The growing world population is taxing the resources of the Earth.
As human beings have evolved to a stage of scientific advancement and plenty, the population of the Earth has also expanded rapidly. In less developed times, more people died earlier due to disease. These days, due to medical advances, people are living longer, which is one reason why the world population is growing. This sort of growth has brought about some problems. Among the most notable are the demands made on the Earth's resources and overcrowding.
Use of Resources
The higher the number of people on the Earth, the bigger the need for resources. The U.S. Census Bureau projects that the world's population, which in 2010 is close to 7 billion, will be closer to 9.5 billion by 2050. The availability of food and energy for this growing population are major issues. Population growth in developed countries has put a greater strain on the Earth's resources than growth in developing countries because developed countries consume more of the Earth's resources.
Soil Erosion
In areas of high population, the need for food leads to an extensive cultivation of the land, leading to tree cutting and the use of techniques such as crop rotation. When cleared ground is left bare, the valuable topsoil erodes. Without sturdy root systems to anchor the soil, water events become much more serious, possibly leading to severe flooding and mudslides.
Overcrowding
As the world population expands, there will be overcrowding on the Earth as more people fill the world. Some major world cities in developing countries are already experiencing this problem. For instance, according to demographia.com, the population density of Kowloon, a part of Hong Kong, was at more than a million people per square kilometer in 1990. This figure compares with a population density of 138 people per square kilometer for Oshkosh, a county in Wisconsin. As the world gets overcrowded, it may be more difficult to find any wide open spaces.
Tags: world population, Earth resources, developed countries, developing countries, more people
The history of our planet is rife with disasters that have devastated local populations and global events that have threatened the very existence of life itself. The restless nature of the Earth accounts for the majority of natural disasters, but those from beyond the Earth perhaps pose the greatest threat.
Mass Extinctions
Mankind, in its short history, is fortunate to have thus far escaped the effects of global catastrophes responsible for the extinction of significant percentages of the Earth's species. The worst of these, the Permian-Triassic extinction, killed 95 percent of all species 251 million years ago. Scientists are in disagreement over the exact cause of the extinction, but the likely candidates are impacts from an extraterrestrial body or widespread volcanism. The most widely known mass extinction occurred 65 million years ago, when a five-mile-wide asteroid impacted the Earth in the area of the Yucatan Peninsula. Creating the huge Chicxulub crater, this impact either caused or contributed to the extinction of the dinosaurs. Fortunately for humankind, this led to the dominance of mammals and the eventual evolution of our species. Other mass extinctions have occurred during the Triassic era (214 million years ago) caused by volcanism and global warming, the Devonian era (364 million years ago) due to an unknown cause, and the Ordovician-Silurian era (364 million years ago) caused by a fluctuation in sea levels as a result of glaciation. A future event of this magnitude could seriously threaten the existence of mankind.
Land and Sea
Earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanoes are endemic events, meaning that they are specific to a certain area. They have reshaped the landscape since the dawn of creation. Because we choose to inhabit those areas of the Earth most susceptible to these kinds of natural disasters, we invite the possibility of deadly consequences. Almost 80 percent of all the planet's earthquakes, and a large number of the deadliest volcanoes, occur along the so-called "Ring of Fire," a huge area circumscribing the Pacific Ocean--a recent earthquake and tsunami near Sumatra killed over a quarter of a million people. Yet some of the deadliest earthquakes have hit mainland China. Shansi was devastated by magnitude 8 earthquake in 1556, which killed over 800,000 people.
Famines throughout history have a number of different causes. No country has been spared. The worst happened in the past century. The 1958 through 1961 Great Leap Forward famine in China resulted in over 30 million deaths by starvation. Famines killing hundreds of thousands of people have occurred with surprising frequency throughout our history.
Air
Like the land- and sea-based natural disasters, hurricanes, floods, blizzards and other weather-related phenomenon occur in specific areas and could be avoided if we chose not to live in those areas. The worst hurricane in the United States occurred in 1900 in Galveston, Texas, and killed 800 people. Typhoons, however, have been much deadlier. The Bhola cyclone, which hit Bangladesh in 1970, had a death toll estimated at up to 550,000. Several others had death tolls over 1,000. Floods, caused by heavy rains, have left their greatest mark in China. The Huang He (Yellow) River flooded in 1931, and the death toll was close to four million. The same river flooded in 1887, killing up to two million, and again in 1938, killing up to 900,000.
Microbes
We cannot hide from microbes and, until very recent medical advances, can do nothing to stop them. The great plagues have killed untold millions of people. The Black Death alone is responsible for killing a third of the European population in the Middle Ages. The great Spanish Flu pandemic of 1918 killed between 20 and 40 million. Bacteria and viruses are among the oldest species on Earth. Many more millions, perhaps billions, of people have succumbed to the ravishes of malaria, typhoid, smallpox, yellow fever and AIDS.
Threats From Space
Cometary bombardments, asteroid strikes, supernovae and gamma ray bursts are very rare events, indeed. But they have impacted the Earth in the past, and they will do so in the future. Thus far, not a single human has been a casualty of such an event, their infrequency limiting them to events in the deep recesses of the Earth's history. Unlike the more terrestrial of natural disasters, which are unlikely to exterminate the entire human race, the threat from beyond could easily see the end of humanity. Fortunately, it may be millions of years in the future.
Tags: million years, natural disasters, death toll, from beyond, have occurred, impacted Earth, killed over
The tropical paradise of Hawaii is still reachable by boat.
At one time several boats and ferries made the trip from Los Angeles to the Hawaiian Islands on a regular basis. Since the advent of jet air travel, however, these point-to-point boat transports have been phased out in favor of the quicker, more efficient air travel option. If you still want to take a more leisurely trip from the West Coast to Hawaii, consider going by cruise ship, a modern day alternative to point-to-point transports.
Instructions
Finding the Right Boat
1. Use the net to find your way.
Search one of the excellent cruise only travel websites, which will provide listings for all the available sailings to and from the ports of your choice, the best rates available and all possible ship and cruise line options. (See Resource 1.)
2. Find the sailing that suits your departure port and travel date requirements by using the advanced search options on the travel website. Weigh the elements of timing, price, amenities and itinerary to decide which is best for you. Shorter cruises tend to cost less than longer cruises, but this is not always so. Go for the best selection of ports rather than the rate paid to ensure a great trip.
3. Call to get the most for your cruise dollar.
Call the cruise broker rather than booking online. Doing so will allow you to ask the representative about possible upgrades, where to stay on the ship, and which ship, if there are more than one that catches your eye, is best for you . Representatives can often also help you to find great accommodations at your destination site.
4. If you plan on making the trip back to your home port by boat as well, make an inquiry now and ask for a discounted round-trip rate. If you are taking the same cruise line both ways you will often be eligible for a discount. Discuss this option with your cruise representative and negotiate.
5. If you are staying in Hawaii for a time before returning by ship or otherwise, inquire with your cruise line about special partner hotel rates which may be available. Do not automatically book these hotels as many times they will be cheaper to book directly with the hotel itself. Do a comparison and make your decision.
Tags: cruise line, your cruise, rather than, trip from, with your, with your cruise
For more than 18 years, Maclean's magazine has ranked Canadian colleges and universities based on publicly available data regarding student success, faculty, resources, student support and the institution's reputation. Each school's operating budget, student services spending, scholarships and bursaries, library expenses and acquisitions as well as total research income are also considered. The top 10 Canadian colleges based on these factors can be found below.
Simon Fraser University
Simon Fraser University has long had a great reputation among Canadian colleges. Its three campuses in British Columbia are known for being eco-friendly and academically diverse. 100 majors are available in the following academic departments: communication, art and technology, education, environment, health sciences, other sciences, applied sciences, business administration, and arts and social sciences.
University of Victoria
Along with traditional academic options, University of Victoria's more than 19,000 students can also participate in co-op opportunities, in which classroom learning is combined with real-life work experience. University of Victoria has one of the largest programs of this kind. This school also boasts widely respected research initiatives, including research regarding oceans, climate changes and indigenous and cultural studies, and Canada's second ranked law school.
Guelph
Ontario's University of Guelph offers programs in agricultural science, arts, biological science, management and economics, physical and engineering science, social and applied human sciences, and veterinary medicine, a program that is particularly well-regarded. The university also boasts North America's major graduate program in Scottish Studies, and the library contains the largest Scottish Studies collection outside the United Kingdom.
