Writing a science book for children often involves distilling complex facts and theories into child-speak.
Writing science books for children is an important undertaking as many aspects of science are constantly changing. There is an ongoing need for information for youngsters and books parents and teachers can use both in the classroom and the home to educate their children on different scientific principles. When writing a book for children, especially a science book, it is important that you understand your target audience and write in a way that children understand.
Instructions
1. Read a variety of science books for children before you even begin. This will help you understand what works and what doesn't when it comes to writing science for children.
2. Study the scientific phenomenon or process you plan to write a book about. Make sure you understand it thoroughly before you attempt to explain it to a young audience.
3. Break down the phenomenon or process into simple language, eliminating extraneous parts that will be difficult for children to understand. You can make the scientific phenomenon or process into a narrative with characters, which is often done in the popular Joanna Cole series, "The Magic School Bus." You can also try to explain the process to a child in your target age range to make sure the the concept is conveyed in wording simple enough for children to grasp.
4. Read your book to children when you feel it is polished enough. Ask them if they feel they understand the process or phenomenon you've described. You can give them a short quiz to see how well they understood the topics or ask them to describe it back to you. Assess your work honestly and decide whether or not this draft of the book accomplished what you wished to do.
5. Revise your book as necessary. Read the book to several groups of children until you feel they understand what you are trying to convey.
6. Draw pictures to go with your book, use photography you've taken or talk to a friend about illustrating the book or providing photographs. Pictures can help children better understand what you are describing.
7. Test the finished product on children once more, and then revise where necessary.
Tags: book children, phenomenon process, understand what, your book, books children
From Mauna Loa in Hawaii to Taal in the Philippines, volcanoes are massive forces of nature that are not to be taken lightly. The bursting of a volcano will cover the sky in ash while lava flows to the area beneath. While volcanoes are dangerous up close, there is a "wow factor" associated with their eruptions. You can re-create volcanic activity by building a model volcano. These miniature volcanoes work using baking soda and vinegar to simulate an eruption. Creating your own volcano model is done using papier-mache to re-create a famous mountain or to design your very own.
Instructions
1. Clean your 20 oz. plastic bottle and remove any labeling. Use your scissors or a knife to cut the top of the bottle off so the top and bottom of the container are roughly the same width.
2. Glue the bottle onto the center of a piece of cardboard. The wider the cardboard, the wider your volcano can be. Allow the glue to fully dry.
3. Ball up several sheets of newspaper into loose wads. Arrange the wads of paper around the bottle so that they form the structure of your volcano. Use masking tape to hold the paper in place. The top of your volcano should have the smallest width and then expand as it moves down to the base.
4. Cut several sheets of newspaper into long strips. These strips will be used to papier-mache the outside of the volcano. Each strip should be long enough to reach from the base of your volcano to the peak.
5. Mix together your water and flour in a mixing bowl to create the paste for your papier-mache. The mixture should be one part flour for every two parts of water. Start with one cup of water and half of a cup of flour.
6. Dip one strip of newspaper into the paste so that it is fully submerged. Remove the strip and use your fingers to wipe down any excess paste back into the bowl.
7. Place one end of the paper strip at the top of your volcano, then extend the rest of the strip down and onto the cardboard. Don't worry about the paper extending past the base of your volcano.
8. Cover the entire volcano with the strips of newspaper, leaving none of the crumpled newspaper balls uncovered. Set the volcano aside to dry for at least 12 hours.
9. Paint the dried volcano model using craft paint. You can choose the colors you wish, such as brown or gray for the volcano and greens or blues for the surrounding area. Add streaks of black or white onto the volcano to simulate the crags and crevices. Allow the paint to dry.
10. Mix one fourth of a cup of vinegar with two drops of red food coloring and pour it into the center of the volcano. Add one teaspoon of baking soda to the mixture to create an eruption that will run down the sides of your model.
Tags: your volcano, newspaper into, baking soda, base your, base your volcano
Doing a science fair project yields many benefits for the student beyond the educational value. Students gain experience in logical thinking, organizing data, making accurate measurements and unbiased observations. Often, the most difficult part for students doing a science fair project is coming up with an idea for a project. In the fair category of earth science, a student can come up with plenty of ideas just by thinking about the physical world around him.
