientific instruments and inventions and about 15,000 drawings. All items on exhibit provide evidence of the creativity of man and the imagination of those who started the Industrial Revolution. One of the most notable exhibits in the Mus e National des Arts et M tiers is an original Foucault pendulum.

Mus e National des Arts et M tiers

60 Rue R aumur

75003 Paris

France‎

+331-5301-8200

arts-et-metiers.net

Mus e National d'Histoire Naturelle

The National Museum of Natural History in Paris has about 60 million specimens showcasing objects related to a variety of scientific disciplines such as paleontology, geology, mineralogy, meteorites, botany, zoology, prehistory, anthropology, ethnobiology and chemistry. The museum began in 1793 during the French Revolution. It was originally the Jardin Royal des Plantes M dicinales (Royal Medicinal Plant Garden), built in 1635 by King Louis XIII, but as the museum's collection diversified and expanded, it became known as Mus e National d'Histoire Naturelle to better describe the artifacts on exhibit.

Mus e National d'Histoire Naturelle

57 Rue Cuvier

75005 Paris

France

+331-4079-3000

www.mnhn.fr

Mus e de l'Air et de l'Espace

The Mus e de l'Air et de l'Espace, the Paris Air and Space Museum, was built in 1919 by Albert Caquot. It is one of the oldest aviation museums in the world. The museum has 150 aircraft in its total collection of 19,595 items. A number of pieces in the museum's collection are from the 16th century. This museum houses modern aircraft and prototypes as well. It also houses remaining pieces of historical aircraft. The Mus e de l'Air et de l'Espace is near Le Bourget Airport.

Mus e de l'Air et de l'Espace

A roport de Paris-Le Bourget BP 173

93350 Le Bourget

France

+331-4835-9669

museeairespace.fr

Tags: Arts tiers, National Arts, National Arts tiers, Histoire Naturelle, National Histoire

What Tools Are Used In Oceanography

Oceanography is an Earth science that studies the ocean.

Oceanography, sometimes referred to as marine science, is an Earth science that studies oceans. Its practitioners, called oceanographers, conduct research on the temperature and current patterns of the ocean, its biodiversity, geology of the sea floor, and water quality. Oceanographers have a number of tools to help them in their work: water samplers, seafloor samplers, plant and animal collecting devices, floats and drifters, and shipboard laboratories

Water Samplers

Water sampling devices can range from a bucket dropped overboard to large water bottles sent hundreds or even thousands of meters toward the seafloor on a wire. Probably the most widely used water sampler is a CTD/rosette, whose framework is designed to carry up to 36 sampling bottles, ranging from 1.2 to 30 liters in volume). Depending on the depth of the water, a standard rosette/CTD cast requires 2 to 5 hours of station time.

Seafloor Samplers

Scientists gather seafloor rocks by towing a dredge made of a chain bag and steel box. More precise sampling can be achieved by using a submersible equipped with robotic arms or a remotely operated vehicle with television in order for the area where the rock is found to be described in detail.

Plant and Animal Collecting Devices

Collecting nets are used to collect plants and animals. They come in a wide array of sizes. The small ones, maybe a meter long, can be towed briefly in the near-surface waters. The biggest multiple opening-closing nets consist of a great metal frame that can carry as many as 20 nets.

Floats and Drifters

Floats and drifters constitute another tool that is used in oceanography. They can be weighted to become neutrally buoyant at a certain depth, where they can drift in the current, emitting periodic sounds. These sounds are later tracked by special receivers, which provide clues to the ocean current patterns. This information is also important for understanding how the ocean transports water tracers and pollutants.

Shipboard Laboratories

The heart of a research voyage is the main lab, or laboratory, where plans are made, samples prepared and analyzed, important data gathered and processed, and an occasional party held.

The laboratory is seldom a tidy place; the lab configuration often changes completely from one voyage to the next, and sampling containers, wires, computers, tools and analytical instruments crowd every available square inch.

Tags: current patterns, Earth science, Earth science that, science that, science that studies, that studies

What Is Quartzite Stone

Seashells and bones provide calcium, which combines with carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate in quartzite.