New Brunswick
Founded in 1758, the University of New Brunswick has two campuses with about 12,000 students. The Institute of Biomedical Engineering is one of Canada's leading research institutes in biomedical engineering, and famous Canadian singer Anne Murray is a graduate.
Memorial
Atlantic Canada's largest university includes programs in engineering, business, geology and medicine. Its 17,000 students can attend four campuses in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador. Another unique feature of this university is its Marine Institute, which boats the world's largest flume tank.
Waterloo
The University of Waterloo is home to the first mathematics department in North America and one of the most competitive engineering schools in Canada. According to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2009, the University of Waterloo was ranked 113th overall, 27th in the world for technology, 56th in the world for the natural sciences, and 114th in the world in life sciences and biomedicine.
Carleton University
Known as "Canada's Capital University," Carleton University is located in Ottawa and offers more than 65 programs, including public affairs, journalism, commerce, aerospace engineering, geomatics, interactive multimedia and design, European and Russian studies, network technology, international affairs, industrial design, public policy, film studies and renewable energy. Famous actor Dan Aykroyd studied here but did not graduate, and journalist Peter Jennings was a graduate.
University of Windsor
Ontario's University of Windsor has more than 15,000 students. It boasts a highly regarded law school, and more than 100 additional academic majors.
University of Regina
University of Regina is located in Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada. Unique academic offerings include police studies, petroleum systems engineering and public policy.
York University
Toronto's York University is Canada's third largest university with 51,000 students. It is affiliated with the Canadian Space Program and has a variety of unique research centers, including those that focus on German and European studies, atmospheric chemistry, feminist research, international and security studies, Jewish studies, practical ethics, public law and public policy, refugee studies, earth and atmospheric science, mass spectrometry, Latin America and the Caribbean, work and society, sustainability, learning technologies, organized crime and corruption, violence and conflict resolution, Canadian studies, Asian research, neotropical conservation, vision research, and biomolecular interactions.
Tags: more than, Canadian colleges, public policy, University Victoria, also boasts, Carleton University, Fraser University
Darwin's theory of evolution shock those that believed in creationism.
Charles Darwin published his theory of evolution in an 1859 book entitled "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Races in the Struggle for Life." It sold out on its first day of publication. He expanded on the ideas he presented in the book in 15 more publications over the next 20 years. It was not until he published in 1871 his book entitled "The Descent of Man," that he asserted that man had descended from non-human ancestors.
Theory
Darwin's theory of evolution asserts that all life descended from a common ancestor. His general theory presumes the development of life from non-life and stresses a purely natural "descent with modification." Basically, Darwin theorizes that complex creatures evolved from more simplistic ancestors, and that beneficial genetic mutations are preserved because they aid survival in a process he called "natural selection." That is, complex creatures naturally evolved over time from more simplistic ancestors. Beneficial mutations accumulated and eventually resulted in an entirely different creature.
Slow Progress
Darwin theorized that evolution is a slow, gradual process. Darwin wrote, "...Natural selection acts only by taking advantage of slight successive variations; she can never take a great and sudden leap, but must advance by short and sure, though slow steps." Thus, Darwin conceded that, "If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down."
Creation
Charles Darwin's assertions on evolution were not received well by many Christians, who believed in creationism, that God had created everything and no biological changes had taken place since this creation. It was the geological discoveries of Charles Lyell in the 1860s, proving that the earth must be much older than 6,000 years, that would persuade educated people to consider Darwin's claims.
Jean-Baptist Lamarck
Darwin was not the first to publish articles on the subject of natural selection. Some 50 years earlier, French botanist and naturalist Jean-Baptist Lamarck was one of the earliest proponents of the idea that evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws.
Later Developments
The advances made in molecular biology, biochemistry and genetics have brought Darwin's theory of evolution into question. In his book, "Darwinism: The Refutation of a Myth," Soren Lovtrup points out that "some critics turned against Darwin's teachings for religious reasons, but they were a minority; most of his opponents ... argued on a completely scientific basis."
Tags: Darwin theory evolution, believed creationism, book entitled, Charles Darwin, complex creatures, Darwin theory
Aruba is a small island of the Lesser Antilles in the southern Caribbean Sea. A part of the nation of the Netherlands, Aruba is one of the most popular island vacation destinations on the planet. With its idyllic blue skies, white sandy beaches and casual island ambiance, tourists in need of some fun in the sun and rest and relaxation couldn't possibly ask for more. There is no shortage of places to see and explore while on vacation in Aruba. If you are planning on visiting this island in the future, here are some of the best tourist spots.
Instructions
1. Visit Casibari at Arikok National Park. This is a fascinating place to explore, with diorite boulders that were weathered by trade winds all around the area. There are various scenic routes and hiking paths at this park, and a lot of navigating through rocks. There are some lovely views of the island here as well (see Resources below).
2. Explore Wilhelmina Park in Oranjestad, Aruba's capital city. It is best to visit this park when the tropical foliage in fully in bloom, which happens in the months of June, September and October. This park was made in 1955 to honor the Dutch king and queen, Bernhard and Juliana. Be sure to check out the marvelous sculpture of Queen Juliana, made by Italian artist Arnoldo Lualdi (see Resources below).
3. Spend the afternoon at the Aruba Historical Museum in Oranjestad. This is a great way to learn about the culture and history of Aruba. There is, after all, more to Aruba than just sunning on the beach! Here, visitors will find tools, furnishings, Aruban coins, weights and many more artifacts relating to Aruban history and geology.
4. Visit the Butterfly Farm in Oranjestad. This is a glorious place that hosts over 32 species of butterflies, all within an enclosed tropical garden. There are various displays here that illustrate and depict the life cycle of a butterfly, from the larva stage to the adult stage. The butterflies here are both local and from other parts of the world.
5. Relax and bask in the sun at Boca Mahos. Boca Mahos is a charming and stunning beach that has all the essentials you need from a beach: blue skies and soft sand. This beach also is known for its strong winds and rough waters at certain times of the year. Be sure to check out a ruined inn that is located west of the bay.
Perform a science experiment to understand the rock cycle.
Most elementary students are familiar with the water cycle, but they might not know that rocks also go through a cycle. The rock cycle begins with an igneous rock. The igneous rock goes through a change and turns into a sedimentary rock. Later, the sedimentary rock goes through a change and turns into a metamorphic rock. The cycle is then repeated when the metamorphic rock begins to change and ends up as an igneous or sedimentary rock. Teachers can demonstrate this change through experiments.
Sedimentary Rock Experiment
Take two different colored crayons and shave them down with a knife. Pretend that the crayons are igneous rocks that are being broken down by weather. If you are worried about the children cutting themselves, use a cheese grater or a pencil sharpener. Mix the colored crayon shavings and set them on top of aluminum foil. The aluminum foil should be doubled lined. The website Think Quest recommends your crayon shavings pile be 6 cm by 6 cm and 1 to 2 cm thick. Push on the pile so that the shavings stick together. You have now created sedimentary rocks.
Metamorphic Rock Experiment
Take your sedimentary rock shavings and fold all four sides of the aluminum foil over them. Explain that, as more sedimentary rocks lie on top of each other, they cause more pressure. This leads to the sedimentary rocks changing into metamorphic rock. You can see this change by experimenting with pressure. Lightly hammer over your packet of sedimentary crayon shavings. Do this for about 30 seconds. Unwrap the foil to reveal the new metamorphic rock. Notice how the shavings have bonded together to form a stronger rock.
Igneous Rock Experiment
Explain to the students that when metamorphic rock is heated it changes into igneous rock. You can perform yet another experiment to demonstrate this change. Wrap the metamorphic rock back up in the aluminum foil and hold it over a candle flame. Use tongs to hold the aluminum foil packet over the flame and not your hands or you will get burned. Do this for 60 seconds. Wait for the packet to cool, and open it to reveal your new igneous rock. This igneous rock will look smooth, just like the crayon you started with. You will even be able to write with it. If you shave the igneous rock, you can begin the rock cycle all over again.
