Yucatan Peninsula Fact Sheet

The Yucatán is as famous for its Mayan ruins as for its beaches.

The Yucatán peninsula separates the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, in the southernmost part of Mexico. Three federal states share the area: Yucatán, Campeche and Quintana Roo. Parts of Belize and Guatemala are also located on the peninsula. The city of Cancun is located in southeastern Yucatán, in the state of Quintana Roo, together with the majority of the hotels and tourism industry.

Climate, Geology and Beaches

The Yucatán peninsula is a limestone plateau with extensive cave and sinkhole systems. The beaches of the peninsula consist of eroded limestone, which makes a fine, white sand. Most of the coastline is sand beach, with mangrove swamps and limestone cliffs. To the north of the peninsula, in the Gulf of Mexico, the Alvarez theory positions the impact crater of the event that triggered the extinction of the dinosaurs.

The peninsula has a tropical climate, with annual mean temperatures around 80 degrees F, and little variation. Occasionally, hurricanes ravage the area. The Yucatán peninsula is hard to cultivate. The topsoil is sparse and the rainfall, while torrential, soon runs off. The only freshwater resource in the Mayan times were the cenotes, or sinkholes, which dot the area.

History

The Mayan civilization began around 2500 B.C. on the Yucatán peninsula. Between 300 and 900 A.D., several cities were build around the region. In 987, the Toltec arrived, mixed with the Maya, and eventually came to dominate.

Mayan culture was organized in city-states, which waged war against each other. After successfully dominating the other cities, the city of Mayapan and the Cocom tribe came to rule the area until the mid-13th century, when most cities were abandoned, probably due to failing harvests. The Spanish explorers arrived in 1511, after several attempts conquering the peninsula in 1537. More than 30 Franciscan convents were built for the use of missionaries, converting the natives to Catholicism.

Several rebellions followed the harsh treatment of the Indians, but were all repressed. When Mexico was liberated from Spain, the Yucatán peninsula was initially made an independent area within Mexico, turned into Mexican states during the first half of the 19th century. The first years of statehood saw several conflicts, not just federalist-centralist and liberal-conservative, but also indigenous rebellions. The latest rebellion was in 1937, which led the federal government to enact extensive land reform, awarding Indians communal lands.

Economic development has been uneven in the three states. The tourism industry has brought an economic boom to Quintana Roo, where it is concentrated in the city of Cancun.

Hotels, Tourism and Transport

Flights to the Yucatán peninsula arrive not only from Mexico, but also from the United States and several destinations in Europe, primarily into the Cancún international airport. There are also international airports in M rida, Cozumel and Chetumal; and a national airport in Campeche.

From Cancún, a toll road with four lanes crosses the peninsula and passes through M rida toward the state of Campeche. There are seven toll booths and security controls at the state borders. The majority of the hotel rooms in the area are located in Cancún and Cozumel, in the state of Quintana Roo, which since tourist development started in the 1970s has developed into a major travel destination with an international airport.

Campeche

The state of Campeche is probably named for the Mayan words meaning "snake" and "ticks." The capitol of the state is Campeche, and it became a Mexican state in 1862. The state covers an area of 21,926 square miles, making it the same size as the U.S. state of Iowa. Campeche has 252 miles of coastline and includes the Isla del Carmen, Jaina, Triángulo, and Cayo Arcas.

The mountains of Campeche are in the northern and eastern parts of the state, with a flat plain stretching to the south. There are several small lakes, apart from the ubiquitous cenotes, and many lagoons along the coast, as well as several rivers. The state has about 600, 000 inhabitants, 85 percent of which have Spanish as their first language, the first language of the rest being Mayan. Most people are Roman Catholics.

Yucatán State

The Yucatán became a Mexican state in 1824. Its capital is M rida. The state has an area of 16,749 square miles. Geographically, it consists mostly of lowland, sitting on a limestone bed riddled with sinkholes and underground lakes. The coast has long white sand beaches and mangrove forests. Small rainforest areas can be found at the border with Campeche.

The state of Yucatán has a population of about 1,600,000. Most people have Spanish as their first language, with about 37 percent speaking native languages. Seventy-five percent of the population is Roman Catholic. The state economy is focused on services, food processing, and textiles. There are a few assembly plants owned by U.S. companies.

The state capital of M rida was built on top of ancient Mayan ruins. Mayan stones were used in the construction of the cathedral.

Quintana Roo

The Mexican state of Quintana Roo was separated from Yucatán and made into an autonomous state in 1931. It sits at the easternmost part of the Yucatán Peninsula. The state covers 16,228 square miles. The capital is Chetumal. There are appoximately 900, 000 people living in the state, most being Spanish-speakers, with about 23 percent speaking Mayan and other native languages. About 63 percent of the population are Roman Catholics.

The geography is generally flat, with the southwest part of the state rising 660 feet above the sea. The coastline is long and has white beaches, and a coral reef. The coastline has several lagoons, and inland there are caves and sinkholes known as cenotes.

The industry is dominated by tourism which is the source of about 90 percent of the economic activity of the state. Between 25 and 28 percent of all Mexican tourism goes to Cancún.

Nature and Agriculture

The eastern part of the Yucatan peninsula is dry, with little vegetation. In the western part, there is some rainforest in Campeche, including the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, with about 400 jaguars. The most common trees are cedar, ceiba, pich and poak trees. Common animals are are anteaters, porcupines and raccoons. Pumas, jaguars, and long-tailed monkeys can be found in the rainforest areas. Parrots, macaws, cardinals and bluebirds are common birds.

Apart from the rainforest, there are four different ecosystems in the Yucatán peninsula: forests, savanna, mangroves and reefs. In the forest, the most common trees are mahogany, cedars, East Indian rosewoods and palm trees. The most common animals are anteaters, spider monkeys, white-tailed deer, and a type of dog called tepezcuintles. Common birds are turkeys, parrots, doves and nightingales.

In the drier savanna, the vegetation is pastureland and bushes. The mangrove swamps are found along the coast, with amphibian or aquatic animals like herons, pelicans, ducks, manatees and alligators. The limestone reef is a maritime ecosystem, with various fish and coral. Most of the peninsula is heavily cultivated. The major crops are corn, beans, sorghum, oranges, mangoes and lemons. Primary livestock is cattle, pigs, and horses. Due to the fruit cultivation, the Yucatan peninsula is a supplier of honey.

Along the coast, fishing is important. Main catches are sea bass, octopus and shark.

Tags: Yucat peninsula, first language, Mexican state, most common, square miles, state Campeche, state Quintana

Salary Range Of An Explosives Engineer In Kansas

Explosives engineers and technicians are constantly vigilant about worker safety.

There are generally two tracks of explosives engineers and technicians: The first is the explosives technicians who actually prime the charges, set the blasting caps and detonation cord, measure the explosive charge and then set the blast off. These are frequently skilled tradesmen who may or may not have a university education. The second are the mining and geological engineers and related engineering professionals who oversee demolition and explosive activity and direct policies and procedures regarding safety and the employment of explosives.

Where the Jobs Are

Nationwide, the federal government is the largest employer of explosives technicians, with estimated median wages of about $42,400 per year. The military represents the bulk of federal explosives technician employees. Metal ore mining, coal mining and natural gas round out the top four employers. Highway, railroad and tunnel contractors and demolition companies also hire explosive technicians.

Explosive Technicians

Explosive technicians frequently come from the ranks of the military, or from specialized trade schools that serve the mining and construction industries. Because the job is potentially extremely hazardous, these workers must undergo extensive training before they can work independently. They frequently work in the military, in mining, or for pyrotechnical companies such as fireworks companies. The Bureau of Labor Statistics does not list wages for Kansas, specifically, but wages in the neighboring states of Colorado and Missouri average $23.63 and $20 per hour, respectively. Entry level wages nationwide for this profession start around $14 to $15, with the top 10 percent earning upwards of $31.00 per hour. Those with additional specialized skills, such as underwater demolition, can make more.

Mining and Geological Engineers

Mining and geological engineers typically possess a broader education than explosives technicians, and are often charged with designing, implementing and supervising explosives handling and blasting procedures, among other mine safety programs. Their role is generally managerial in nature. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median salary for a mining and geological engineer in Kansas is $69,950 per year.

Where the Engineer-Level Jobs Are

The federal government employs far fewer engineer-level explosives experts than at the technician level. Instead, the top industries hiring explosives experts at this level of education include architecture and engineering firms, which often subcontract their engineering expertise to the government or private companies. Metal and coal mining come in second and third, respectively, in the number of mining and petroleum engineer employees. Not all of these engineers are routinely employed in demolitions and explosives, however.