The Venturi Effect
Stand in an alley between two tall buildings on a very windy day. Then stand in front of the buildings. Notice that the wind is much stronger in the alley. This is called the Venturi effect. An earth science project idea would be to make a scale model to demonstrate this effect of air speed increasing as it is squeezed through a gap.
Wind Erosion
Locate an area in your neighborhood where some sand has piled up, such as against a curb or fence. Using a fan and different types of soil (light sand, gravel, loam soil), devise an earth science fair project that shows which types of soil are most susceptible to wind erosion.
The Effect of Salt on Water's Freezing Temperature
Take note during a snow or ice weather event that local municipalities spread salt on roadways to melt ice on the road's surface. Salt lowers the freezing temperature of water, which is normally 32 degrees Fahrenheit. Using a refrigerator's freezer, a thermometer and a salt water mixture, see how cold you can get the water before it freezes.
Rocks and Minerals
Walk through your community, and collect as many different specimens of rocks as you can that are natural to your area (not from landscaped properties, where rocks and stones could be imported). Identify as many as you can using a mineral and rock reference book. Make a chart that describes the differences, such as color, weight, size, specific gravity, texture (smooth, rough), hardness and other characteristics.
The Effect of Sunlight on Materials
Examine upholstered furniture in your home or in that of your friends that is positioned near a sunny window. Compare the appearance of the fabric between sections that face the sun and those that don't. Test the effect the sun has on fading various materials by gathering two samples of each type of material and placing one in a dark place in your home and the other in a sunny window. Make daily observations for a month. Types of material can be clothing, newspaper, plastic cup, cash register receipts from a grocery store, colored construction paper or anything you can imagine.
Erosion by Friction
Find a set of wooden steps in a high-traffic location, such as a local store, library or apartment complex. Carefully look at each step for abrasion, where friction from people's shoes has caused an "erosion" effect in the wood. Use a micrometer to measure the depth of the wear.
Evaporation
Investigate the process of evaporation by thoroughly soaking four hand towels in water, then hanging one inside a bathroom where baths and steamy showers are taken daily, one inside the living room or bedroom of your home, one outside in the shade, and one outside in the sun. Monitor the evaporation process of each by checking them periodically and making notes on your observations. Use a psychrometer to measure the relative humidity at each of those locations.
Tags: earth science, fair project, science fair, science fair project, your home
An arc length and its corresponding chord are attached at their ends. An arc length is a measured segment of a circle's circumference. The chord is the line segment that runs through the circle from each endpoint of the arc length. You can calculate the arc length and the length of its chord through the circle's radius and the central angle, or angle that lies under the arc.
Instructions
1. Find the radian measurement of the central angle and the radius length. For this example, let the central angle be 0.75 radians and the radius be 5. Convert the central angle from degrees to radians with a converter like the one at University of Texas' Bureau of Economic Geology (see Resources).
2. Multiply the central angle by the radius to calculate the arc length. With this example, 0.75 multiplied by 5 equals 3.75 radians.
3. Divide the central angle by 2, and calculate its sine in radians with your calculator. With this example, 0.75 divided by 2 equals 0.375, and the sine of 0.375 is approximately 0.366 radians.
4. Multiply the sine of the last step by the radius. With this example, 0.366 multiplied by 5 equals 1.83.
5. Double the product of the prior step to calculate the chord length. Concluding this example, 1.83 multiplied by 2 equals 3.66. The chord length measures 3.66.
Tags: central angle, this example, example multiplied, example multiplied equals, multiplied equals
If humans venture out onto another planet, Mars is almost certainly going to be the target. For this reason, the planet has become well-known throughout popular culture. Science projects in school can serve as an excellent method to express many of the intriguing facts about the planet that continue to interest NASA, which has spent billions of dollars studying the planet's features.
Viewing Project
Separated by about 35 million miles, Mars is only slightly farther away from the Earth than Venus. The main difference is that Mars provides a clear view of its surface to astronomers or anyone willing to set up a telescope. One way to take advantage of this, assuming there is an available telescope, is to set up a viewing project and have students sketch the surface structures as they see them. Find Mars using a chart, such as the one at the Naked Eye Planets website.