Rock Candy Experiment
The rock cycle can also include an experiment on the forming of new rocks, which is referred to as reformation. A chemical reaction is what causes new rocks to form, and this can be witnessed by creating homemade rock candy. Bring 2 cups of water to a boil and add 4 cups of sugar to it. Stir until the sugar is dissolved. Once the water appears clear, remove it from the stove and pour the contents into a glass jar. Tie a piece of string to the middle of a pencil. Add a paper clip to the other end of the string. Dip the string into the jar and then lay it on a sheet of wax paper for two days. Keep your jar of sugar water covered with wax paper. After the two days are up, set the string back in the sugar water and let it hang there. This is done by placing the pencil across the top of the jar. Wait seven days and return to find the rocks formed on the piece of string.
Tags: igneous rock, aluminum foil, metamorphic rock, rock cycle, sedimentary rock
Volcanoes may erupt without warning, after centuries of dormancy.
Although volcanoes vary in shape and level of activity, all share the same basic components. Volcanoes start out small and increase their mass through multiple eruptions that add lava, or molten rock, to their surface areas. Over time, these eruptions result in volcanic mountains. If a volcano is very active, it can grow rapidly and result in a steep summit.
Inside the Volcano
Volcanoes may form when fissures, or cracks in the earth, create openings through which hot, molten rock, or magma, escapes. Magma contains hot gasses, rock and other materials. The magma chamber that holds this liquid rock may lie deep beneath the earth.
When pressure builds, magma enters a conduit, or natural pipeline within the fissure. It rises through the conduit and erupts through a vent at the surface of the volcano. Once exposed, magma becomes lava that eventually cools and reforms into solid rock.
The cone at the summit, or top of the volcano, consists of hardened lava from previous eruptions. It may harbor a caldera, a large depression that forms when upper rock layers of the cone collapse, or a crater, which occurs when rocks explode upward from below.
Dikes and Sills
When magma pushes upward through conduits that stop short of the surface, it intrudes into the rock layers that lie between the magma chamber and the main vent. There, it forms dikes or sills. While the magma in a sill runs parallel to volcanic rock layers, dikes cut through these layers at their weakest points and form new fissures. After the sills and dikes cool, they harden to create a new rock layer.
Magma and Lava
Magma comes in different forms and contains various elements that determine the type of eruption that will occur. Mafic magma has a high magnesium and iron content as well as low viscosity. Felsic magma contains large amounts of silicon and is very acidic and viscous. Intermediate magma, as the name implies, lies between the two extremes in terms of acidity and viscosity. Felsic magma tends to produce cataclysmic explosions.
Lava cannot flow if the magma that produced it is too viscous. Instead, it piles up into lava domes surrounding the vent. Although these domes do not usually form craters, they may create parasitic domes on the flanks, or sides, of volcanoes.
Other Parts of a Volcano
Other components include the flank vents, or secondary vents, on a volcano's flank. These may contain conduits where lava flows.
Ash clouds consist of fine particles of ash, chemicals and dust. They plume upward from the volcano and enter the atmosphere, often traveling hundreds or even thousands of miles.
Lahars, or mudflows, consist of rock debris and water that moves down the slope of a volcano. Destructive lahars may occur whenever massive eruptions take place.
Tags: rock layers, Felsic magma, magma chamber, molten rock, upward from
Tert-butyl chloride (also called 2-chloro-2-methylpropane), b.p. 51 degrees C, C.A.S. number 507-20-0, is a useful reagent that is simple to prepare. Combining Tert-butyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid, the reaction proceeds via an Sn1 mechanism. The task then becomes one of separating out the desired product in a purified form, free of reactants and byproducts.
Basic Reactions
The tert-butyl alcohol first interacts with a hydrochloric acid proton (H+) to form a protonated alcohol and a chloride ion. The basic reactions for this are:
HCl ' (H+) + (Cl-) and
(CH3)3-C-OH + (H+) ' (CH3)3-C-(OH2+)
The (OH2+) group slowly eliminates a neutral molecule of water, leaving the plus charge on the central carbon atom. This can be written:
(CH3)3-C-(OH2+) ' (CH3)3-C+ + H2O
At this point, the remaining negatively charged chlorine quickly attaches where the water left off, forming the tert-butyl chloride.
(CH3)3-C+ +(Cl-) ' (CH3)3-C-Cl
Beginner's Preparation of Tert-butyl Chloride
Into a small flask in a hood, combine tert-butyl alcohol with enough hydrochloric acid to use up all the alcohol while leaving a slight excess of acid. The tert-butyl alcohol dissolves in the hydrochloric acid because it is water-soluble, but since tert-butyl chloride is not very soluble, it forms a second layer that floats on top of the water layer.
Separate the two layers using a separatory funnel. The layer which contains the tert-butyl chloride is the upper layer, since the product is lighter than water. Wash this upper layer with just a little dilute sodium bicarbonate solution to remove residual acid from the butyl chloride. Once again separating the upper layer into another vessel, add just a little anhydrous sodium sulfate to it to get rid of remaining moisture. After this step, filter and keep the liquid, and then distill it using a simple distilling flask and condenser apparatus. The resultant distillate is pure tert-butyl chloride.
Discussion
Although manufacture of tert-butyl chloride follows the mechanism termed Sn1 (nucleophilic substitution accomplished in one step), in the case of n-butyl chloride, or straight-chained butyl chloride, its formation would be by an Sn2 reaction (two-step). In the case of the formation of secondary butyl chloride, however, both reaction mechanisms, Sn1 and Sn2, apply.
Material Safety Data Sheet
The primary hazard of tert-butyl chloride is its flammability. See the appropriate MSDS data sheet for further details.
Tags: hydrochloric acid, butyl chloride, tert-butyl chloride, upper layer, just little
Grasping the concepts of geology is often difficult without a model. Food can serve as an edible analogy to many aspects of the Earth encountered in geology. Incorporating food into the classroom will help students become more alert. Illustrating the topics will also help to clarify many points in the students' minds by allowing them to see, feel and taste the results.
Core Sampling
Show how the layers of the Earth are revealed through core sampling with sandwiches. Prepare several different types of sandwiches, each on a different type of bread. Try peanut butter and jelly on raisin bread, ham and cheese on rye, a BLT on wheat, grilled cheese on pumpernickel or club sandwiches on white toast. Explain to students that each of the ingredients represents a layer of minerals under the Earth's surface. Have the students press an apple corer through the sandwich to obtain the core sample. They should then gently push the sample out of the corer and draw a picture of the core on a piece of paper.The students should try to identify the layers based only on the core, if possible.
Strata Sandwich
Use a layer cake or stack of sliced bread to illustrate the changes in the strata of the Earth. Alternate thin slices of dark rye or pumpernickel bread with thin white bread slices to create a stack of four to six slices. Spread peanut butter or jelly between the slices to hold them together. The bread slices represent layers of different types of rock underground. Have the students observe what would happen if you turned the stack on its side or upside down, representing tectonic lift and tilt. Look at the layers when the edges of the stack are push inward to create a dome in the middle of the stack. This represents the mountains made when two continental plates collide. Gravity causes the layers to compress. Replicate this by pushing the stack down with your hand. Break off one end of the bread stack and move it sideways to show how the layers act when a fault line moves.
Cookie Mapping
Students can practice techniques used to create geologic maps of the surface of the Earth using a cookie. Opt for cookies with mixed-in solid ingredients, such as raisins, nuts, chocolate chips or candy-coated chocolates. The students should place a cookie on a flat surface and lay a transparency with a grid pattern marked on top of it. Ask them to draw the cookie onto a sheet of graphing paper by copying the portion of the cookie they see in each square under the transparency. By working one square at a time, the students will be able to replicate the cookie on the graph paper. Have the students color the graph paper cookie image, using different colors for the different ingredients. For instance, all the raisins in the cookie picture could be colored red and all the nuts could be green. The different ingredients represent different types of rock found in a landscape.