Tags: explosives technicians, Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor Statistics, coal mining, engineers technicians, explosives experts, federal government

Important Landforms & Bodies Of Water In New York

Mountain range

New York has many notable landforms and bodies of water, including mountainous terrain, lakes and rivers. Several of these formations are part of large mountain or waterway systems that in some cases extend well beyond New York's territory. Some of these naturally occurring formations also form a natural border between New York and another state; or form a part of the border between New York and the neighboring country of Canada.

Mountains

The largest, most significant New York landform is that of mountainous terrain. Subdivided into smaller mountain groupings, mountains of the vast Appalachian Mountain system cover large areas of New York, extending beyond New York State territory into Vermont, New Hampshire and southern Canada. In the southwestern portion of New York, you find mountains from the lower ranges of the Allegheny Plateau. In the eastern portion of the state, you find the Catskill and Adirondack mountain ranges. Located in the Adirondack range is the Ausable Chasm formation, informally known as the "Grand Canyon of the East" according to the Travellady website. Mount Marcy is the highest point in the state, as described at the Worldatlas website.

Lakes

New York has many notable lakes with Lake Champlain, which also borders the Ausable Chasm formation, perhaps the most well-known. The Finger Lakes region extends from the Pennsylvania border to the southern shore of Lake Ontario and covers 9,000 square miles of area. The Finger Lakes area incorporates 11 parallel lakes that, on a map or from the air, resemble a giant handprint as described at the Fingerlakes website. This region also encompasses Lake Ontario, one of the five great lakes, as well as the Erie Canal. Other important New York lakes include Lake Oneida and Lake George.

Rivers

The most important rivers within New York state include the Mohawk, the Hudson and the Genesee. An important state borderline river is the Delaware. The Hudson River has a 306-mile length. The Mohawk River drains into the Hudson. The Genesee drains into Lake Ontario (as also do the Black and Oswego rivers, all located in the western or central regions of the state). Another important river, as described at the Mapsofworld website is the Saint Lawrence river, part of an overall seaway that includes a total amount of almost 300 miles of frontage along Lake Erie and Lake Ontario.

Niagara

Perhaps the most well-known formation in New York is Niagara Falls. Niagara Falls is a series of three separate waterfall formations at the New York/Canadian border: Horseshoe Falls on the Canadian side is also known as Canada Falls; and on the United States side you will find American Falls and an adjacent, smaller waterfall, Bridal Veil Falls: as described at the Worldatlas website.

Natural Borders

Several of the landforms and water bodies you find in New York share the characteristic of acting as a natural border with another state or with Canada. Lake Champlain forms a natural border with Vermont, the Delaware River forms part of the southern border of New York with Pennsylvania, and the Saint Lawrence River and Niagara Falls each provide natural borders between New York and a portion of Canada.

Tags: Lake Ontario, between York, natural border, Niagara Falls, another state, Ausable Chasm, Ausable Chasm formation

Salary Ranges In The Uae

Salary Ranges in the UAE

With most developing countries experiencing economic contraction, the Persian Gulf states are attracting more and more professionals from around the world. For decades, the Gulf has been a popular destination for the global workforce--ranging from geologists and engineers to manual laborers and nannies.

However, Asia has been a bigger draw for talent until recently, when both the economy and immigration laws kicked in to cause a reversal of trends. The Gulf, and primarily the United Arab Emirates (UAE), continues to defy this new reality--with stable salary growth across the board.

Trends

Despite a looming global recession, salaries in the UAE continued to rise faster than in other markets. Between 2007 and 2008, average salaries in the UAE rose by 13.6 percent, rivaled closely by Qatar at 12.7 percent. Several professions have proven especially lucrative; all related to the region's energy industry and resource management needs.

Attractive Professions

The biggest pay raises in the UAE have been recorded in the construction business--at over 15 percent. Engineers saw their checks grow by 13 percent between 2007 and 2008. Other job categories with growth of over 10 percent include finance, human resources, IT and administration.

Leading Pay Ranges: Managerial

Construction project managers enjoy a median salary of $325,000 a year, while IT project managers get $220,000 on average. Human resources managers can expect around $180,000 per year. All of these come with significant perks, such as housing, travel expenses and medical benefits.

Leading Pay Ranges: Nonmanagerial

Auditors take in a median salary of $150,000 a year, while office managers are under $100,000. Payroll and bookkeeping personnel earn an average $80,000. High school teachers gained about $120,000 a year, and the employees of global banks got almost $150,000.

Gender Issues

UAE salary ranges continue to display a disparity between men and women--men earned an average of $160,000 per year, while women only received $120,000 in compensation. These numbers don't necessarily reflect pay for the same job, rather the average as a whole.

Leave and Time Off

Because most nonlocal professionals working in the UAE are there as "ex-pats," they receive allowances and benefits far more generous than they would in their native countries for doing the same kind of job. In terms of days off and annual leave, the UAE is also quite appealing--new hires get around 3 weeks of leave a year, while those with more than a year on the job generally get a month off every year.

Considerations

Keep in mind that in addition to cultural and political issues, the UAE is also among the most expensive places in the world to live. While salaries there seem generous by U.S standards, the cost of living is equally as high, so the savings rate and standard of living may not rise that much in real terms.

For example, UAE inflation was more than 15 percent in 2008, and rents there went up by 25 percent. Even so, the majority of international talent who's pleased with working in the UAE appears high--studies show 77 percent want to remain there.

Tags: year while, 2007 2008, Leading Ranges, median salary, median salary year, more than

Use A Hematite Pendulum

A pendulum is a dangling divination charm that resembles a piece of jewelry or the pendulum of a clock, hence its name. It is used to try to foretell, or "divine," the future, much like palmistry and tarot card reading. Pendulums come in a wide array of materials, but an interesting one to try is the hematite pendulum stone. Hematite is a spiritually powerful stone believed to bring strength, focus, harmony and protection to the user or wearer. This makes it a protective and safe stone to use as a pendulum.

Instructions

1. Relax and prepare for divining with the pendulum by lighting candles and making any needed prayers or incantations that help you. If you have a spiritual altar, sit there. If not, a table and chair are adequate.

2. Place the pendulum divination board in front of you on a flat surface, with the words on it facing you. Experienced pendulum users don't rely on divination boards, but beginners and those who enjoy the symbolism of the physical presence of the board make use of it. Divination boards are similar to Ouija boards, but instead of letters and numbers, the divination board features the words "yes" and "no" on different parts of the board.

3. Hold the tail of the hematite pendulum between your thumb and forefinger. Use whichever hand is most comfortable for you. Place your elbow on the table near the divination board and elevate your wrist on the same arm. Dangle the pendulum in this position over the center of the board, which is indicated by a small circle. Printed above and below the circle are the words "yes," and on each side of the circle is "no."

4. Ask a simple "yes" or "no" question, such as, "Will I ever get married?"

5. Observe the pendulum while keeping your hand and arm steady. If it swings from side to side and hovers over the part of the board that reads "no," then the answer is no. If it swings forward and back over the "yes" areas, then the answer is yes.

Tags: divination board, hematite pendulum, then answer

Physical Science Activities For Fourth Grade

Fourth-grade students use a variety of science equipment to perform physical science experiments.

Many physical science experiments that fourth graders enjoy are available. Students can experiment with forces and gravity, properties of light and air, see how objects move and observe states of matter. Teachers design classroom activities to give students hands-on experience with the science of the world around them.

Colored Shadows

For this activity, students need a white surface, such as the whiteboard, plus red, green and blue lightbulbs. Students line up the bulbs so that each is facing the white surface. They need to turn the outer two bulbs, so that the light from all three illuminate the same area on the white surface. The best results occur if students put the green bulb in the middle. Turn the room lights off and turn on the colored light bulbs until you obtain the "whitest" light on the white board where the lights are mixing. Now, take an object and place it between the lightbulbs and the white surface. Adjust the distance until three colors are seen on the board. Students will notice the color of the shadows and see that shadows are not always black.

Antacid Tablet Race

Teachers discuss with students that an antacid tablet dissolves in water. Students see which dissolves faster; a whole tablet or one that has been crushed first. Students discuss and make predictions. The teacher writes the class predictions on chart paper on the board. Now, students divide into pairs and each group gets two large antacid tablets, two stopwatches and two glass containers that are half full of water. They place one of the tablets on a piece of paper. Fold the paper in half and crush the tablet into extra small pieces. One partner puts the whole table on a spoon next to one glass of water. The other partner holds the folded paper next to the other glass. At the same time, the partners drop the two tablets into the water and begin their stopwatch. Students observe the tablets and record the dissolving time.