Size
A project for smaller children can be to make a scale model of the planet. Create the project by using foam balls, which can easily be painted. As Mars, which is roughly 4,200 miles in diameter, is about half of the diameter of the Earth (8,000 miles in diameter), it will be relatively easy to determine the correct size of the project's planets on the correct scale.
Water and Mars
There are few mysteries that have caught the spotlight related to Mars as well as the discussion of water on the planet. Although it's still not certain whether water exists on the planet today, NASA -- as suggested by findings from its Mars Global Surveyor -- thinks that water and ice have a small probability of existing on the surface in very small quantities and have a much higher probability of existing in some form below the surface. Methane also exists in abundance. Create a project showing the terrain maps of Martian ice, which mostly occurs at the poles. Discuss how ice also potentially means that bacteria may exist on the Red Planet.
Surface Depictions and Moons
Projects can be created on all the surface structures of Mars. Extremely ambitious students can create a model of the planet's surface. Mars has two moons -- Deimos and Phobos -- both smaller than the Earth's own moon. The planet contains a huge valley known as the Valles Marineris, which stretches roughly 3,000 miles across the planet. The mountain Olympus Mons is estimated at over 88,000 feet, much taller than the Earth's Mount Everest.
Tags: Create project, miles diameter, model planet, planet Mars, probability existing, roughly miles
Idaho's capital city is also one of the biggest cities in the Pacific Northwest, and like its neighbors Portland and Seattle, Boise is a popular destination for families in search of authentic community and outdoor adventure. Whether you're visiting Boise for the day or settling down for good, you'll quickly appreciate the family-friendly attractions that help the City of Trees consistently earn its top spots on "Best Cities" lists.
Visit the Animals
The touch tide pools -- where kids can gently touch the smooth, prickly and slippery inhabitants of the ocean -- and a tank where kids can feed and pet fish from around the globe are highlights of a visit to the Idaho Aquarium. Be sure to keep an eye out for the poison dart frogs in tanks around the aquarium -- they won't hurt you, but they're fun for kids to find. Go ahead and buy the $3 pail of mealworms to feed the sloth bear, Paji, at Zoo Boise -- watching the bear chow down on grubs is likely to make a lasting memory. Meeting the zoo's more than 200 residents, representing 83 different species, can take the better part of a day. At the World Center for Birds of Prey, kids can learn more about condors, raptors, kestrels, hawks, falcons and other birds of prey through exhibits and animal demonstrations.
Explore a Museum
Even parents may be surprised by some of the things you can learn at the Discovery Center of Idaho, a hands-on museum where kids can blow enormous bubbles, create a 7-foot-tall tornado and send stuffed animals on an exciting ride on the centripetal wheel. A museum dedicated to rocks may not sound like a fun family outing, but the Idaho Museum of Mining and Geology is full of fascinating displays about fossils, plate tectonics and unusual minerals. If you can, plan a visit for the museum's annual Rock Party, which includes geology hikes and gold panning. Ask for a family pack when you check in at the Boise Art Museum: You can choose from several options to guide you through the galleries, from toddler-friendly options such as the animal scavenger hunt to more sophisticated packs that focus on topics such as writing poetry and Chinese calligraphy.
Answer Nature's Call
Kids and grown-ups alike will find the carnivorous plants section of the Children's Adventure Garden one of the most fascinating sights at the Idaho Botanical Garden. Check out a Family Backpack, stocked with field guides, magnifying glasses and binoculars, to take a scavenger hunt tour of the gardens. At Eagle Island State Park, you'll find horseback riding trails, two disc golf courses and a beach for sunning, swimming or boating. Explore the desert at the Jim Hall Foothills Learning Center. Follow the Story Trail, a self-guided trail walk with markers that tell a nature-related story -- the story changes every month. On the second Saturday of each month, the center hosts free activities for families.
Make It Play Time
In winter, the Bogus Basin Mountain Recreation Area is a fun place to introduce your kids to winter sports, including skiing and snowshoeing. You can rent all the gear you need at the mountain, including helmets and snow pants. Stop by the Boise Parks & Recreation Administration Office on Royal Boulevard to get the Quest for the Golden Apple map for Julia Davis Park. The quest leads you across the Broadway Bridge and through the park with a series of activities designed for families to participate in together. Wednesday nights are Family Nights at Idaho Ice World, but the park has open skating hours most days of the week, too.