Plate Tectonics
Teach about plate tectonics using crackers, flat, chewy fruit snacks and peanut butter or cake frosting. Have the students spread a layer of peanut butter onto a paper plate to represent the magma in the asthenosphere, on which the Earth's tectonic plates float. Each student should place two squares of fruit snacks side-by-side on top of the peanut butter. These thin pieces of fruit snacks represent the thinner crust supporting the oceans. Tell them to observe what happens when the pieces of fruit snacks are pulled apart. The peanut butter which come up between the fruit snacks represents magma rising from beneath the Earth's surface. Replace one of the pieces of fruit snack with a cracker to represent the crust under the continents. What happens when the two pieces are pushed together and the cracker comes up over the fruit snack? The surface of the land (cracker) rises, forming a mountain chain. Use two crackers with the ends moistened in water. Place the crackers with their wet edges next to each other and observe what happens when they are pushed together and pulled apart.
Tags: peanut butter, fruit snacks, Have students, different types, happens when, observe what
According to the Blue Planet Biomes website, the tundra is a bleak, treeless area with year round freezing temperatures and very little precipitation. The summer months in the tundra are short and provide almost 24 hours of sunlight while the winter months are completely the opposite with darkness lasting almost all day long. The word "tundra" is described by The University of California Museum of Paleontology as coming from the Finnish word tunturi meaning treeless plain.
Geography
The climate of the tundra is described by the University of Wisconsin Stevens Point Geology Department website as being transitional as it bridges the gap between the subarctic and ice cap climates. The tundra spans countries such as Greenland, northern Canada, northern Russia and parts of Alaska. Areas described by The University of Wisconsin Stevens point as having a tundra climate can also be found around Antarctica in the Southern Hemisphere.
Precipitation
According to Blue Planet Biomes, the climate of the tundra is extremely dry with precipitation levels similar to those of tropical deserts. The average precipitation, including melting snow, in the tundra is between 6 and 10 inches per year. Coupled with strong drying winds, the annual precipitation makes the tundra an area of extreme weather. Melting snow blown from high plateaus collects in the valleys of the tundra and melts slowly to leave the ground soggy despite the dry climate.
Types
The University of California Museum of Paleontology describes two types of tundra climates, Arctic and Alpine. The main differences between the two are that Alpine tundras are located at high elevations of mountains where trees cannot grow. The ground of the Alpine tundra has better drainage for precipitation than its Arctic relative, giving the Alpine tundra a growing season for vegetation of around three times that of the Arctic at 180 days.
Amounts
The precipitation found in the tundra is reported by The University of Wisconsin Stevens Point to be concentrated in the summer months where temperatures rise and the surface of the ground attempts to melt in the sun. Inland areas of the tundra receive their largest amounts of rainfall in July. Coastal areas receive precipitation a month later around August. Areas on the edge of the tundra region are reported by The University of Wisconsin Stevens Point as receiving almost double the amount of precipitation as other tundra regions. The regions that receive more rainfall include western and eastern tundra regions in North America.
Latitude
The high latitude of the tundra regions causes a reduction in the moisture in the air, reducing annual precipitation. The University of Wisconsin Stevens Point explains that this high latitude is coupled with long periods of high pressure, reducing the chances of precipitation in the tundra. Some moisture comes into the region when moist ocean air blows into the region where it is cooled to its dew point by the frigid air to become fog.
Tags: University Wisconsin, University Wisconsin Stevens, Wisconsin Stevens, described University, Stevens Point, tundra regions
Dig into the Earth's surface to find rocks of different ages.
Determining the absolute or relative nature of rocks is essential for geologists. The most vital aspect of absolute and relative nature is that it provides clarity as to the age of the rock. The trick to understanding these two components is simple: absolute and relative natures exist at the same time. Absolute dating, according to the Utah Geological Survey, provides a specific era or year the rock was formed. Relative dating, on the other hand, places the age of rocks in a general chronological order.
Instructions
1. Follow the law of superposition and crosscutting. Dig into the Earth's surface and identify the shape, color, texture and type of rock you encounter by using geological charts. The law of superposition states that every rock you find closer to the Earth's surface is younger than those deeper in the surface. The law of crosscutting states that every rock that cuts into or penetrates another rock is younger than the one it punctured. Identifying relative characteristics involves using the laws of superposition and crosscutting.
2. Compare fossil records against the rocks. Fossil imprints -- plants or animals -- on rocks offer assistance with relative dating. Matching a fossil record imprint on the body of a rock provides a clear idea of the rock's relative age.
3. Use radiometric dating methods and a chart to determine a rock's absolute nature. Radiometric dating identifies organic elements on individual rock crystals that help determine the age of a rock with greater specificity. Dating methods, such as Samarium-Neodymium, Lutetium-Hafnium and Rhenium-Osmium techniques, measure the decay of isotopes and their ratio against comparative organic elements to determine absolute age. Contact your local college geological department or state geological survey for specific information on dating techniques.
Tags: Earth surface, absolute relative, absolute relative nature, determine rock, every rock, into Earth
There are a range of postgraduate scholarships available in the U.K.
The United Kingdom is renowned for the high quality of its educational institutions, which include world-leading universities at Oxford and Cambridge. With undergraduate degrees becoming increasingly commonplace, many are choosing to undertake postgraduate study to help them to stand out to potential employers. However, fees can be high, and so in the U.K., there are a variety of scholarships available to fund postgraduate study.
British Chevening Scholarships
These scholarships are funded by the U.K.'s Foreign and Commonwealth Office and are awarded by the British Council. Approximately 1,000 part- or full-time scholarships are awarded exclusively for postgraduate study. The process is competitive, with approximately 17,000 people applying each year. Each scholarship is valid for up to three years.
The awards are aimed at future leaders. Consequently, applicants should be ambitious with a track record in leadership, good networking and communication skills and the motivation to become leaders in their home countries within ten years after graduation. Additionally applicants must meet the academic requirements for their chosen course and must have an International English Language Testing System (IELTS) score of 6.5 or above.
9/11 Scholarship Fund
This scholarship was established by the World Trade Centre Disaster Fund and the British Council. It supports international students who were directly affected by the U.S. terrorist activities in 2001 or by any subsequent terrorist activities. The scholarships cover the funding for full time study for a master's (or bachelor's) degree at any U.K. institution including tuition fees, accommodation, living and travel expenses.
Postgrad Solutions
Two scholarships are available each year for study in the U.K. Each award is worth £500 and is open to both international and U.K. students. Applicants should be members of Postgrad Solutions Student Service (membership is free) and must have already been offered a place on a postgraduate course at a U.K. institution. If successful, the payment is made directly to the institution and is used to pay tuition fees.
The Sir Richard Stapley Educational Trust
Grants of £300 to £1,000 are given to those pursuing any post graduate course or undergraduate degrees in medicine, dentistry and veterinary studies. The awards are based on academic merit and are aimed at mature students. Applicants should be over the age of 24 on October 1 of the proposed year of study and must live in the U.K. at the time of application and during the course of their study. For postgraduate awards applicants must hold a first- or second-class honours degree from a U.K. institution (or its equivalent from a non-U.K. institution). The awards are not available to those that are pursuing Post Graduate Certificates in Education (PGCEs), Professional Training Courses such as Royal College or Law Society Examinations or for full time doctoral students who are beyond their third year of study.
Tags: postgraduate study, scholarships available, year study, applicants must, Applicants should, British Council
Often considered as one of the meteors that killed the dinosaurs, a meteor that struck the northern Arizona high desert plain some 50,000 years ago left a sizable impression. Virtually unrecognizable when driving from the pine forested Flagstaff area east toward Winslow, one must follow the directional signs, south, off I-40, and arrive at the crater’s parking lot. The visitor center is perched on a ridge of an otherwise unimpressive hillock. Because the crater is a privately owned enterprise, viewing is restricted to the center and a short rim tour. There is a nominal fee to visit.
Instructions
1. Make hotel reservations in nearby Flagstaff. Because Flagstaff is considered the gateway to the Grand Canyon, many lodging options are available. Note that 30 minutes south of Flagstaff is Sedona, Arizona, a beautiful destination known for its high-end resorts. Meteor Crater has a campground for recreational vehicles.
2. Locate Flagstaff on the Arizona map, travel west on I-40 to Exit 233 (or 239 from Winslow) and follow the directional signs south.
3. Park in the ample parking lot and pay the admission price. The visitor center has fast food, a gift shop, a museum that exhibits meteorite particles and explains astronomical/geological data from the impact and an informed staff ready to field any inquiries.
4. Inquire about a tour into the crater. Visitors will immediately identify a walking trail that extends from the rim into the depth of the crater and continues up toward the southern side. No tours are currently scheduled, but public interest may change that.