Air Pressure

This experiment demonstrates that air pushes on all surfaces that it touches. The teacher begins with one peeled hard-boiled egg, a match, and a clear glass bottle with an opening at the top that is "just" too small for the egg to fit through. She holds a class discussion reminding students that there is air everywhere, even inside the bottle. Setting the egg on the bottle opening, have students make a prediction. Can the egg be forced into the bottle with just air? The teacher writes the predictions on the board. She removes the egg and carefully drops a lit match into the bottom of the glass jar, quickly replacing the egg back on top of the bottle. The egg seems to be "sucked" into the jar as the air inside becomes hotter than the room air.

Tags: white surface, bottle with, bulbs that, physical science, physical science experiments

Salary Of A Paleobotanist

Paleobotanists study plant fossils to discover how ancient societies lived.

Paleobotanists study fossil plants and the remnants of fossil plants found in rocks and sediments. Through their detective work, they help society unlock the secrets of the past. Paleobotanists can specialize in the study of the origin and evolution of plants or in the study of ancient environments. Paleobotanists are also called systematists, anatomists and morphologists, says Bruce Tiffany, a geological sciences professor at the University of California.

Career Overview

The career opportunities for paleobotanists are good, with the field projected to expand by 15-1/2 percent in the decade between 2008 and 2018. Paleobotanists work in a variety of industries, including oil, gas and coal, education, and museums and national parks. Some paleobotanists work as self-employed consultants. The field of academia is one of the most competitive for paleobotanist and includes teaching, public service, administrative and museum responsibilities. Some positions require paleobotanists to write journal articles or to serve as mentors or on various committees. The amount of field time required varies according to position and industry. Paleobotanists who work in the field need the physical strength and endurance necessary to move and carry heavy specimens and to cross rugged terrains.

Average Salary

The average salary in 2011 for paleobotanists working in the U.S. is $64,110, which equates to $30.82 per hour. The average salary for paleobotanists differs by location, according to ERI Economic Research Institute's Salary Expert calculator. Paleobotanists living in Texas tend to earn the highest salaries. In Houston, the average salary of a paleobotanist is $121,649. In Dallas, the average salary is $96,839. Paleobotanists living in Indianapolis, Orlando, Florida, Phoenix, Charlotte and Atlanta earn between $51,000 and $60,000 on average. In New York, Chicago and Miami, the average pay is between $60,000 and $62,000 annually.

Entry Salary

The entry-level salary for paleobotanists is generally represented in the lowest 10 percent of the pay scale. In Nebraska, the entry rate is $13.46 an hour or $27,990 annually. In Vermont, the beginning salary is considerably higher at $23.84 an hour and $49,580 annually.

Top Salary

The pay scale for paleobotanists can exceed six figures, according to Salary Box. In North Carolina, the average pay rate in the top 10 percent of earners is $107,750 or $51.80 per hour, and in Pennsylvania, it is $102,660. Maryland is one of the highest paying states for paleobotanists with an average salary of $142,090. In other states, the top 10 percent earn between $70,000 and $110,000.

Tags: average salary, average salary, earn between, fossil plants, hour annually

Boat Trips To Hawaii

Hawaii is a scenic destination.

The varied geological wonders such as active volcanoes are one reason the islands of Hawaii are vacation destinations that are sought out by travelers, surfers, and volcanologists from all over the globe. With six major islands that include Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui and the Big Island, there are attractions unique to each area. For anyone wanting to travel to Hawaii by boat, there are different cruise lines that cater to travelers.

Carnival Cruise Lines

Carnival Cruise Lines has either twelve or fifteen-day Hawaiian cruises available that allows you to partake in regional activities while on land that include scuba-diving, horseback riding and seeing the island via a helicopter tour. The twelve night cruises depart from either Honolulu or Ensenada, Mexico.Cruises that run fifteen nights in durations depart from either San Diego or Los Angeles, California.Carnival has over 20 ships in its fleet and the Carnival Spirit is used for all Hawaiian cruises. The Spirit has 1,062 staterooms to choose from, as well as twelve different decks. On-board attractions include a casino, the Twister Waterslide and spa.

Carnival Cruise Lines

888-227-6482

carnival.com

Princess Cruises

Fourteen-day Hawaiian cruises that depart from Los Angeles are available through Princess Cruises. Departures are also available from Vancouver for the ten day cruise. The fourteen-day boat trip has an itinerary that includes destinations such as Hilo, Kauai, Honolulu and Maui, Hawaii, as well as Ensenada, Mexico. The Hawaiian cruises that depart from Los Angeles are on either the Golden Princess or Sapphire Princess ships. The Sapphire princess has a capacity of 2,670 with amenities like an Internet caf , library and specialty restaurants. Golden Princess amenities include an outdoor movie theater and a piazza-style atrium.

Princess Cruises

800-774-6237

princess.com

Royal Caribbean

Royal Caribbean has itineraries for Hawaiian adventures that range from eleven to thirteen nights in duration. All cruises to Hawaii depart from either Oahu or Vancouver. Either the Radiance of the Seas or the Rhapsody of the Seas is the ship used during these trips.Ports of call on all of these boat trips include Mount Kilauea, Honolulu, Kauai and Lahaina that is in Maui. There are different ship highlights such as the rock-climbing wall, six whirlpools and youth facilities on the Rhapsody of the Seas. In addition to the rock-climbing wall, The Radiance of the Seas also features a indoor/outdoor country club with golf simulator.

Royal Caribbean

866-562-7625

royalcaribbean.com

Tags: depart from, Hawaiian cruises, Carnival Cruise, Carnival Cruise Lines, Cruise Lines

Make A Model Of The Silurian Period

Sea life evolved drastically during the Silurian period.

The Silurian period was part of the Paleozoic area that occurred between 443 and 417 million years ago, following the Ordovician period. The Silurian period was important due to the evolutionary development of both aquatic life and plant life. Eurypterids, or sea scorpions, were the dominant predators of the ocean. Coral reefs and fish both evolved dramatically, as well. The most amazing development of the Silurian period, however, was the movement of plants from the ocean to land. Mosses and Cooksonia, a primitive plant without leaves, began to grow on land, leading to plant life as we know it today. You can easily build a model displaying the highlights of this interesting period.

Instructions

Researching the Silurian Period

1. Research the Silurian period; specifically, the plant and aquatic life. Study as many pictures of plant, shell and other aquatic life as you can find either at the library or online. Brachiopods, including the pentamerids, rhynchonellids and athyridids, were the most common hard-shelled organizisms. Stromatoporoids, bryozoa and rugose corals began building up sea reefs. Planktonic graptolites, which were common in the previous Ordovician period, remained plentiful, even as jawless fish and Eurypterids, or sea scorpions, began to evolve. At the same time, Rhyniophytes, Lycophytes and Myriapods developed and became the first forms of life to reach the land. Choose a few of these representative life forms to display in your model, some plant and some animal.

2. Use a copy machine to copy pictures of plant and animal life during the Silurian period, or save the pictures on your computer and print them. To save a picture on your computer, simply right-click on the picture, select Save, and choose a directory or folder. Right-click on the saved file, choose Open With, select "Paint," and view your picture. Click on "File" and then "Print." Adjust the print screen according to your printer's specifications, and make sure your printer is hooked up to your computer and has paper. Print several small-scale images, several medium-scale images, and several large-scale images. A variety of image sizes will lend to a three-dimensional effect later on.

3. Set your copied or printed pictures aside for the time being.

Creating the Model Base

4. Choose a cardboard box. Ideally, the box should be rectangular in shape, no more than two feet long, and no more than two feet in height. The depth of the box should be about one to two feet.

5. Use a craft knife or scissors to cut away the flaps from the top of the cardboard box.

6. Cut away one of the long sides of your box. Do not cut away the bottom of the box or the short sides of the box. The long side of the box that you cut away should be adjacent to the opening of the box. You should end up with a structure that has two adjacent long sides intact, two short sides intact, and two of the longer sides of the box cut away.

7. Cut pieces of blue craft paper, otherwise known as construction paper, to fit the three vertical sides. The construction paper will act as a backdrop for your model ocean. You might want to cut and add additional pieces of paper to the background to represent the Stromatoporoids and other coral structures, as well.

8. Set the box on its side with the open end up. Coat the edges of the open end with hot glue. Apply a piece of clear, thick plastic to the glue. You can also add details to the inside of the plastic before you glue it to the box. Sparsely sprinkled glitter, attached with clear drying craft glue, can represent Planktonic graptolites, and a little green tissue paper can represent various forms of algae. Don't overdo it, however, as you want the rest of your creations to be visible within your model Silurian ocean.