Quartzite stone is a metamorphic rock with quartz sandstone as a parent rock. Sandstone deposits change when subjected to heat and pressure of metamorphism. The quartz grains compact and interweave to form dense and tough quartzite with a medium-grained texture. Does this Spark an idea?

Composition

Quartzite is composed of 95 to 97 percent silica. Calcium from seashells and bones of sea creatures that accumulate on the ocean floor combine with carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate. According to the Mineral Information Institute, quartzite usually forms when continents collide and mountains form. Norway, with its extensive mountain ranges, has the largest occurrence of quartzite.

Characteristics

Quartzite rates a hardness of 6.5 to 7 on the Mohs Hardness Scale. Quartzite stone resists chemical weathering such as impact from acids and alkalies. Its glassy luster can become a high-gloss finish when worked with power polishing tools and diamonds. This nonslippery material has low water absorption. In a pure form, quartzite stone is light-colored. Impurities such as iron can give quartzite a reddish color.

Uses

Resistant to physical weathering, quartzite offers a raw material for glass and ceramics. The construction industry uses quartzite stone as a dimension stone. This fireproof material can be broken into flat surfaces for stair steps, flooring, wall cladding and roofing.

Tags: calcium carbonate, carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide form, dioxide form, dioxide form calcium, form calcium

Sand Types Of The Baram Delta

The Baram Delta extends along the northwest coast and continental shelf of Borneo.

The Baram Delta is a river system located on the northwest coast of the island of Borneo that drains into the South China Sea. The river sources are mountains within central and southeastern Borneo that are politically part of Indonesia. The rivers drain through the Malaysian states of Sarawak and Sabah, and the Sultanate of Brunei. The Baram Delta has a triangular shape and extends in a northeast-southwest direction onshore and offshore of the coastal areas of Sarawak, Brunei and Sabah. It has two provinces: the East Baram Delta of Sarawak, called the Champion Delta in Brunei; and the West Baram Delta of Sarawak, called the Baram Delta in Brunei. The entire Baram Delta is an oil province both for Malaysia and Brunei.

Depositional Environment

Baram Delta sediments deposit in delta front and coastal systems. In a delta front, rivers carrying sediment from mountains inland empty their load into coastal waters. A delta grows, or pro-grades, seaward from a point on the coast. Finer-grained sediments deposit furthest offshore as the river advances. The system builds out so that fine-grained sediments deposit first followed by slowly coarsening, or larger-sized, grains. Tides, storms and coastal currents have transported and re-worked sediments along the coast. During earlier geological eras, tectonic uplift and rising sea levels forced the delta system back inland. Periods of crustal subsidence enabled the delta and sediment deposition to grow rapidly seaward. More than eight miles of sediment thickness accumulated in the Baram Delta since the beginning of the Lower Miocene period some 23 million years ago.

Setap

The oldest and lowest sedimentary sequence in the Baram Delta is the Setap Shale Formation. It consists of shale with occasional thin intervals of clay and sands. It lies mostly onshore of Brunei and part of Sarawak, where it is nearly 2 miles thick.

Belait

A four-mile thick layer of sandstones and clays---the Belait Formation---overlies the Setap Shale. This sequence contains some coal seams that are more than 12 feet thick.

Miri

The Miri Formation is a sequence of sands similar in age to the Belait Formation. The Miri overlies the Setap Shales in Brunei and is one of the reservoir sands of Brunei's Seria oil field.

Lambir

The Lambir Formation is similar in age to the Belait Formation. It consists of sandstones and shales with minor intervals of limestone.

Seria

The Seria Formation is a 1.2-mile thick sequence of sandstones that overlie the Miri Formation. Nodules of ironstone are common in these sands. Ironstone is ferrous oxide and ferrous carbonate mixture that is a type of iron ore.

Liang

The Liang Formations, similar in age to the Seria sequence, is a mixture of conglomerates and clays. A conglomerate is a mixture of cobbles, pebbles and boulders that were part of old river beds. Beds of lignite, an early form of coal, are abundant throughout the sequence.

Tags: Baram Delta, sediments deposit, Baram Delta Sarawak, Belait Formation, Borneo that, Delta Brunei

Clay Soil & Radon

Exposed soil

Radon, a colorless, odorless, radioactive gas, occurs in areas of uranium-rich igneous rocks or organic-rich soils. The presence of radon in clay soil depends upon the presence of radioactive minerals in the nearby parent rock or soil materials. Does this Spark an idea?