5. Take the rim tour, which is scheduled throughout the day. A guide will escort the visitors along the rim. The tour is approximately an hour and the length is less than one half mile.
6. Return to the visitor center and access one of the many telescopes located at the platforms that overlook the crater. The telescopes will allow the visitor to examine the crater floor in detail. The extensive boulder field around the perimeter of the crater’s interior appears much like a moonscape.
7. Watch the film inside the visitor center. The film tracks the course of the meteor through space as it entered the earth’s atmosphere and its subsequent crash. It will also theorize the effects the impact had on the immediate geological surroundings as well as on any plants and animals.
Geologists sometimes study underground caverns and rock formations.
A geologist is a scientific professional who studies the composition of the Earth. The field includes the history of the Earth's formation, the materials out of which the planet is made and the processes which it undergoes. A geologist may work under a broad umbrella, and geology has many specialized fields, each with their own educational and professional requisites. However, most professional geologists follow a generally similar course of study and training.
Preparing for College
If you are considering a career in geology, you will need strong math skills, analytic abilities, a solid foundation in the natural sciences and a clear command of written language, even in lower-level geology college courses. Many four-year geology programs are quite competitive and require rigorous academic achievement at the high school level. Geologists employ a wide variety of skills and knowledge in their research, labs and fieldwork, but math, writing and science are the three core areas of skills. It's also a good idea to be thoroughly familiar with computers, as many geologists rely on computer systems to help them carry out their work and perform geophysical and geocartographical analysis.
Undergraduate Requirements
To become a professional geologist, you should pursue a rigorous four-year undergraduate program. You may choose to focus your study on a specialized field, such as paleontology or marine geology, or you may choose to double major in a secondary field such as archaeology or geography. The majority of your advanced study in geography will be in your last two years of college, which can lead into graduate studies. Many programs of study in the natural sciences, including geology, will require you to complete a senior thesis or special senior project before you graduate.
Licensing
Many states require that in order to work as a geologist in the private sector, you must first get a license. The licensing process varies widely from state to state. In general, you must demonstrate competency in the field by providing proof of your education, documenting your practical experience in the field and taking a licensing exam.
Postgraduate and Continuing Education
While an undergraduate degree is enough to get your foot in the door at entry-level geology jobs, you may want to improve your marketability in the field by continuing your studies in geology past the undergraduate level. Many masters degree programs allow geologists to specialize in niche fields such as archaeology, hydrogeology, planetary geology, gem analysis and petroleum geology. If you want to work abroad, you may study a foreign language to increase your hiring prospects. Advanced degrees also may often mean a higher pay for entry-level positions as well as opportunities for more specialized jobs.
Tags: field such, geology will, natural sciences, such archaeology
Scouts, students, rock hounds, geologists, and life-long enthusiasts all keep rock, mineral, and fossil collections.
Scouts, students, rock hounds, geologists, museums, and life-long nature enthusiasts all keep rock, mineral and fossil collections for research, for education, for display and for fun. You will create a five-part rock, mineral and fossil collection, one part for each of the three main types of rocks as well as one part for minerals and one for fossils. You will learn techniques to obtain and display specimens for your collection as well as ideas on make improvements as your collection grows.
Instructions
1. Organize your field tools and supplies into a sturdy backpack. Include your field guides to aid with field identification of the specimens you find.
2. Plan your field trips in advance and join in the planned field trip adventures of other local geologists and rock hounds. Study area maps and your field guides for ideas on what you might find in the field and the best way to get there.
3. Collect mineral and fossil specimens everywhere you go and at every possible opportunity. Streams, beaches, quarries and gravel pits are excellent places to find rock outcrops and rock, mineral and fossil specimens.
4. Use your hammers and chisels to create specimens of about egg or golf ball size, but keep large beautiful specimens and whole fossils intact rather than breaking them into uniform pieces.
5. Take notes on each specimen you collect, recording the location of each find in your field notebook with as much detail as possible. Include specimen identification (ID) number, collector name, date, specimen name (if determined) and detailed location information.
6. Wrap each specimen in newspaper and assign each one a unique serial number for later reference. Write the serial number on the newspaper wrapping and key it to the notes in your field notebook.
7. Clean your specimens when you get back home, rather than out in the field. Carefully unwrap and clean hard specimens with soapy water and a soft brush, but do not attempt this yourself on soft fragile minerals and fossils. Seek help from experienced collectors for rare and fragile specimens.
8. Set your washed specimens on a newspaper to dry.
9. Label each clean and dry specimen by first dabbing a small circle of white fast-drying paint on a flat but discrete portion of your sample, then using a black fine-tipped permanent magic marker to assign each specimen in your collection a unique serial identification number.
10. Add a two-letter code to your numbering system, if you wish. For example: IR, MR, SR for igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks; MN for minerals; and FI and FV for fossil invertebrates and fossil vertebrates respectively. Designate your first metamorphic rock specimen as "MR-001" and your third fossil invertebrate as "FI-003" for example.
11. Identify the specimens that you have collected, cleaned and labeled. Use your field guides to help you with this process. Several guides are often useful for making positive identifications. Use a variety of resources to identify accurately your specimens.
12. Record each collected and labeled specimen in your geologist's notebook. Record the serial number you have assigned each sample and your rock's identification.
13. Transcribe any field information from your field notes into your permanent geologic notebook. This information may prove valuable to you in the future when details escape your memory due to a large number of specimens and a lifetime of collecting activity.
14. Display your specimens in a way that suits your budget and creativity. Initially, egg cartons and jewelry boxes may be ideal. Line boxes or uniformly sized plastic storage totes with paper egg cartons (the bottom half). These are perfect for egg-sized and golf ball-sized specimens.
15. As your collection grows, you may wish to buy or build display cases.
Create separate storage or display trays--one each for each of igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary, mineral and fossil specimens--when your collection grows large enough. At some point, you may wish to build or purchase display cases to show off your finest specimens.
Tags: your field, mineral fossil, your collection, specimens your, collection grows, each specimen
Paleontologists study the fossil record to learn how life on earth evolved.
The Paleontological Society supports research in paleontological science, which is the study of ancient life forms. The society is an international nonprofit group that funds research through several grant programs. The society also holds conferences in which paleontology students and professionals present their research findings.
PalSIRP Sepkoski Grants
The society awards a number of small grants to paleontologists based in Eastern Europe. In 2011, the society committed to giving 15 grants of $1,000 through this program. Graduate students and established or retired professionals may apply. Applicants must demonstrate the value of their proposed research and their means of conducting it. They must fill out the application provided by the Paleontological Society and write a cover letter that includes their institutional affiliation and other requested information. They should also complete a two-page research proposal and submit a curriculum vitae to demonstrate their qualifications for conducting the research. Applicants don't need to submit a detailed budget; however, a description of how they would use the funding will suffice.
Student Research Grants
The Paleontological Society awards grants to support student research. In 2010, $750 grants supported student research across a range of subfields in paleontology. Undergraduate and graduate students may apply for these awards. They must have a research supervisor who submits a letter of recommendation on their behalf. Applicants must complete the application and a one-page project description and submit additional letters of support.
Other Student Awards
The Paleontological Society also administers grants to support student research and scholarship. Many of these awards, such as the Arthur J. Boucot Award and the G. Arthur Cooper Award, are given in honor of exceptional researchers in the field. Students who apply to the Student Research Grant program described above will automatically receive consideration for all other student grants.
Awardees
The society's grants have supported a range of projects from "measuring the ecological impact of the Ordovician mass extinction," "determining the diets of fossorial rodents of the Oligo-Miocene of central and eastern Oregon" and "correlating climate change and biotic turnover in the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation." The society makes grants to individual researchers rather than institutions.
Tags: Paleontological Society, Applicants must, grants support, grants support student, Student Research, student research
Gem hunting can be a hobby, an adventure or a passion. Digging your own gemstones from their natural source is a thrilling experience, and one that is fun for the whole family. There are many gem hunting mines across the United States that cost only a small admission fee. Mining equipment is usually included. No matter what area of the country you live in, there is a gem hunting experience waiting for you.