9. Cut away the excess clear plastic after the glue has dried. Set your box on its base once more. You should have an open top, three side panels, and one long panel of clear plastic.

10. Set the box so that the clear plastic makes up one of the sides and the opening is facing up. Pour some craft sand into your box. You can purchase craft sand at craft stores or hobby shops.

11. Place shells on top of the sand that lines your model's base. Snail or unicorn horn shells work well for the Silurian time period. Choose shells that look as similar to the Brachiopods pictured in the Silurian period research you did in Section 1. If real shells are not available, you can use craft clay to fashion your own models. Craft clay is available in a wide range of colors at any well-stocked craft store.

Adding Life to the Model

12. Use a pair of scissors to cut out the fish you copied or printed in Section 1. Glue them to poster board or cardboard for extra sturdiness. Cut the poster board or cardboard to the same size as the fish. You can also use clay or pipe cleaners to fashion your aquatic Silurian organisms.

13. Cut a length of wire about eight to ten inches long. Bend one end about three inches from the tip of the wire, and form a loop at a right angle from the remaining wire. Glue the poster board or cardboard mounted fish and aquatic organisms to the straight end of the wire. If you used clay to create your organisms, simply insert the end of the wire into the base of the clay figure before it has dried fully. If you used pipe cleaners, wrap a piece of the base pipe cleaner around the wire stand.

14. Place the loop end of the wire in the sand, situating it so that the sand covers the base. The picture of the organism should be facing the clear plastic that covers the front of the model.

15. Repeat steps 1 through 3 for as many fish or other Silurian life forms as you like. Fill your model Silurian sea with plenty of Brachiopods, rugose corals, Stromatoporoids, Gastropods, Eurypterids and any other Silurian life that strikes your fancy.

16. Add aquarium plants around the aquatic life. You can purchase aquarium plants at most pet stores. Anemone-shaped plants work well for representing the Silurian period. Take the pictures copied or printed in Section 1 to the pet store with you and choose aquarium plants that look similar to the plants in the pictures. You can use scissors to trim the aquarium plants for a more accurate portrayal. Most aquarium plants have bases that can be covered in sand to keep them standing upright. If they do not stand upright easily, use a bit of glue to secure them to the bottom of the model, then cover the base with additional craft sand.

17.Label your model. You can cut small pieces of paper or poster board, label, and attach them directly to your individual organisms, or you can attach labels to the outside of the model, choosing the location of the labels depending on where the organism is visible from. Another option is to simply make a key. Use a colored marker to draw a small dot on each organism. Draw a dot of each colored use on the key, and label the organisms according the the matching color. You want everyone who views your model to know which Silurian life forms you are displaying in your model.

Tags: your model, aquarium plants, aquatic life, clear plastic, poster board, Silurian period

Small Pennsylvania Colleges

Small Pennsylvania Colleges

In addition to its large public universities, like Penn State and the University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania is home to a number of small colleges, some of which have undergraduate enrollments of fewer than 1,500 students. Consisting of both religious and nonsectarian institutions, these small colleges feature small class sizes and grant both undergraduate and graduate-level degrees. Some of Pennsylvania's small colleges are also among the top-rated schools in the region within their areas of specialty.

Moore College of Art and Design

Located in Philadelphia, the Moore College of Art and Design is a nonsectarian fine arts school for women. The college has less than 650 undergraduate students at its urban campus. To receive admission to the school, all applicants must submit a portfolio that demonstrates their artistic skills. Among the Bachelor of Fine Arts degrees awarded at the school are graphic design, illustration, painting, sculpture, art education, interior design, fashion design and textile technology. All students complete for credit internships or paid-cooperative placements prior to graduation. Study abroad and domestic design trips are offered for students on a regular basis. Federal and state financial aid opportunities are available for eligible students.

Moore College of Art and Design

20th and the Parkway

Philadelphia, PA 19103

215-965-4015

moore.edu

Bryn Athyn College of the New Church

The General Church of the New Jerusalem founded Bryn Athyn College of the New Church in 1877 in a suburban area 15 miles from Philadelphia. The college has less than 175 undergraduate and graduate students and grants bachelor's degrees in biology, English, education, history and religion. Also awarded are Master of Arts in religion and Master of Divinity degrees. Internships and co-operative work placements are available for interested students. Through study abroad, students can spend a semester in China, France, Germany, Korea, Scotland, Sweden or Turkey. Students can also receive course credit for completing community service or volunteer work through the college's service learning program. Bryn Athyn sponsors seven intercollegiate sports teams and is home to one Greek sorority and 17 student groups and organizations, according to the 2009 Barron's Profiles of American Colleges.

Bryn Athyn College of the New Church

2965 College Drive

P.O. Box 717

Bryn Athyn, PA 19009

267-502-2511

brynathyn.edu

Haverford College

In 2010, U.S. News & World Report named Haverford College the 10th best liberal arts schools in the U.S. Situated just 10 miles from Philadelphia, the school is home to less than 1,200 students. Admission to the schools is highly selective; less than 30 percent of those who apply receive an invitation to enroll, reports the 2009 Barron's Profiles of American Colleges. The college's bachelor's programs in biology, astronomy, chemsitry, geology, physics, English and history are among its highest rated, while its political science program is one of its largest. All students complete an internship or independent research project prior to graduation. The college's study abroad program includes placements in 3 colleges, and the school offers self-designed majors for students. Twenty-two intercollegiate sports teams are based on campus as well as more than 150 student groups.

Haverford College

370 Lancaster Ave.

Haverford, PA 19041

610-896-1350

haverford.edu

Tags: Bryn Athyn, less than, Athyn College, Athyn College Church, Bryn Athyn College, College Church, College Design

The Definition & Importance Of Science Investigatory Projects

Even young children can begin to learn the basics of the scientific method.

Scientists range across all experience levels and all branches of science. Students beginning at the most elementary level of science studies may conduct investigatory projects both for routinely assigned classroom projects and for entry in a science fair. Practicing professional scientists also conduct investigatory projects. The importance of any specific science investigatory project depends on the context, including both the specific scientific discipline and the experience level of the person or team conducting the project.

Description

A science investigatory project involves the use of the scientific method within an area of inquiry. The scientific method is a systematic methodology that includes five steps. The scientist or science student first identifies the problem. He then proposes, or formulates, a potential answer to the problem. At the third step, he tests that proposed answer, also called the hypothesis. As an outcome of testing the hypothesis, he gathers data and conducts an analytical evaluation of that data. Finally, the student or scientist draws conclusions based on the data.

Applications

Science investigatory projects have applications in the social sciences as well as in such physical sciences as chemistry, biology, astronomy, geology and medicine. You may even find important science investigatory projects in disciplines such as economics, statistics and computational finance. Each of these disciplines has the potential to make scientific discoveries that have importance to society.

Importance

Student science investigatory projects provide students practical experience in using the scientific method and help stimulate their interest in scientific inquiry. Given the benefits society can realize from professional scientific inquiry, such goals in themselves have importance. The outcome of a professional science investigatory project often involves a discovery that can improve the lives of people or animals, or protect the environment.

Examples

Examples illustrate how science investigatory projects have practical importance. Investigatory projects at the Free Science Fair website task users to create and complete a project with the objectives and scientific advancement and livelihood development in the experimenter's community.

Tags: investigatory projects, science investigatory, scientific method, investigatory project, science investigatory project, conduct investigatory, conduct investigatory projects

Drill A Well With Horses

A well is a dug hole into the ground for drawing water, oil or gas. If you require a well to supply water for home use or irrigation, you may have to construct a deep well. Instead of digging or driving a shallow well, you can drill a deep one using horses and a horse-drawn rig.

Instructions

1. Carry out a geological study to locate the right place for the well. If it is for water, it should be drilled in soil or soft rock. Review topography maps and nationwide geologic and hydro-geologic maps.

2. Select a location that is away from septic tanks, sewer lines, farm run-off, animal waste or any structure that can contaminate your water sources. A preferred distance should be about 100 feet from an animal yard and 150 feet from a cesspool or drywell.

3. Contact local geologists or water experts to determine whether the water from the location you have selected is fit for human consumption. Have them determine the recharge rate or flow of water in your area and find out how far underground water is located. This will help you to decide on the size of the well you should construct as well as the statistic level of your well once drilled.

4. Dig a shallow hole 5 to 10 feet deep with an augur or posthole digger. Fill the hole with water and allow it to percolate into the soil to soften it. This will ensure that the drill rig penetrates easily into the ground.

5. Harness the horse to a horse-drawn spudder drill rig. This type of rig uses a horse on a treadle, a lever operated by foot.