The amazing landscape around Lincoln, Nebraska, makes it fertile ground for weekly kids' camps.
Lincoln, Nebraska, not only serves as the capital for the state, but is also a popular destination for weekly, day or overnight camps for kids. Many of the programs are found at Lincoln's historic institutions and museums, while others are at private campgrounds that host some of the best camp activities in the region.
Big Red Summer Academic Camp
Lincoln is the location of the University of Nebraska, which holds dozens of cultural events for the state. During the summer for one week, the University of Nebraska hosts the Big Red Summer Academic Camp, a camp where children, mostly of high school age, can enroll in academic summer programs. Examples may include entrepreneurship, geology or veterinary science.
Camp Kitaki
Camp Kitaki is a summer camp organized by the YMCA of Lincoln. The campgrounds are actually located by the town of Louisville, near Lincoln. All business offices are located in the YMCA of Lincoln. Camp Kitaki has a number of camping events and programs throughout the year, but your child can enroll in a week-long camp program in the summer. The camp organizes each summer camp program by two age groups, ages 7 to 8 and ages 9 to 14.
Ranch Camp
Ranch Camp is a program organized by the YMCA of Lincoln. The camp is held in Western Town, a rustic, 19th century Camp Kitaki theme town. At this one-week camp program, students can enroll in regular-, advanced- or "wrangler-" level experience programs involving horseback riding.
Young Nebraska Scientists
The Young Nebraska Scientists is a non-profit, educational organization in Lincoln and Omaha. This organization hosts a wide range of week-long camps for interested students who want to learn more about the sciences. Lincoln area students can enroll in weekly camps that are separated between middle and high school students.
Tags: Camp Kitaki, camp program, Lincoln Nebraska, summer camp, YMCA Lincoln
Involving sports in a science project can help a reluctant student become more interested.
It can be difficult to get junior high students excited about science, but most love sports. Combining the two can create a science project that will interest your student and make him want to participate. Sports projects can range from simple equations of velocity in skateboarding to the physics involved in throwing a baseball.
Bouncing Balls
In this project, a student can take several bouncing balls -- basketballs, volleyballs, dodge balls and tennis balls -- and experiment with different levels of air pressure. Calculate how much air pressure it takes for each ball to bounce. The student can also calculate the level of air pressure needed for optimal performance while playing the sport associated with each ball. As a visual presentation, a student can bring each type of ball and demonstrate for the judges.
Creating Drag
Strength and speed aren't the only factors that create a fast swimmer; physics matters, too. In this experiment, a student can time a 25-meter swim in a bathing suit and in street clothes and compare the two to see how drag makes a difference. Consider other factors, such as whether or not leg and facial hair creates drag or what types of bathing suits produce the least drag.
Olympian Speed
Most sports in the Olympics take speed. Compare sports such as running, pole vaulting, rowing, gymnastics, swimming, ice skating, bobsledding and speed skating to see which sports require the most speed. Calculate how much speed it takes to set an Olympic record in each sport and record your findings. Determine what causes an athlete in a particular sport to go faster. As a visual presentation, test volunteers to see how close they come to records in sports such as running.
Geometry Baskets
This project is one a basketball lover will enjoy, because it involves studying different angles on a basketball court and determining get the best shot. Try several angles from which to shoot around the court and determine which spot yields the most and least baskets. Try different shooting techniques or tricks. Record your findings for which methods work best. If your science fair takes place in a gym, ask permission to allow participants to try your tricks and angles in shooting.
Tags: Calculate much, each ball, science project, sports such, sports such running, such running, visual presentation
Contour maps can be used to chart anything from high and low air-pressure patterns to oil-well depths. Most commonly they record changes of elevation (topography) in a geographic area. Each contour line on a topographical map represents a single elevation, and the difference in elevation between each line on the map is always the same. On a steep hill or cliff, the lines are very close together. They are farther apart on a gradual slope. Contour lines never cross. Contour maps enable you to create an accurate picture of any type of terrain quickly and easily.