Gem-Hunting Basics
Gem-hunting requires a bit of digging in the dirt. Of course, warm, clear weather will make your gem-hunting experience more fun. Many families enjoy visiting gem-hunting attractions while traveling on vacation. Most gem sites offer use of picks, shovels and sluicing equipment, but you may want to bring some basic equipment for digging in public areas like state parks. You will need to bring heavy shoes, casual clothing, a hat, sunscreen and water to quench your thirst.
Where to Go Gem Hunting
Almost every region of the U.S. has some kind of gem-hunting opportunity. Connecticut has a number of gem-hunting opportunities to enjoy. The town of Roxbury, Connecticut has a gem mine called Green's Farm Garnet Mines in which you can go gem hunting for a fee. Franklin, North Carolina calls itself the gem-hunting capital of the world, and there are a number of different gem-hunting sites, such as Cowee Mountain Ruby Mine, where you can find emeralds, garnets, rubies and sapphires. Philipsburg, Montana is the home of the Gem Mountain site where you can dig for sapphires. Moose Lake in Minnesota offers agate hunting, as agate is the state's official gemstone. Almost every region of the U.S. has gem-mining opportunities you can enjoy on weekends or on vacations.
Knowing What to Look For
Once you pay the fee, it's up to you to work hard to find the gems. Generally, gem site owners will give you advice about exactly where to go and what you should be looking for. Gems in the rough may look a bit different than what you are accustomed to seeing in jewelry settings, so listen carefully to the site owner's information and look closely at the samples.
Making Jewelry from the Gems You Find
Some of these gem-mining sites will offer to facet the stones and set them into jewelry settings. Settings may be very simple or very ornate, and price will be the determining factor in what kind of setting you choose.
Where to Find Out More about Gem Hunting
There are a number of books on the market that list gem-hunting opportunities across the U.S. that can help you locate places to try in your area or on your vacation route. Some people join local treasure-hunting clubs that go with their group to sites where gems can be found. Geology societies can give you information about gem hunting in your area. An internet search can call up a number of sites that offer gem hunting on their properties.
Tags: Almost every, Almost every region, every region, gem-hunting opportunities, jewelry settings, opportunities enjoy
The earth's plates move, altering the wind pattern.
A tectonic plate is a piece of the earth's lithosphere. Earth currently has seven to eight major plates. The plates are slowly, but consistently, moving and shifting, and are responsible for geologic occurrences such as volcanism, elevation of land, seismicity, and location of land and bodies of water. Tectonism can also affect other phenomena on earth, such as climate.
Wilson Cycles
Wilson cycles are the cyclic opening and closing of an ocean basin. The stages involved are: Fragmentation, Oceanic Phase, Maximum Dispersal, Subduction Phase and Collisional/Assembly Phase.
Fragmentation involves extensional tectonics -- spreading, internally drained lakes and rift volcanism. The Oceanic Phase is the peak of marine transgression into the continental interior, equable climate, sluggish marine circulation with continental flooding, lower global photosynthesis and rise of CO2 levels. Maximum Dispersal is when the continents are thermally relaxed, sea floor is at maximum age, sea level falls, marine circulation increases and possible glaciation of polar continents occurs. The remaining phases involve the same processes, but in reverse, completing the cycle.
Collisional Tectonics and Mountain Building
According to Gordon Bonan, author of "Ecological Climatology," collisional tectonics also play a role in climate. Mountain building, such as the formation of the Himalayas and the raising of the Tibetan Plateau, caused cooling of the Northern Hemisphere because of the great increase in altitude. These events also led to the development of ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere over two million years ago. Before that, the global climate was very warm. The final steps to a colder world were the rise of the Tibetan Plateau and the closing of the Isthmus of Panama, which changed ocean circulation.
Volcanoes
Subduction, occurring when one plate pushes under another plate, causes volcanoes to form. The rocks composing the subducting slab undergo dehydration, inducing melting of mantle rock, thereby creating magma. The magma then moves to the surface through a conduit and erupts onto the surface, forming a volcano.
Ocean Currents
Currents are affected by the ocean floor as well as the continents around which they flow. Ocean currents operate by thermohaline circulation. This means that warmer water flows at the top of the ocean. Cold water sinks to the bottom, and as the temperature of water changes, it will convect to get back to these positions. Plate tectonics change the location of the continents, changing the way the currents move around them.
The early Cambrian period was a time of explosive diversification. Most of the modern phyla of species arose by the end of this period, which spanned approximately 34 million years. Dramatic global changes were also seen during this period.
Time Frame
The Cambrian epoch spans between approximately 543 and 490 million years ago. It is divided into three periods: Early Cambrian, Middle Cambrian and Late Cambrian. The Early Cambrian period spans between approximately 543 and 510 million years ago.
Diversity of Life
From about 530 to 513 million years ago, the structure of nearly all modern life was formed. Mollusks, annelid worms, arthropods, echinoderms and chordates are some of the classifications of organisms that arose during this period.
Global Changes
In addition to the rise in complex life, many global changes occurred. Tectonic changes included the breakup of various supercontinents such as Pannotia. Geographical changes included the oceans rising to create shallow seas that facilitated life. Changes in the makeup of the atmosphere and oceans forced organisms to adapt and evolve. Finally, the emergence of predators and grazers spelled the end for certain species and brought about the need for defense mechanisms.
Tags: million years, approximately million, approximately million years, Early Cambrian, this period, between approximately, between approximately million
Oceanographers typically need a postgraduate degree to secure employment in all but the most basic research positions.
Oceanography jobs fall into four main disciplines. Physical oceanographers investigate the physical properties of the seas, such as temperature, density and wave and tide motions. Geological oceanographers survey the land formations that lie under the waters. Chemical oceanographers look at the chemical composition of seawater, its relationship with the atmosphere and its alteration by pollution. Biological oceanographers study the plant and animal life that inhabits the seas. All four types of oceanographers may work in a number of employment sectors.
Research
Many oceanographers work within specific research institutions, primarily those of universities. This is "pure" research, intended to further knowledge in the subject, as opposed to "applied" research that is conducted to solve a practical problem. Oceanographers in research institutions generally conduct field, lab and theoretical work, and publish their findings in academic journals. Individuals need at least a master's degree, and more usually a doctorate, to secure research positions.
Government
Oceanographers work for government agencies, gathering and analyzing data, often to help legislators make informed decisions. These oceanographers may investigate cases of sea pollution; the impact of human activity, such as the fishing industry, on certain oceanic environments; or map the ocean floor to ensure vessels can make safe passage. The Bureau of Labor Statistics highlights the U.S. Geological Survey, run by the Department of the Interior, and the Department of Defense as key government employers of oceanographers.
Public Policy
Another area in which oceanographers work is public policy, using their expertise to influence legislative decisions, such as fishing quotas or environmental exclusion zones for oil prospecting. Such positions may include working for an elected representative or with conservation or industry organizations, scientific societies and federal agencies. Public policy work relies on interpersonal skills, networking and fostering good relationships with people. Oceanographers in this area also need excellent communication skills, both verbal and written, to effectively put their case across.
Ocean Engineering
Oceanographers may move into ocean engineering, often working in a consultative capacity alongside qualified marine engineers. They help companies plan and construct ocean structures, such as oil rigs, piers, harbors and energy production equipment, such as wave-electricity generators. They may also advise on shipbuilding, particularly when vessels are intended to be used in areas of extreme ocean conditions, such as the arctic.
Private Companies
Oceanographers work for a variety of private enterprises. These include oil and gas production, aqua-culturists, green energy producers and the fishing industry. Oceanographers advise on how ocean conditions may affect the goals of such companies.
Tags: fishing industry, ocean conditions, oceanographers investigate, oceanographers work, research institutions, research positions, such fishing
Truly one of the most "plugged-in" occupations, electrical engineering puts power in the hands of workers in the profession, who then ensure the general public's access to it. Working with a wide range of forms of electricity, electrical engineers are involved with all steps of the production process from the first brainstorming of a new piece of equipment through testing and production.
Facts
In a 2009 survey on electrical engineer wages, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics determined the median salary for professionals in the field to be $83,110 per year. Although this figure was established as the country's median, the BLS also found several industries paying significantly higher electrical engineer salaries. Electrical engineers employed by the oil and gas extraction industry earned salaries averaging $120,140. The motion picture and video industries paid their electrical engineers an average of $109,960 per year, and the mining support industry paid an average of $108,250.