6. Direct the horse's legs to step on the treadle. Once they step on it repeatedly (as though they are trotting), a heavy wheel mounted on a rotating shaft will begin to move enabling the rig to dig into the ground

7. Direct the drill rod into the hole using your hands. This is to ensure that the well drill penetrates sand, gravel, clay and solid rock formation underground in straight vertical line

8. Control the speed by which the horses step on the treadle. If the drill turns out too fast or pushes too hard, the drill bit may break or wear out. On the other hand, if it does not push hard enough, it will not penetrate solid rock formation. Keep a close watch on the drilling process until water you hit the water.

Tags: into ground, drill penetrates, ensure that, feet from, rock formation

Find Abandoned Gold Mines In Washington

Abandoned mines must be reclaimed to protect water, wildlife and the public from acid mine drainage.

The Bureau of Land Management keeps an inventory of abandoned mine sites for reclamation purposes, to protect water from unencumbered acid mine drainage, and to protect wildlife and the public. An abandoned mine is defined as a site where there is no identifiable owner or operators for the facilities, or the facilities have reverted back to federal ownership. All abandoned mines listed by the BLM are on federal or possibly state-owned lands. There are a few databases to search in order to find abandoned gold mines in Washington.

Instructions

1. Search the bureau's abandoned mine site inventory on public lands, available at each district office. As of 2010, the inventory shows there are 76 abandoned mines in Washington; 40 of these have not been evaluated for reclamation activities, which means the bureau has detailed information on 36 abandoned mines, such as ore grade and production time periods.

2. Review all the open file reports and information circulars produced by the Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources. The division has detailed site characterization reports on certain inactive and abandoned mine lands--specifically, mines that have more than 2,000 feet of underground development and once produced more than 10,000 tons of minerals. Review the summary section of each report to determine if gold ore was produced, and if the mine has been abandoned or is just inactive.

3. Gold mines may have been abandoned when prices were low, making the ore unprofitable to mine.

Search the bureau's Land and Resource Mineral System, specifically, the un-patented mining claims database. The database include surface mineral maps for Washington as well as a listing of un-patented mining claims by location and claimant name. Some of these claims may have expired so while these site are not considered abandoned, gold ores deposits may be located there, however at the time of location, the ore was not considered marketable nor viable to produce and so remained un-patented.

4. Search the United States Geologic Survey Mining Claim Density Database for Washington State. The database contains general location information for each claim within the Public Land Survey System; the type of claim (lode, placer, mill site, tunnel site) and indicates whether the claim is open, held or closed.

5. Cross-reference all information with the records office of the county where abandoned sites are believed to exist. If mining claims had been patented in the past, the title to the land associated with the claim would have passed from the government to the claimant and subsequently recorded by the county official. The last step will help locate mines that are not currently inventoried as abandoned, but claimants may have died or operators are no longer in business, leaving the mine site unencumbered.

Tags: abandoned mine, abandoned mines, mining claims, abandoned gold, acid mine, acid mine drainage, been abandoned

Things To Do In Death Valley National Park

Governed by the National Park Service, Death Valley National Park is the hottest and driest of the national parks in the United States. The park contains more than 5,000 square miles and includes a variety of species of plants and animals that have adapted to the severe desert dwelling. Each year more than 700,000 visitors flock to the Death Valley National Park to appreciate the unique geology, wildlife, historic locations and breathtaking views.

Hiking

Death Valley National Park offers miles and miles of trails and routes for hiking and walking. The majority of paths travel along canyons or ridges where footing can be rocky. The Badwater Salt Flats extend five miles across and allow travelers to visit the nation's lowest elevation at 282 feet below sea level. Darwin Falls is a one-mile trail that contains waterfalls and abundant vegetation nestled inside of a rugged canyon. For more experienced and adventurous hikers, Telescope Peak is a seven-mile trail that takes visitors to the highest elevation at the park at more than 11,000 feet.

Furnace Creek Visitor Center

An indoor activity includes a visit discover the history of Death Valley National Park at the Furnace Creek Visitor Center and Museum. The center is open daily year-round and offers continuous 15-minute slide presentations throughout the course of the day. In the winter season, rangers provide presentations about the cultural and natural history of the national park. The center also contains displays concerning the geology, climate, wildlife and history of Death Valley National Park.

Mountain Biking

Cycling enthusiasts can take advantage of the more than 700 miles of dirt and paved roads available for mountain biking. Bicycles can be used on any park road that is open public traffic. Riders are forbidden to ride on hiking trails. Mountain bikers can choose from a variety of roads that vary in degree of difficulty. Biking routes also vary in length, as some are as short as one mile. At 40 miles long, West Side Rod is the park's longest bike route. Along the way, riders can enjoy picturesque views.

Devil's Golf Course

Not an actual golf course, Devil's Golf Course is the largest salt pan in the United States. A salt pan is a level ground covered with salt. The jagged surface of Devil's Golf Course is created by enormous salt crystals. The name is taken from a 1934 guide book that suggested that only the devil could play golf on the terrain. Devil's Golf Course is a vast area of rock salt worn away by wind and precipitation that formed rugged spires. The salt and gravel beds of Devil's Golf Course stretch to depths of more than 1,000 feet. In wet weather, Devil's Golf Course is closed.

Scotty's Castle

Scotty's Castle, also known as Death Valley Ranch, is a two-story Spanish-style mansion built as a vacation home in the early 1900s. Living history tours of the castle, conducted by park ranges clad in 1930s grab, take visitors into the intricately furnished structure. The tour includes a visit to the Upper Music Room, where visitors can hear the sounds of an organ with more than 1,000 pipes. An Underground Mystery Tour offer visitors the chance to walk through a labyrinth of tunnels located in the castle's basement. Rangers display the castle's famous hydro-electric power technology that allowed residents to enjoy amenities, including an electric piano and organ. The castle is listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.

Tags: Death Valley, Death Valley National, Devil Golf, Devil Golf Course, Golf Course, more than

Obsidian Vs Granite

Mt. Rushmore is made of granite.

Obsidian and granite are igneous rocks, so-called because they were formed from the molten magma of volcanoes. Beyond that, their similarities end. Obsidian is not a genuine mineral or "rock." It is a natural glass that contains microscopic mineral crystals. Granite, the most common rock on the continental crust, is composed of visible crystals of feldspar, mica, quartz and other minerals. Does this Spark an idea?

Obsidian

An obsidian arrowhead.

Obsidian contains 70 percent or more of silicon dioxide. It sometimes is classified as a mineraloid, meaning that it does not have the identifying crystal structure of a true mineral. Mineraloids may be liquid or solid. Mercury at normal temperatures is a mineraloid and so are pearls. Obsidian usually is black, although it can be brown or green. Black and brown sometimes join in swirls of color. Trace elements can result in blue, orange, red or yellow obsidian, and the surface sometimes can have a metallic sheen. Obsidian is chemically unstable, so white or gray crystals occasionally form on the interior. As a form of glass, obsidian shatters into pieces with sharp edges.

Granite

On the surface, granite is exposed most often as the core of mountains. Stone Mountain, Georgia; Pikes Peak and the sides of Yosemite Valley in California are composed of granite. The crystals in granite are large enough to be seen with the naked eye and give granite its distinctive rough surface. Feldspar accounts for 10 to 50 percent of these minerals. Granite can range from pink to gray depending on the minerals it contains. Pink granite contains at least 20 percent quartz. Granite is dense, strong and tough, making it useful for construction.

Origins

Volcanoes erupt some obsidian as slow moving liquid, but the highest quality obsidian forms in vents just below the surface, so it is not contaminated by ash and dirt. Obsidian cools in hours or days. Granite cools miles underground over thousands to millions of years. This slow cooling allows the identifying crystals to form.

Uses

Obsidian breaks into curved fragments that have sharp edges. Archiac peoples used fractured obsidian as cutting tools and to make scrapers, knives and arrowheads. Obsidian is used as the cutting edge of some modern surgical instruments, and it sometimes is made into jewelry. Granite can bear heavy loads, resists scratching and weathering, and can be polished to a brilliant shine. The properties of granite make it useful for tombstones, buildings, bridges, stair treads, counter tops, floor tiles and monumental sculpture. The pyramids at Giza in Egypt are made of granite. The American presidents on Mt. Rushmore also are carved in granite.

Tags: granite Obsidian, made granite, sharp edges

Salary For A Research Lab Technician

Technicians work with lab equipment, take down observations and record data.

Lab technicians have more procedural responsibilities in research labs than their scientist co-workers according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. While scientists may decide what experiments to run or adjust procedures, technicians are responsible for setup and operation of equipment, observation and note-taking, and recording and calculation of results. How much you make in this role depends what kind of lab you work for. Technicians work in a number of roles, including geological sample testing, biology, chemistry, food science, nuclear science and environmental science.