Instructions
1. Using your sample map, photo and elevation data, or your imagination as a guide, mark each elevation point as a dot and write the elevation beneath it. If the area you're mapping includes streams, ponds, shoreline, or roads, you can draw them in lightly.
2. Choose the difference in elevation between your contour lines. If the map area includes steep hills, you may want each line to represent a 100- or 200-foot change in elevation. If it depicts a gentle, rolling countryside, a 10- or 20-foot interval will probably work better.
3. Starting with the highest elevations first, use your pencil to connect all the dots that represent equal elevations. Make sure that each line stays on the high side of any dot that marks a lower elevation. Check for mistakes or messy spots and clean them up.
4. Trace over your pencil lines with your pen to make nice bold contour lines. Mark each contour line just once with its elevation and erase all of the penciled elevation numbers.
5. (Optional) Use green highlighter to designate areas of higher elevation.
Tags: each line, contour line, Contour maps, difference elevation, difference elevation between, elevation between
Paleontology students learn about bones and other fossils, as well as the rock that contains them.
Paleontology combines knowledge of biology and geology. According to the University of Kansas, it is not possible to obtain an undergraduate degree in paleontology anywhere in the United States. Most graduate paleontology programs are housed in university geology departments, with additional coursework coming from other departments. In some programs students even craft their own degree.
University of Kansas
Paleontology students at the University of Kansas in Lawrence take classes in Geology as well as in Ecology & Evolutionary Biology. Additional classes in the school of Anthropology may also apply. Resources include the university's Natural History Museum, the Museum of Anthropology and the Paleological Institute. The Institute publishes several scientific journals in paleontological studies, including "PALAIOS," "Paleontological Contributions" and "Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology."
University of Wyoming
Vertebrate paleontology faculty at the University of Wyoming in Laramie hold joint appointments in the Geology and Geophysics department, as well as the department of Zoology and Physiology. Research areas include invertebrate and vertebrate paleontology, as well as micropaleontology. The nearby Hannah Basin contains amber deposits that have been included in recent studies.
University of Texas
The paleontology program at the University of Texas at Austin is housed in the Jackson School of Geosciences. Research in the program explores the fossil record in an attempt to answer questions about evolution of species and the effects of widespread climate change. One of the main tools available to researchers is a high-resolution computer-aided tomography scanner that creates three-dimensional images of fossil vertebrates.
Columbia University
Paleontology is one of the disciplines of the Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences at Columbia University. Paleontology occupies two main facilities: the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory several miles north of the main Columbia campus in New York City and the American Museum of Natural History in Manhattan across the street from Central Park. Students may use the paleomagnetism laboratory at Lamont, as well as the isotope geochemistry laboratories. The museum has renowned fossil collections and biochemical laboratories for DNA sequencing.
University of Chicago
Doctoral paleontology students at the University of Chicago design their own dissertation research. In the university's Department of the Geophysical Sciences, they combine laboratory experiments and theoretical modeling with the results of work conducted in the field. Available courses include analytical paleobiology, biomechanics, macroevolution and evolutionary history of terrestrial ecosystems.
Tags: University Kansas, Columbia University, Columbia University Paleontology, Natural History, students University, University Chicago, University Paleontology
Turner Falls is the largest waterfall in Oklahoma. This popular tourist attraction is located in Turner Falls Park, which is in the Arbuckle Mountains. The park is named after Mazeppa Thomas Turner, who discovered the large waterfall on his property in 1878. The city of Davis, Oklahoma, is just minutes from the falls, and many visitors dine or shop in town after spending the day out in nature at Turner Falls Park.
Swimming
No lifeguard is on duty in Turner Falls swimming areas.
At the base of the 77-foot waterfall, a large natural pool of fresh water is open for public swimming. In addition, two other natural swimming pools are located in Turner Falls Park. These pools are fed by nearby streams and underground water sources. No permit or special permission is required to swim; however, no lifeguard is on duty.
Hiking
Thirty miles of hiking trails exist at Turner Falls.