Occurrence

The presence of radioactive minerals in the soil or rock, rather than the grain size of soil, dictates the concentration of radon. Radon in clay soil or coarser soil occurs only if the radioactive material exists.

Movement

The rate of gas movement in soil affects the accumulation of radon in a structure. Differences in soil permeability cause radon gas in sand soil to move more quickly than radon in clay soil, as described in the "Kansas Geological Survey, Public Information Circular 25."

Accumulation

Radon accumulation in a building depends on the soil type and building construction.

Radon enters buildings through the cracks or a dirt floor due to differences in pressure between the underlying ground and overlying structure. A tight building can trap an excessive radon accumulation inside.

Assessment

A homeowner or building owner can assess the radon accumulation in a structure by measuring the concentration of this radioactive gas using inexpensive, short-duration test kits.

Mitigation

Mitigation warranted in homes if radon exceeds U.S. EPA Action Levels.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency established ranges of levels of radon gas that warrant radon mitigation to protect occupants of an indoor space.

Tags: clay soil, presence radioactive, presence radioactive minerals, radioactive minerals, radon clay, radon clay soil

How Do Volcanologists Classify Volcanoes

Volcanoes can be defined by their eruption type, such as this Stromboli lava display.

The more than 500 active volcanoes that cover the earth's surface are capable of erupting at any time, given the correct conditions. Active volcanoes only account for a small portion of the world's total volcanoes, which comprise any vent in the planet's crust through which lava, rock fragments and gases erupt, according to the "Encyclopedia Britannica." Volcanologists have devised several classification schemes to aid them in their study of these phenomena, though no single system is the universal standard.

Three-Tier Volcano Classification Scheme

Most textbooks employ a simplified, three-tier system. Classifying all volcanoes into three basic types -- shield volcanoes, strato volcanoes and cinder cones -- for convenience, this system identifies volcanoes by their observable physical characteristics. While these three types of volcanoes are among the most commonly seen and known in the non-geological community, this model does not account for several large-scale volcano complexes, including monogenetic volcanic fields, which often lay under cinder cones, or caldera complexes, like the massive volcano under Yellowstone's famous Old Faithful.

Six-Volcano Classification Scheme

A more comprehensive system, used at the collegiate and graduate level, discards the cinder cone class as by-product of larger volcanic fields. Incorporating six separate types of volcanoes, this scheme adds caldera complexes, monogenetic fields, flood basalts and mid-ocean ridges to the standard shield and strato volcanoes. Several of these added classifications are poorly understood and hard to predict, such as the massive, slow-moving flood basalts that move more similarly to a glacier than a typical volcano or the unpredictable monogenetic fields that can vent at any point in the field when magma builds below the surface.

Classifying Volcanos with Modifiers

Another classification scheme, set out by leading volcanologists Tom Simkim and Lee Siebert in "Volcanoes of the World," outlines 26 types of volcanoes, minutely differentiated by physical and structural characteristics. Though this particular classification scheme is not widely used, it belies an important and commonly used hybridization of the six volcano classification system. Expanding on these six basic types, volcanologists use a series of descriptors when naming volcanoes to more specifically classify the volcano under discussion. For example, a volcano is not just a shield volcano -- a large, gently sloping volcanic peak constructed from slow-flowing lava -- but rather a small, steep-sloped, balsaltic shield.

Eruption-Related Classifications

One of the most typically referenced volcano classifications is a dual system: volcanoes are either active or dormant. However, "active" volcanoes do not only include volcanoes that are erupting or will probably erupt soon, but nearly any volcano that has erupted in historical memory. Within this seemingly all-or-nothing classification, there are grades of eruption potential and eruption type. The U.S. Geological Survey categorizes volcanoes by their potential to erupt in the immediate future, ranging from normal to advisory to watch to warning. Volcanoes which have erupted, and for which volcanologists have reliable pictorial or descriptive references, may be defined by the size, shape and content of their eruptions.

Tags: types volcanoes, active volcanoes, basic types, caldera complexes, cinder cones, Classification Scheme

Build A Model Geyser

Old Faithful in Yellowstone National Park is perhaps the most famous geyser in the world.