The Highest Paid Positions

Technicians in nuclear research labs make the most, bringing home a mean hourly wage of $32.07 per hour, or $66,700 per year. These research professionals help nuclear physicists with equipment operation and maintenance, and also ensure that quality control procedures get followed. Geologic and petroleum technicians also net respectable salaries. Responsible for testing soil samples, charting characteristics of drill holes and collecting information to help find new excavation sites, these technicians make an average of $28.08 per hour, a yearly salary of $58,400 per year.

Middle of the Road

Technicians working in chemistry research make a modest living, earning an average of $21.11 per hour or $43,900 per year. Good news for those interested in protecting the environment is that environmental science and protection technicians earn a decent living while also helping to investigate pollution and its causes. They take home $20.92 per hour on average, or $43,520 annually. Biological lab technicians, who might help research anything from animals to prescription drug effects, can expect to make $19.78 per hour, equivalent to $41,140 yearly.

Lower-Paid Positions

Agricultural and food scientist technicians may assist with anything from animal breeding to crop optimization to development of new packaged products, depending on their industry. They get paid a little less than other professionals for their efforts, making about $17.72 per hour or $36,850. Of all technicians profiled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, forest and conservation technicians take home the least, earning an average of $17.49 per hour -- about $36,370 annually.

Wages Aren't the Only Factor

If you know a career as a research laboratory technician is for you but you're not sure where to specialize, pay shouldn't be the only deciding factor. Passion and interest are important, as is job availability. Little employment growth is expected for geological and petroleum technicians and for chemical technicians through to 2018, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Environmental science opportunities are expected to increase faster than average, while all other sectors can expect an average increase in the number of jobs available.

Tags: average hour, Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor Statistics, Labor Statistics, according Bureau, according Bureau Labor

Grand Teton Mountains Information

Classic with their craggy peaks of granite and gneiss, the Grand Tetons tower 7,000 feet over the valley below, which is already 6,400 feet above sea level. They are a perfect setting for hiking through canyons up to clear alpine lakes, or just contemplating nature's immensity.

Geologic History

The collision of tectonic plates that created the Tetons pushed up layers of sediment deposited 85 million years ago by a great inland sea on base layers of granite and gneiss, 2.5 and 2.7 billion years old, respectively.

Habitats

Spanning valley to high peaks, the park offers four habitats: alpine, coniferous forests, sagebrush flats and wetlands.

Mammals

Because of the parks diversity, 61 different species live within its boundaries. Typical mammals range from the moose, elk, deer and bison to more secretive grizzly and black bears, wolves and mountain lions to smaller creatures like pikas, marmots and ground squirrels with golden mantles.

Viewing Wildlife

Keep your distance from large animals and never get between a mother and child as you check out these recommended viewing spots: Oxbow Bend for river otters, ospreys, bald eagles and possibly moose and beavers; Timbered Island for pronghorn antelope and elk; Mormon Row for bison pronghorn, coyotes, Northern harriers and American kestrels; Snake River for elk, bison, eagles and blue herons.

Hiking

Hikes range in difficulty from an easy lakeside loops around Jenny Lake and then on to a Cascade Canyon hike that ranges from easy to moderate up to Hidden Falls and on to moderate-strenuous to strenuous for striking mountain views, and even farther for the Schoolroom Glacier.

Scenic Drives

With the proviso that you keep your eyes open for large mammals, three roads offer panoramic views without having to do more than look out a window or step out of the car at a turnout: Teton Park Road along the base of the Teton Range, Jenny Lake Scenic Drive and Signal Mountain Summit Road up 800 feet to sweeps of mountains, valley, and Jackson Lake.

Tags: from easy, granite gneiss, Jenny Lake

Florida Land Features

The beach is a common Florida land feature.

Each state in the United States is, of course, different in its own way from all the other states. But Florida has some land features that set it apart in many ways. With most of its land area at 150 feet or less above sea level, and more miles of coastline than any of the other contiguous 48 states, according to the Smithsonian Marine Station, Florida's land features are distinctive.

Barrier Islands

Along Florida's east coast you will see a series of elongated, north-south oriented barrier islands that are just off-shore from the Florida mainland. According to the Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce, Florida, these islands formed during the Pleistocene period, a geologic epoch from 1.75 million to 11,000 years ago. Because these islands are between the mainland of Florida and the open ocean, they serve to protect mainland areas from the brunt of storm surges.

Sand Dunes

The dunes of Florida are ever-changing land forms.

Florida is host to many sand dunes. You may think a dune is simply a simple heap of sand and not much more, but the dynamics of sand dune formation and the processes at work as dunes form and evolve over time are intricate. The interaction of wind and the various particles of sand -- combined with obstacles like tufts of plants and their roots that interfere with or redirect sand movement -- make for constantly changing dune conditions.

Beaches

As a peninsula, Florida is replete with shoreline and beaches. The sand on Florida's beaches varies in composition, depending upon its source material, which comes from either the Appalachian Mountains or calcium-rich seashells from millions of years of sea life. Conditions much of the time favor the building up of beaches by wave action, but severe storms can wash away beach sand.

Karst Topography

Florida contains calcareous material, a naturally occurring compound calcium carbonate in rocks like limestone, in its land base. Water, especially water with some acidity to it, can easily dissolve calcium carbonate. Over time, the natural ground water, which is supplied by rain, dissolves the rock underground and creates cavities. Some cavities connect to the surface and form sinkholes, while others develop into caves.

Hammocks

Florida's inland areas have characteristics as distinctive as its coastal areas. The hammock, which is an area of land that is somewhat higher than the surrounding landscape, is one such area. Evergreen tropical hardwoods are the prevailing vegetation type in hammocks, and some hammocks are near the coast while others are more inland. Hammocks were more common in the past than in present-day Florida due to the encroachment of human development.

Tags: calcium carbonate, Florida land, land features, Marine Station, Smithsonian Marine

Salaries For Geology Professors

Petrology, the study of how rocks form, is a branch of geology.

Geology professors teach at small, private colleges, two-year community colleges, and large public universities. They may be asked to teach general education courses in earth science and present an introduction to geology. They may also work in university-based research programs funded by the government or major corporations, and conduct independent research. The median salary of all geology professors in the U.S. was $68,480 in May, 2010, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).

Median Salary

On average, salaries for geology professors are higher at state colleges and universities than they are at private colleges. According to the BLS, the median annual salary for a geology professor at a state-funded college or university was $71,520 as of 2010. Geology professors at private colleges or university earned an average of $57,350, states the BLS. The average annual salary for geology professors was $65,000 as of 2011, according to Indeed.com.

Salary Range

The BLS reports that geology professors in the 10th percentile of salary earned $40,960 per year in 2010, while those in the 90th percentile earned $120,520. Professors teaching at private colleges had a salary range of $42,510 to $100,400, the BLS reported. At public colleges and universities, which includes community colleges, the 10th percentile of geology professors received $40,630, while the 90th percentile earned $125,440, according to the BLS.

Individual Colleges

In September 2011, two assistant professors of geology at Ball State University reported monthly salaries of $4,283 and $4,636 at Glassdoor.com. At the University of Wyoming, assistant professors of geoscience earned between $57,000 and $71,000 a year, according to Glassdoor.com. An assistant professor at Nicholls State University in Thibodaux, Louisiana, reported a salary of $39,000 in September 2011 on Glassdoor.com.

Title and Tenure

Lecturers and visiting professors of geology receive lower salaries than assistant, associate and full professors. Tenured professors also tend to receive higher salaries than non-tenured faculty. Geology professors also receive stipends for research and other duties, including assisting with departmental administration or faculty committees. In September 2011, a visiting assistant professor at Earlham College reported earning $41,000 to $45,000 a year, while a non-visiting assistant professor at Texas Christian University earned $68,000 to $72,000 according to Glassdoor.com.

Tags: geology professors, private colleges, assistant professor, salary geology, September 2011, 10th percentile, 90th percentile

Make A Timeline With A Lapbook

Timelines give children the big picture on history.

Many students who have snoozed their way through endless timelines of historical dates, names and places would not associate the word excitement with history class. However, a timeline lapbook project can bring history alive, helping students make connections between disparate events, according to Homeschool in the Woods. With file folders, a few simple materials, and some preparatory historical research, you can make a homemade scrapbook, called lapbooks by homeschoolers. The lapbook showcases learning projects such as a visual timeline that shows modern students how events in history touch their lives, shaping the world as they know it today.