Turner Falls Park is part of the Chickasaw National Recreation Area, which offers a total of over 30 miles of maintained trails. One of the most popular hikes for Turner Falls visitors is the Travertine Creek Trail, which is a 1.5 mile hike that is appropriate for all ages and experience levels. The trail follows the path of Travertine Creek, with plenty of scenic landscapes and picnic benches for rest breaks along the way. The hike concludes at the base of the Little Niagara Waterfall. Other frequented trails include: Antelope and Buffalo Springs Trail, Prairie Loop Trail, and Dry Creek Loop Trail.
Camping
RV and camping sites are available at Turner Falls.
Over 500 camping sites are available at Turner Falls Park; 37 of these sites are specifically designated for RVs. RV sites are equipped with water and electricity; a common dump station is in the vicinity. Restrooms and showers are interspersed throughout campgrounds, and many of the camping sites are equipped with picnic tables and grills. No reservations are accepted; all sites are first-come, first-served.
Caving
Many natural caves are open for exploration in Turner Falls Park. The most frequented of these is Turner Fall's Outlaw Cave, which offers interesting geological formations to those willing to brave the claustrophobic interior, where low cave ceilings and tight spaces are the norm. While numerous caves can be found around Turner Falls, few of these are officially named. Explore them at your own risk.
Tags: Turner Falls, Falls Park, Turner Falls Park, camping sites, available Turner, available Turner Falls, camping sites available
Red Rocks Park and Amphitheatre is located 15 miles west of Denver, Colorado in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. Surrounding the amphitheatre are two monumental rocks (called Ship Rock and Creation Rock) that arch 300 feet into the sky, taller than the Niagara Falls, according to Redrocksonline.com.
History
The sandstone rocks are riveting to all ages. Paleontologists and geologists love Red Rocks because they have found fossils from the sea serpent, plesiosaur, plant life and dinosaur prints dating back 160 million years.
Visiting
More than 750,000 tourists visit Red Rocks each year. The amphitheatre hosts a variety of concerts each year with 350,000 people attending concerts annually. Others choose its stunning beauty to hold their wedding, meetings or functions at the facility.
Tours
According to Redrocksonline.com, tours feature paleontology, music history, geology and Civilian Conservation Corporation exhibits. Red Rocks Park is open to the public from 5 a.m. to 11 p.m. every day of the year.
Hikes
The Trading Post loop hiking trail is 1.4 miles in length, and goes through "spectacular rock formations, valleys and a natural meadow," according to Redrocksonline.com. Rock climbing is prohibited.
Wildlife
Rattlesnakes like to sun themselves on the rocks.
Bird watchers will see the mountain blue jay, golden crowned sparrows, the American kestrel and more. Tamer animals include the mule deer, skunks, raccoons and foxes. Beware that Red Rocks also includes venomous, sunbathing rattlesnakes and mountain lions.
Fun Facts
Dinosaur Ridge is located close to Red Rocks, where you can see actual dinosaur footprints. For more information, see the link in Resources. According to Redrocksonline.com, the Red Rocks Amphitheatre was once listed as among the Seven Wonders of the World.
Aerial view of the Colorado River through the Grand Canyon.
The Grand Canyon, located near Fredonia, Arizona. is a 277-mile long canyon that was carved by the Colorado River. The Grand Canyon Helicopter Adventure is an exciting way to see this geologic wonder from an aerial vantage point.
Features
The Grand Canyon Helicopter Adventure is a daily tour that includes hotel pickup, a guided tour of the Sonoran Desert, a 30-minute helicopter ride over the deepest section of the canyon, a car tour of the rim and a stop at the Navajo Reservation trading post.
Significance
There are scheduled stops during the drive to and from the Grand Canyon, including those in Sedona for viewing the red rock canyons and along the canyon rim, where the guide will provide education information.
Time Frame
The tours leave daily at 6:30 a.m. and lasts for around 13 hours.
Considerations
Food and drink, gratuities and fuel costs are not included in the price of the tour. As of October 2009, the tour prices were $290 per adult and $198 per child under age 10. Every participant is expected to pay an additional $10 for fuel costs upon check-in.
Misconceptions
This tour is handicapped accessible; upon request wheelchairs will be provided, however, anyone in a wheelchair must be traveling with someone willing to assist with physical transferring.