Geysers are dramatic and fascinating geological features that offer great potential for a model. Geysers can emit lots of steam and occasionally erupt into spouts of extremely hot water similar to a volcano. This subject might be an interesting and eye-catching school project, or something unique for your model railroad or diorama. The method discussed here requires a little effort, but it will give you a great steam effect and is a cool little project that will turn heads.

Instructions

Creating the Top

1. Measure the length, depth and width of the interior of the box that will ultimately become your base.

2. Mark your foam insulation sheet using a ruler and a marker to the same specification as the box dimensions minus 1/8 inch. The idea is that this will ultimately form the top or lid of the box and fit snugly inside it.

3. Cut three strips of foam insulation corresponding to the shallow walls of the box minus 1/2 inch to accommodate the foam lid using a hobby knife and a ruler. For example, if your box is 2 inches deep, cut three strips of foam at 1.5 inches wide so that the foam top can rest on them and be flush with the top of the box.

4. Cut a hole representing the geyser hole in the center of the foam lid using a hobby knife.

5. Align the strips of foam to the edges of the sheet with the geyser hole to form walls on three sides under the lid.

6. Secure the foam walls to the lid by applying a line of white glue between the sheets and pushing flat headed nails into the foam and allow to dry.

7. Crumple small bits of newspaper to form a slight mound around the geyser hole and tape down with masking tape.

8. Dip sheets of plaster cloth into water and apply to the top of the newspaper and the rest of the base, crinkling and smoothing the cloth as desired to create the landscape surrounding the geyser, and allow to dry.

9. Paint the surface of the model with acrylic paints.

Creating the Base

10. Cut away the top of the cardboard box and the rear panel wall.

11. Paint the outer edges of the box to suit your needs.

12. Set the geyser model into the base so that the open end below the model and the open end of the box align.

13. Slide a shallow pan of water into the box from the open end.

14. Drop a couple of pieces of dry ice through the geyser hole into the pan of water below to allow the fog to come through the hole to simulate steam.

Tags: geyser hole, strips foam, foam insulation, foam using, foam using hobby

Animals In The Riparian Ecosystem

Streams can divide very different ecosystems.

Riparian areas are zones between two different ecosystems that overlap. Animals from the surrounding ecosystem venture into riparian areas, as do animals native to these areas, according to the North American Native Fishes Association. Riparian habitats vary in nature since they are a byproduct of two different ecosystems, so the characteristics of the riparian area depend on the characteristics of the ecosystems. The destruction of riparian areas can drive many species to extinction.

Diversity

Every category of land animal can be in riparian zones, including amphibians, reptiles, mammals and birds. Most animals in forested areas spend part or all their time in riparian areas. Riparian areas have large species diversity. For example, the Rio Grande Valley wetland riparian area has 246 species of birds, 10 species of amphibians, 38 species of reptiles and 60 mammals.

Travel

Animals use riparian zones to travel to and from different ecosystems. Riparian zones allow animals to remain in contact with other members of their species, increasing the number of opportunities they have to reproduce. Since animals rely heavily on riparian areas for travel, building walls and fences that prevent animals from easily traveling through can cause harm.

Aquatic

Fish benefit from riparian areas because the vegetation provides shade for the water, managing the temperature. In addition, the vegetation serves as a source of fish food as particles fall into the water, according to the U.S. Geological Survey. These fish then serve as food for other animals.

Birds

Riparian areas are feeding and breeding areas for birds. They are often places for recreational bird watching, since people can observe birds with fewer nearby pests and restrictive vegetation, allowing people to move around more freely. Riparian ecosystems provide habitats for many birds, as dead and hollowed-out trees can give homes for birds.

Vegetation

Riparian areas are very desirable for animals, since they contain food, water, shade and shelter. Food is diverse in riparian areas, since leaf litter fertilizes the soil, which increases the nutrients available to many vegetative sources of food, according to the U.S. Forest Service. Many foraging animals are common in riparian areas, due to the greater variety of vegetation, including deer, moose and elk.