Instructions

Exploding Minibook

1. Fold the corner of a piece of construction paper down and over so the vertical edges line up, then crease the paper on the fold. Cut the excess strip from the bottom to make a square out of the top section. Make at least three of these squares, depending on the desired book size.

2. Fold the square cross-wise corner to corner both ways to make an X through the center. Fold the top edge to bottom edge and left side to right side to make a cross through the X. Open out the square flat and set it with one point towards you so it looks like a diamond. Fold the cross-wise fold in the two side quadrants in and down to meet the cross-wise fold in the bottom quadrant and the top quadrant will fold down neatly on top of it to make a double layer square. Stephen O'Hanlon's origami website provides a diagram for this fold for further clarification (see Resources).

3. Unfold the squares now and place them on the table with one corner pointing back at you so that it looks like a diamond. Layer the top quadrant of the second diamond on top of the lower quadrant of the first diamond and glue. Continue layering all your squares in the same way. The finished product folds into a square book and can open vertically or horizontally.

4. Glue or draw pictures and captions of important historical dates, events and people on each section of the minibook when it is fully open. Alternatively, draw a map of the regions you are studying to show geography's influence in history. Label important places and briefly describe the events and dates that occurred there to help you visualize how events in one place influenced events in another.

5. Decorate the top square as a title page. Open a file folder and fold the edges into the center for the simplest lapbook. Spread glue on the back of the bottom quadrant of the last square of your book and press it into your lapbook. Create cover art for your lapbook.

Accordion Timeline

6. Lay several 3-by-5-inch index cards, 8.5-by-11-inch printer paper, cardstock or construction paper on your table side by side or end to end, depending on whether you want your timeline to fold horizontally or vertically. Tape together the edges that are touching.

7. Fold the pages back and forth at the tapelines in an accordion fold.

8. Label each page with important dates, events, influential people and their significant accomplishments. Create a connection between then and now, by including art and descriptions that draw parallels between history and current events. Illustrate the long-term ramifications of our ancestor's choices and actions that still affect us today.

9. Draw or glue pictures on each page that illustrate the person or event. Leave the back of the last page empty.

10. Decorate the top as a title page. Fold the edges of a file folder into the center for a lapbook base. Spread glue on the back of the last page and place it in your lapbook. Design eye-catching cover art.

Notebook Timeline

11. Layer several file folders one inside another depending on how many pages you need. Punch a few holes through all the layers along the fold. Tie the book together with yarn or ribbon.

12. Label each page with a particular year or historical period.

13. Draw or glue pictures on each page of important people and events from various countries and regions of the world that occurred simultaneously to better visualize the chain of influence between events in areas far removed from one another in time or distance.

14. Decorate the cover to complete a lapbook that is a timeline in and of itself.

Tags: each page, your lapbook, back last, back last page, bottom quadrant, construction paper, cross-wise fold

Geomorphologist Job Description

Geomorphologist Job Description

A geomorphologist is a person who studies how the earth's surfaces were formed by rivers, mountains, oceans, air, or ice and how these elements will change the landforms in the future. A geomorphologist gathers organic materials from the earth like sediments from mountains, water from streams or rivers, and pollen from flowers. They are trying to figure out if any these materials from the earth had an effect on way that some lands are shaped.

Job Duties

One of the main duties of a geomorphologist is collecting data in the field. The geomorphologist will dig in the dirt, get water from a river, or scape the bottom of a rock to find how this element changed the land in some way. A geomorphologist has to write reports on the findings which include their calculations of the data collected. Mapping out the area before and after a study is another necessity of the job. While in the field, a geomorphologist uses computer models to determine if the area he is studying had any drastic changes.

Education of Geomorphologist

Anyone interested in becoming a geomorphologist can get a degree in geography or geology. Geography main area of study is the earth's surface and life on earth. It focuses more the the physical area where people live. Geology is the study of the materials on earth and the structure of them. Depending on which college or university a person might attend, he might be able take one or two courses in geomorphology.

Other Areas of Geomorphology

The one good thing about geomorphology is that there is more than one area people can become experts in. A person might like the desert more than land so they will study Aeolian geomorphology. She might like learning more about Mars or Venus surfaces so they would focus on planetary geomorphology. Fluvial geomorphology is the study of stream and river systems. Those who prefer dry land and how it formed might like tectonic geomorphology, but if they prefer fire then they might want to look at volcanoes in volcanic geomorphology. For those who prefer ice to fire, then glacial and periglacial geomorphology is the way to go.

People Who Are Geomorphologists

Rob Cell is a well known geomorphologist from New Zealand. He is a coastal geomorphologist who has published books on the subject. He is now an enviromental and communications consultant about getting people to use sustainable materials to save the earth. Andrew S. Goudie is a Aeolian geomorphologist who is a professor at the Univeristy of Oxford in England.

Where to Find Jobs in Geomorphologist

A geomorphologist can work for private and public companies. Some geomorphologists teach high school geology or geography or are professors at colleges and universities. Geomorphologists who work out the field on their own will search for grants to fund their field work. Companies like to hire geomorphologists who have done field work and have five to seven years work experience.

Salary of Geomorphologists

Since geomorphologist jobs fall under the categories of geology or geography, it's not easy to find out the median salary for one. The average yearly salary before taxes for someone working geography or geology is $79,000 to $200,000. Salaries for people working in the private or public sector can vary in range. Think Energy Group in Seattle, Washington is looking to a fluvial geomorphologist and their salary range is $80,000 to $140,000.

Tags: might like, field geomorphologist, field work, fire then, from earth

Northern California Camping & Fishing

Forests are plentiful in Northern California.

Each year, thousands of people travel to Northern California to take in the natural beauty and sample the unspoiled atmosphere. Comprising the region between the San Francisco Bay Area and the border with Oregon, Northern California is a vast and ecologically diverse part of the West Coast. Visitors can find a wealth of camping and fishing options, thanks to an abundance of rivers, lakes, forests and coastline.

Getting There

Accessing most camping and fishing venues in Northern California requires a car, as these sites are often in rural areas or park lands. You might want to consider flying into one of the major airports in Oakland, Sacramento, San Francisco or San Jose and renting a car. Rail connections to the rest of the country also exist in these cities. Interstate 5 serves as the main connection for drivers between the Pacific Northwest and Southern California.

Costs and Permits

The options for camping and fishing in Northern California include utilizing national parks/forests and patronizing private campgrounds and fisheries. The latter usually charge a set fee for unlimited daily fishing. Lodging and equipment (such as fishing reels) are often offered at extra cost. Private campgrounds charge per night and often require reservations (especially in popular seasons such as summer). All national parks and forests charge a set fee for vehicle entry, along with supplementary permit costs for activities such as overnight hiking, skiing and hosting small gatherings. Certain campsites in parks require reservations while others operate on a first-come, first-served basis. Those over the age of 16 who wish to fish on public lands must have a California fishing license, which can be bought online ahead of time or purchased from a licensing agent at or around the park or forest grounds. California gaming laws restrict fishing to specific seasons depending on location, and further rules apply for types of bait, catching limits and other variables.

National Parks

Several national parks and forests exist in Northern California. Perhaps the most widely known is Yosemite, home to more than 750,000 acres of wilderness and unique glacial geology. Nearly four million people visit the park each year, and despite having 13 campgrounds, reservations are strongly advised year-round. Unrestricted camping is forbidden in the park due to nature preservation concerns; you must camp at a designated site. As with any public site in the state, fishing is allowed only with a valid California fishing license, though certain streams and rivers are subject to seasonal restrictions.

Redwood National and State Parks, made up of several protected areas along the Northern California coast, is another popular destination for campers and outdoor enthusiasts. The parks' combined old-growth forests total nearly 40,000 acres, with the tallest trees on the planet. The parks also boast almost 40 miles of coastline. The parks have vehicle-accessible campsites but also contain camping grounds further into the interior, reachable only via hiking. Camping in the interior is strictly limited on a first-come basis to preserve the natural elements in the parks. Fishing is popular in the Klamath River, which runs through the protected areas.

Other parks and forests include the Lassen Volcanic National Park in the Cascade Mountain Range and the Tahoe National Forest, which is closer to the border with Nevada.

Camping

Campers of all walks choose Northern California to commune with nature, although methods of stay and durations of visits vary. Use of recreational vehicles (RVs) is popular, especially in summer, and many RV parks and campsites both public and private cater to these vehicles. RV parks can be found from as far south as the Napa and Sonoma regions near the San Francisco Bay Area to the rural north near the Oregon border. Campsites and RV parks abound both in and around national parks, with a large number in the towns surrounding Yosemite and along major highways like Route 101 and Interstate 5. Campsites almost always include amenities such as fresh water, toilets and cooking facilities, but the quality of these depends largely on price.