Location
Electrical engineers on the country's coastlines earned salaries higher than their mid-country colleagues. The state of Massachusetts topped the bureau's list of highest-paying states for electrical engineers, with an average wage of $100,740. Massachusetts was also the country's second-highest (behind Idaho) per-capita employer of electrical engineers. Alaska was the state with the second-highest salary average, with $100,250; California was third in salary at $97,250, followed by the District of Columbia at $96,440, and Maine at $94,310.
Considerations
The first step to earning a salary as an electrical engineer is postsecondary education in the field. The Accrediting Board of Engineering Technology accredits hundreds of schools offering bachelor's and master's degrees in electrical engineering, including Texas Tech University, Virginia Commonwealth University, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University of New Mexico, Cedarville University, Capitol College, University of Denver and Duke University.
Outlook
Due to the prevalence of outsourcing electrical tasks, the BLS projects a very slight increase in employment of electrical engineers through 2018, adding just 2,700 jobs to the field, a growth of 2 percent. This is in contrast to the 11 percent growth overall expected for the engineering field and 72 percent growth anticipated in the biomedical engineering field.
Discoveries in oceanography have led to a greater understanding of the seas and oceans.
Oceanography is the study of the oceans and seas of the world, including their physical, chemical, ecological and geological properties. Although it is one of the newer scientific disciplines, people have been observing and studying ocean waves, tides and currents for thousands of years. From the time of the earliest human civilizations, people have sought to learn more about the large bodies of water around them. Since that time, mankind has looked to the oceans for solutions to address its basic needs, such as food, water, energy and transportation between its large bodies of land. Along the way, many discoveries have been made leading to a greater understanding of the world's largest bodies of water.
The Gulf Stream
During the mid-to-late 1700s, several studies were made of the ocean currents off the east coast of what is now the United States by then statesman Benjamin Franklin. While the actual existence of the Gulf Stream was already known, Franklin sought to understand it better to make use of it as a way of speeding up the delivery of mail between America and Europe. In the course of his studies, Franklin discovered that the many factors such as prevailing winds, the planet's rotation and the colder currents below and around the Gulf Stream were actually responsible for its direction and speed.
The Challenger Expedition
The Challenger Expedition between 1872 and 1876 was organized to study and gather data on ocean features such as seafloor geology, ocean currents, seawater chemistry and marine life. One of the expedition's greatest discoveries was of the Marianas Trench in the western pacific, which is over four miles deep. The deepest point in all the world's oceans lies in the same part of the pacific, within the Marianas Trench itself. It extends down to 37,800 feet and is now called the Challenger Deep.
Plate Tectonics
In 1915, the continental drift theory was proposed by a German scientist named Alfred Wegener. Due to findings at the time of similar animal and plant fossils in Africa and South America, as well as other continents, the suggestion was made that at one time all of these land masses were part of a single formation that had drifted apart over time. The shapes of these various continents did appear upon observation as though their coastlines could have fit together very neatly at one time. Later discoveries incorporating both the continental drift theory and another hypothesis on seafloor spreading led to the theory of plate tectonics. This theory suggests that the earth's crust is divided into large pieces that "float" upon another layer of rock called the asthenosphere. In this layer, rocks are under such heat and pressure that they behave much like a liquid upon which the plates themselves move. The theory of plate tectonics has since become the unifying theory that explains the movements and formations of the earth's surface.
Hydrothermal Vents
In 1977, hydrothermal vent communities were discovered, leading to the further discovery of hundreds of previously unknown species of marine life, including tube worms and giant clams. These vent sites, which are located at the ocean bottom where there is no light, were actually found to be plentiful with life. Further discoveries showed that the water's chemistry provided energy for such life forms in the same way that the sun provides energy for plants on the earth's surface.
North Dakota is still primarily a rural state. It boasts mountains, grasslands and prairies, which all provide an array of ecosystems that support an eclectic list of wildlife. While some species, such as the black-tailed prairie dog and golden eagle, are considered threatened, the state remains a fertile habitat for a wide array of flora and fauna.
Mammals
Lewis and Clark were the first American explorers to note and record some of the wildlife native to North Dakota. Many of the mammals they observed in the wild can be seen in the Dakota Zoo in Bismarck. North Dakota's plains and prairies are home to species such as the American bison, American elk, bighorn sheep, grizzly bear, moose, mule deer, pronghorn antelope, white-tailed deer, wild turkey and red fox.
Birds of Prey
An array of raptors are found throughout North Dakota. The Cooper's hawk makes the state's Pembina Hills and Turtle Mountains home and can be seen from April through October. The northern goshawk is indigenous to the western United States, Canada and Alaska. While they don't breed in the North Dakota, they do winter there. The sharp-skinned hawk is a small raptor, about the size of a blue jay. It's found in the Turtle Mountains and in wooded areas along North Dakota's rivers. The golden eagle, a threatened species, can sometimes be spotted throughout the badlands of North Dakota and the upper reaches of the Missouri River in the western part of the state.
Native Wildflowers: The Bean Family
North Dakota's grasslands and prairies have an abundance of native wildflowers. One of the largest groups is the bean family (Fabaceae) with more than 30 species. Examples include the leadplant, which can be found throughout the state's prairies and is noted for its dark-purple spikes. It can get as tall as 40 inches. The lavender milk-vetch grows statewide and is one of North Dakota's most common milk-vetches. It grows up to 12 inches tall. The white prairie clover is found in nearly every North Dakota County. It appears between mid-June and August and was used by Native Americans for food, teas, dyes and arrow shafts. The golden pea, or false lupine, is a plains dweller found in eastern North Dakota. Ten inches tall with golden-yellow flowers, its reputed to be poisonous to livestock and humans.
Native Wildflowers: The Lily and Rose Families
After the bean family, the lily family (Liliaceae) and rose family (Rosaceae) are some of the most common species of native flowers in North Dakota. The lily family boasts over 3,800 species and 310 genera, such as the edible onion, garlic and asparagus. Some of the most common lily genera native to North Dakota include the white wild onion, the mariposa lily, the wild lily, white camas and the narrowleaved death camas. Wildflowers in the rose family that are North Dakota natives include little rose, tall cinquefoil, early cinquefoil, purple avens and prairie wild rose -- the state's official flower.
Tags: North Dakota, most common, native North Dakota, bean family, found throughout
Geologists are always interested in the exact age of the rock and mineral samples which they are working with. While there are several different methods of determining a rock's age (such as examining the layer it is found in), the most reliable measure currently available to geologists is measuring the radioactive decay in isotopes found in a rock. This is referred to as "dating" a rock by the half-life of its isotopes. However, this process can be much more difficult than most people think it is.
Isotopes and Radioactive Decay
An isotope is an atom of a chemical element whose nucleus has the same atomic number but which has a different atomic weight. What this means is that an isotope can be thought of as a different version of a standard element on the periodic table. Due to its difference though, isotopes are atomically unstable, and prone to change into other, more stable elements. This process is referred to as radioactive decay. The rate at which radioactive decay occurs is that particular isotope's half-life. Just what all of that means is simple--once you get past the scientific terminology.
Measurement
The half-life of an isotope is how long it will take for half of the atoms present to decay and form another, more stable element. For instance, if there are 100 atoms of an isotope with a half-life of 20 years, then in 20 years there will be 50 atoms of it left. In another 20 years, there will be 25 atoms of it, and so on. This is an important process for geologists. If they find an isotope in a rock, along with all the atoms of the element the isotope decays into, then they can figure out how much of the original isotope has decayed. If they also know the rate of that decay, or the half-life, then they can determine how long this process took, and thus figure out the age of the rock.
Tags: radioactive decay, years there will, more stable, then they, there will
Weight scales are an important instrument in the science laboratory.
Scientific weight scales are one of the most important instruments in the laboratory.They are used to measure the weight and mass of many different kinds of solids, liquids or powders. Assessing and recording weights is a necessary procedure across the spectrum of the scientific disciplines. Accurately determining the weights of chemicals is a crucial aspect of a chemistry lab. It can make the difference between a successful reaction or a failed experiment. Scientific weight scales are available in a variety of types, though they all perform the same function.