Pollution

Riparian areas can be destroyed by invasive species that wreck many of the crucial organisms residing in there, which can cause a chain reaction that leads to the death of several species. In addition, rivers can carry pollution downstream and wreck ecological havoc. For example, agricultural activities can bring sediments that contain excessive quantities of nitrogen to the riparian area, which can lead to nitrogen toxicity. Excessive fertilizer in water causes algae blooms, which kill off fish in the water by consuming too much oxygen.

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Find Agates

Agates are rough on the outside and beautiful inside

If you break open a rough agate you might find a design that looks like a tree or a landscape, or you might see patterns and colors--each agate is unique. Find this variety of chalcedony (a form of quartz that has decorative concentric bands) worldwide from the shores of oceans to deserts. Agates can be discovered rough state or naturally polished in nature, and are available cut and polished through commercial vendors. They are considered a semiprecious stone.

Instructions

Finding the Agate

1. Study the ancient geology of an area to find ancient lava flows. Agates formed in gas pockets within those flows. Throughout the centuries, the ground shifted, and weathering exposed them or freed them from the lava. Study the topography to see how weathering and water flow changed the landscape. They also formed wherever there was a hole in such places as coral and limestone.

2. Choose a time of year when there are storms. Agates are more likely to be exposed following a storm along coast lines and along rivers. Look where cliff erosion is occurring.

3. Research tables on tides when searching a beach area. This provides information on when the tide is low, giving you more space to look for agates. Also, high tides can push more sand around and expose more agates. Schedule a visit to hunt after the high tide.

4. Search maps to find areas known for agates. These can be such areas as the shoreline of Lake Superior in Minnesota or the coast line of Oregon. Place names can give an indication of where agates are found. Look for areas that offer recreational rock hunting.

5. Search beaches in areas known for agates. These finds may already be polished due to the action of the waves or from being carried downstream to the beach.

6. Look in areas where the land is being cut out. This can be a road cut, building construction or gravel pits.

7. Look for rocks that appear to have a waxy, grayish coating. The outer surface is rough, as though it was removed from a mold.

8. Look for rocks that have openings. This is where gas within the cavity where the agate formed would have escaped. Not all rough agates will have an opening.

9. Light the rock specimen using the flashlight. Hold the rock up and place it in front of the light. (The light from the sun can be used but make sure that you don't look at the sun.) Check for bands and translucent rock.

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Oceanographer Job Description

Oceanographer Job Description

Oceanographers can follow three different career paths: geological, chemical or physical. All three types of scientists study the ocean and its properties and they often work together as a team on specific projects. They report on the ecological conditions of the ocean and specific ocean phenomena that affect the habitat environment of marine life and the health and safety of humans.

Geological Oceanographers

Geological oceanographers are concerned with the topography of the ocean floor. They study underwater volcanoes, mountains and canyons and other formations to determine the history of the ocean and predict future geological activity. These scientists also study sediment to help determine the movement of the ocean. They work with physical and chemical oceanographers as well as marine biologists to examine fossilized remains of animals and plants and to determine climate history.

Physical Oceanographers

Satellite technology has advanced the field of physical oceanographers in a very significant way. These scientists study the overall physical characteristics of the ocean. Satellites make it possible for them to view the ocean from a large-scale perspective. They are mainly focused on the movement of the ocean and the phenomenon that causes movement such as waves, wind and tides. Physical oceanographers study the temperature, concentration of saline, underwater formations and wind to figure out how and why ocean events such as tsunamis occur. Computer models and satellite observation are used as tools, as are ocean-based studies such as computer programmable buoys.

Chemical Oceanographers

An important area of study for these scientists is pollution. There is great concern about the pollution of the ocean and the sustainability of the environment for marine life. Chemical oceanographers locate pollutants in the ocean such as oil, fertilizers and manufacturing waste. They study the interaction of saltwater, plants and marine animals with various pollutants. Other scientists in this field study global warming. The temperature of the ocean is a good indicator of an increase in carbon dioxide. A variance of even 1 degree in temperature can make a big difference to the plant and animal life in the ocean.

Education

Oceanography is a career within the earth science field. Most oceanographers begin with a bachelor's degree in an earth science discipline and move on to earn a graduate degree in one of the three areas of oceanography.

Work Environment

Oceanographers work in laboratories or offices to conduct the majority of their research. They also go to the ocean for data collection. These scientists typically work a 40-hour week, often conducting research for the government or nonprofit organizations.

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