Fishing

Fishing is a popular outdoor activity in Northern California, with plenty of parks and private land available for avid anglers. Salmon are a particularly popular catch, especially along the Klamath River near the coastline. Trout and bass are favored catches in the interior portion of the region, especially around Yosemite. Generally, streams and rivers have seasonal restrictions on fishing and catch amounts. Lakes and reservoirs usually permit fishing year-round. Privately owned lakes and ponds offer license-free fishing from waters stocked with a variety of species. These are abundant in the interior of the region between Yosemite and the coast.

Tags: Northern California, parks forests, camping fishing, national parks, national parks forests

Memorize Notes For A Test

Every student eventually has to face the task of taking a test. While some students may glide right through, others may struggle and have trouble when the time comes. If you take the time and plan it right, you can memorize notes for a test and by the time the test comes, you could be getting an "A" in no time.

Instructions

1. Before you even crack open the book, you need to be in the right environment to be able to study. Try to eliminate any distractions, especially electronics that may cause you to deviate from your studying.

2. If you like a little music to help relax you when you are studying then you should play tracks that have no lyrics, you may find yourself singing or listening along.

3. Also try to avoid studying in your bed because your body naturally gets into a rest mode in your bed and you may easily find yourself sleepy as you try to study.

4. Even though you may have notes already, note taking again will help you learn and process the information more. Copy a line or two from the textbook or existing notes and then read them over. It may sound like a long process, but you will begin a flow and the studying will be over before you know it.

5. Use memory tricks like giving words different meanings. For example if you are studying the first three months, January, February, and March, you could help remember the names and orders by making a sentence like Jimmy Feeds Mice. If it is something catchy or unusual, then you can recall that information for the test.

6. Take breaks every half hour and refresh yourself. You do not want to overload yourself with so much information that you lose track, so take a short break, briefly go over what you just did and then begin new notes.

7. Repeat things multiple times until you can recall them without looking down. Do this by sentence or definition, because repeating a whole paragraph would take way too long and not make much sense.

8. Once you feel like you have got the material down, quiz yourself or have somebody quiz you on the material. Find your weak spots and continue to study them until you feel confident about the test.

Tags: find yourself

Locate The Elevation Of My City

Sometimes when the location of a city or landmark is mentioned, you hear people talk about the location in terms of elevation. Elevation is the word used to describe how high or low a place is compared to sea level. If you are interested in finding the elevation of your city, it takes little time to do so, by submitting a query through the United States Geological Survey website.

Instructions

1. Point your Internet browser to the United States Geological Survey website, Usgs.gov. You can access maps, earthquake information and view statistics for your city and state here.

2. Click "Maps, Imagery and Publications" from the top menu.

3. Look to the Portals and Collections sidebar menu to the right of the page and select "Geographic Names (GNIS)." You can look up data for cities and states here.

4. Click "Search" from the menu options to the left of the page to open the USGS Query Form.

5. Enter the name of your city in the form and check the box next to "Exact Match" to view geographic data for only your city. If you don't select Exact Match, the search results will include information for different locations throughout your city, such as the courthouse or jail.

6. Select your state and county from the drop-down menu and click "Send Query." The results list will open.

7. Look at the results next to your city name: This will be the only result if you selected Exact Match in Step 5. Some information listed for your city includes the longitude, latitude and elevation. In the box under Ele(ft) is the elevation for your city, measured in feet.

Tags: your city, Exact Match, elevation your, elevation your city, from menu, Geological Survey, Geological Survey website

Spot Dinosaur Fossils

Spot Dinosaur Fossils

Looking for dinosaur bones and fossils can be a fun and exciting experience. If you're at the right location and know spot the bones, there is a chance that you will be rewarded with a bone of an ancient creature. The first individual to find a dinosaur fossil in modern times was a British paleontologist and ecclesiastic named William Buckland (1784-1856). If you are adequately prepared, and you know optimize your chances, you too could make an exciting find.

Instructions

Preparing

1. Study dinosaur bones in books. magazines, websites and museums so you'll get an idea of what you're looking for. See Resources below.

2. Get a leg up by taking a fossil dig tour or at least planning your expedition at a location used by the--known sites of abundant dinosaur fossils.

3. Be prepared for diligent, slow and painstaking work. It is the "nature of the beast."

What to Look For

4. Check areas with plenty of sedimentary rocks. These rocks are created from deposits of minerals and other substances, typically found near areas with water or where water once was. Many dinosaur bones are found in or around sedimentary rocks because the bones and other fossils are preserved as they are buried. You may need to dig a bit to uncover bones or fossils around sedimentary rocks. Also, not all sedimentary rocks are hard.

5. Use a geologic map to discover where to find dinosaur bones. Geologic maps show different types of rock by color, including sedimentary rock. Finding this kind of rock will help you locate the dinosaur bones.

6. Search around areas that contain or once contained water. Since the dinosaurs needed water to live, they were never far from it. By checking near water or areas that once contained water, you'll increase your chances of finding dinosaur bones.

Most Common Locations Dinosaur Bones Are Found

7. Perform your search in areas where lots of dinosaur bones have been found. For instance, near Red Deer River in Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta Canada, paleontologists have found entire skeletons as well as scads and scads of dinosaur bones.

8. Check areas where bones have been found previously, since some common locations contain more fossils that are not bones, such as foot prints. In Hell Creek, Montana, the first Tyrannosaurus Rex was found in 1903. Many dinosaur bones and other fossils have been found here as well.

9. Check quarries, river beds, cliff faces and other areas where sedimentary rock may be present. Often, dinosaur bones are discovered in the middle of another act, such as digging for land development.

Tags: dinosaur bones, sedimentary rocks, areas where, been found, have been, have been found, areas that

Edible Earth Science Project Ideas

Teach topography concepts by having students map a cookie.

Edible earth science projects are a good way to get elementary school students excited about learning geology and earth science subjects such as mining, topography and mineralogy. Being able to eat their work when they have finished can also help to keep children interested in the lesson. Edible earth science is appropriate for all elementary students, and particularly so for younger students. Make sure you tell students not to eat their experiments until they get home, and check for food allergies.

Cookie Topography

This edible earth science project uses cookies to teach students topographic concepts. Topographic maps show changes in elevation and are commonly used by geologists. Topographic map lines, called contour lines, represent different elevations. Lines that are spaced close together show steep areas while lines spaced far apart show flatter areas. Discuss contour lines with students, then give each student a lumpy cookie. Students first draw a profile of the cookie and use a ruler to find the high point of the cookie. Students then trace around the cookie and draw contour lines showing the relative elevation of different parts of the cookie. Discuss with students what a geologist would learn about their cookie from studying the topographic maps.

Karst Topography

A karst is a landscape that has been eroded by the action of water on rock. Karst landscapes may include features such as sink holes and caves. This edible earth science project teaches older elementary students about karst formation. Make icing by beating three egg whites with one pound confectioner's sugar until it forms stiff and glossy peaks. Divide students into groups. and give each group a box of sugar cubes, some icing and a tray. Students use the icing and cubes to build a mountain on the tray, then slowly drip water onto their mountain, using droppers. The sugar will erode, creating caves and other features.

Metamorphic Pancakes

This edible earth science project demonstrates how metamorphic rocks are created. It is appropriate for children in grades 2 through 8. Bring in pancake batter and a selection of ingredients to add to the pancakes, such as nuts, bananas and raisins. Include some ingredients that will melt, such as marshmallows and chocolate chips. You will also need a hotplate, spatula and non-stick pan. Discuss with the students how metamorphic rocks are created and then make a pancake, using a selection of ingredients. Discuss how the ingredients represent minerals being heated deep underground to form solid rock -- in this case, the finished pancake. You can make a variety of pancakes, allowing students to choose different "minerals." When you are finished, students can eat their "metamorphic rocks."

Cupcake Core Sampling

This earth science project can be used with elementary and middle school students. Make your favorite plain cupcake batter or use a cake mix. Divide the batter into three parts and use food coloring to color each one a different color. Layer the batter into cupcake cases and bake according to the recipe. You will end up with layered cupcakes. Frost with chocolate or colored frosting -- representing the surface of the earth. Discuss how geologists use core samples to study the composition of different regions of the earth's crust. Show students how they can take a core samples of the cupcake using straws. Students push a straw gently into their cupcake, twist it slightly and remove it. Repeat this three times in different parts of the cupcake. Students should examine the contents of the straw and draw a picture of what they think the inside of their cupcake looks like. Cut open the cupcakes and compare the pictures to the reality.

Tags: earth science, earth science project, contour lines, metamorphic rocks, science project, This edible