Digital Scales
Digital scales give fast measurements and have easy-to-read automatic liquid crystal displays. They use advanced electronic circuitry to give a quick, accurate readout. Digital scales come in all sizes with a variety of weight capacities. Because of their internal electronics they must be kept dry and can't be used in humid or wet areas. Most digital scales have an accuracy range of .1 gram to .01 gram Some digital scales have the advantage of using an AC adaptor so they can be plugged into an electrical outlet, saving money on batteries. Most battery-powered digital scales come with automatic shutoff, extending the lifespan of the batteries. Digital scales often feature auto and user calibration, last weight memory and techtronic sensoring capabilities.
Pan Scales
Pan scales are a widely used type of analogue or digital scale. They are easy to transport and are often used for weighing specimens in the field. They are a sturdy type of scale and will stand up to rough handling. Analogue pan scales are fairly accurate and are not susceptible to moisture damage. The pan can be removed and is handy for pouring off granular substances like gold dust. Pan scales come in a variety of designs and configurations.
Platform Scales
Platform scales have a higher weight capacity than most other types of scientific scales and are useful for weighing heavy bulk materials. Floor platform scales are used in geology labs for weighing large rocks and minerals that would destroy or damage smaller scales. Platform scales can be either digital or analogue and range in size from small bench types to very large outdoor models capable of handling objects weighing multiple tons. Platform scales generally sacrifice accuracy for volume.
Balance Scales
Balance scales were a widely used staple of science labs before the invention of digital scales. They were the first precision mass measuring instrument invented. They consist of a pivoting horizontal lever with weighing pans suspended from the equal-length arms. The object being weighed is placed on one weighing pan, while weights of known masses are placed on the other until they reach equilibrium and the beam balances.
Tags: digital scales, scales come, scales have, Digital scales, digital scales have, Platform scales
A gas engineer, known also as a petroleum engineer or oil and gas engineer, specializes in designing ways to obtain gas and oil from deep within the earth. The engineer works alongside geologists to identify the properties and formation of the rock holding the oil and gas. With this information the engineer is able to design a mechanism for maximizing the release of these natural resources. In the U.S., petroleum and gas engineering jobs are concentrated in areas with large oil and gas deposits such as Louisiana, Texas, Alaska, Oklahoma and California.
Instructions
1. Get a college degree. Entry level positions in petroleum engineering require applicants to have a bachelor's degree in engineering. The most direct way to become a gas engineer is by obtaining a bachelor's degree in petroleum engineering. However, students with a math or natural sciences degree such as geology may also qualify for gas engineering jobs.
2. Obtain an engineering technology degree. An alternative to an engineering degree, engineering technology degrees can be obtained as a two- or four-year degree plan. Technology degrees focus on practical production and design engineering instead of gas engineering jobs requiring more science and theory.
3. Get licensed. Check with your state's board of engineers to find out whether you qualify to receive professional licensing and the right to legally call yourself an engineer. Each state will have its own process, application and fees for licensing. Expect some combination of education and work experience requirements, a fee and the passing of engineering exams managed by the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying. Personal and work references and a state ethics exam may be additional requirements. Expect to pay from $150 to $250 for the licensing fees. Exam fees may be an additional cost.
4. Get certified as a petroleum engineer. Certification can increase your visibility and recognition in the petroleum industry. The Society of Petroleum Engineers offers a petroleum engineer certification to its members. The certification uses a combination of requirements including education, work experience, examination and proof of ethics and professionalism in the form of peer recommendations and references. The certification fee is $125 with an annual $40 fee for renewal.
The Permian horsetail plant is the last surviving genus of the Equisetopsida class that existed over a hundred million years ago. The horsetail plant survived the most massive extinction known to man at the end of the Permian period, when continents shifted and merged, creating one supercontinent. This geological event caused 95 percent of all animal species and many plant species to become extinct. Does this Spark an idea?
The Permian Period
The only survivor of its class
The Permian period was 300 to 250 millions years ago, preceding the Carboniferous period. The early Permian period was the end of an ice age. As continents began to shift, the climate became hotter and drier by the mid-Permian period. This caused swampy areas to dry out, and plants from the carboniferous period were replaced by more heat- and wind-resistant plants like seed ferns and conifers. The Permian horsetail plant survived these changes, but the large horsetail trees that formerly survived in swamps did not.
Classification
Horsetail
The horsetail plant is scientifically classified as from the kingdom of Plantae, from the division of Equisetophyta, class Equisetopsida, order Equisetopsida and family Equisetaceae.
A Relic From the Past
The large group of primitive vascular plants called Equisetophyta, the division containing the horsetail, is considered relictual. Horsetail, the only remaining genus, called Equisetum, means "horse bristle" in Latin.
Survivors of the Permian Period
Many plants that needed a moister climate died off by the end of the Permian period. Herbal club mosses, horsetails and seed ferns lived on but did not fare as well as their predecessors, resulting in diminished physical size. Fossils indicate that ancient horsetail plants were much bigger, even "tree-like," though not to be confused with the ancient Permian horsetail trees, which became extinct by the end of the period.
History
Fossils from the Permian period can be found mostly in Germany and France. The Permian period was named by the Scottish geologist Roderick Murchison in 1841, after the kingdom of Permia in modern day Russia.
Physical Appearance
Horsetails are named for the way they look, resembling a horse's tail with a long stem and hair-like fronds radiating outward. They have whorls and small scale-like leaves with a hollow, jointed stem that carries on photosynthesis within it. Some horsetails have special non-green shoots with a cone shape that bears spores. The horsetail reproduces by alternation of generations. The tropical American species of horsetail (E. gigantum) reaches more than 30 feet (9.1 m) in height. Most other species of horsetail grow to under three feet (91 cm).
Current Regions
The most common types of horsetail grow in North America and Eurasia. E. arvense thrives in dryer climates, while E. hyemale lives in moist, wooded areas. The latter species is used today in cleaning products, and other species are used as herbal remedies. Horsetails are currently found in most temperate and tropical regions, except for New Zealand and Australia.
Tags: horsetail plant, Permian horsetail, Permian period, horsetail grow, horsetail plant survived, horsetail trees, other species
A great science fair project doesn't have to be complex, but it should be original.
The best science fair projects start with original ideas. There are many books and web pages that suggest projects and explain do them, but creative ideas can only come from your head. The best way to find an original idea is to start asking questions. Start with a topic that interests you and think of questions you could answer by experimenting or conducting research. Consider your favorite science lessons over the course of the school year and what questions may have remained unanswered at the end of the lesson. Look at project suggestions in books or articles and use those to develop your own ideas.
Do an Experiment
One of the most common types of science fair projects is to conduct an experiment. To decide on your topic, ask questions about everyday objects and situations. You could compare products such as paper towels, batteries or sodas using the scientific method. In fifth grade, you have probably learned about the scientific method, and you can apply it to any problem you choose. You could study plants grown organically, compare friction between surfaces or train a cat to sit, come and stay like a dog. For your research, you will need to state a specific question, formulate a hypothesis about it and do research to test your hypothesis.
Combine Fields of Science
In fifth grade, you will usually study general science that includes a little bit of many different areas of science. Think about science projects that could combine more than one field of science, such as physics and chemistry or biology and geology. One example of a fictional science experiment that combines geology and biology comes from the novel Jurassic Park, when scientists extract blood from insects that were fossilized in amber during the Jurassic period. Or, for example, you can combine elements of physics and chemistry to build a small rocket.
Build a Model
Some science projects involve building a model to illustrate or explore a scientific principle. Think about ways to be creative with a model project. For example, if you build a model of the solar system, see if you can make it to scale and find a way to make the planets actually orbit around the sun. Again, you should think about what science topics interest you and how you can illustrate them in a unique way. For fifth grade, your model doesn't have to be as elaborate as a high school project would be, but don't be afraid to challenge yourself.
Polish Your Idea
Once you have a basic idea, keep working on ways to make your project original. State the question you are researching and your hypothesis in the simplest way possible, and think about related questions that your project might also need to address. Be thorough and logical and use the scientific method (ask a question, research it, formulate a hypothesis, test the hypothesis, analyze the data). Question all your assumptions and consider the problem from different perspectives. When creating your display for your project, be very clear about what your goals were and what you accomplished with your project.
Tags: your project, scientific method, about what, doesn have, fair projects, fifth grade