Tags: Grand Canyon, Canyon Helicopter, Canyon Helicopter Adventure, Grand Canyon Helicopter, Helicopter Adventure, Colorado River
Pastel is a brand of business accounting software.
Pastel is a brand of accounting software manufactured by a South African company and customized for South African accounting standards. The company sells its product in more than 50 other countries as well.
Types
Sage Pastel, the manufacturer of Pastel accounting software, offers classroom training through its own locations and through partner companies to help purchasers of its software utilize all the features of its programs. The company offers hands-on training in each of its programs such as My Business Online, Pastel Auditor and Pastel Express.
Pastel Authorized Training Centers
Pastel training is also available at authorized training centers (ATCs). These businesses offer educational services in training businesses to fully utilize their Pastel software. There are ATCs in countries outside of South Africa to serve those customers too far away to attend classes at the Sage Pastel facility. Companies can apply to become ATCs. There are other software companies that provide Pastel training, even though Pastel does not officially recognize them as ATCs.
On-Site Trainers
Pastel licenses and authorizes on-site trainers for its programs. Businesses can get Pastel accounting training through an on-site Pastel trainer, who visits the company and trains employees in their own facilities, using their own equipment. On-site trainers are contractors with Pastel. They often have a computer consulting business of some kind, then complete a Pastel certification to become an on-site trainer.
Tags: accounting software, Pastel accounting, Pastel brand, Pastel training, Sage Pastel, South African, training through
Individuals pursuing science careers take courses ranging from biology to environmental sciences. Some students choose careers working with individuals or small groups such as a biology science teacher. Other science students choose careers helping to protect the environment, such as soil conservationists. An associate's or bachelor's degree is a minimum requirement for most entry-level science jobs.
Agricultural Inspectors
Agricultural inspectors are responsible for maintaining health and safety laws for federal and state government agencies. Some duties include visiting food-related facilities, checking agricultural shipments and collecting samples. Minimum requirements include an associate's or bachelor's degree in agricultural science or biology.
Biology Science Teachers
Biology science teachers instruct students about human anatomy, animals and plant science. Other duties include creating lesson plans, escorting students to science events and providing academic advice. A minimum requirement is a bachelor's degree in biology or education with state-based certification.
Health Educators
Health educators are responsible for promoting healthy lifestyles such as developing non-smoking and non-drinking habits and understanding the importance of sleep. Some duties include creating health videos, conducting health screenings and participating in health workshops; they work in health care centers and community centers. Employers seek undergraduate degrees in chemistry or biology. Some employers requests a master's degree and certification for those who become counselors.
Hydrologists
Hydrologists monitor water above and below the earth's surface. These science professionals are involved in collecting water pollutants, evaluating meteorological data and performing laboratory experiments. Hydrologists spend time working with biologists, engineers and laboratory technicians. They perform work away from the office such as near streams and ponds. Employers seek job applicants with a master's degree in geology, aquatic biology or atmospheric science.
Oceanographers
Oceanographers are responsible for monitoring oceans and coastal waters. These science professionals are involved in collecting ocean data and developing written reports. Minimum requirements for entry-level research positions are a bachelor's degree in biology or chemistry with coursework in oceanography. University teaching positions require a doctoral degree.
Soil Conservationists
Soil conservationists provide assistance to land users, geologists and farmers. Duties involve monitoring soil management practices and conducting environmental surveys. Employers seek job applicants with a bachelor's or master's degree in geology or environmental sciences. Some work environments include agricultural firms and government agencies.
Science classrooms are places of learning and exploration of the processes that guide our everyday lives. Students may study biology, chemistry, earth science, physics or astronomy in a science classroom. Because science is a broad subject and provides an infinite amount of information, science teachers will have a variety of options to liven a classroom.
Games
Test your students' knowledge of course material with science games. You can modify game shows, such as "Jeopardy" or "Family Feud," for your science class to play. Additionally, games can be played in groups, individually or with the entire class, so they are good options for teachers who want to change the classroom routine a bit. Games can last a single round or a week, depending on your class and the amount of material you are covering.
Films
Listening to lectures or reading about scientific events can become boring for students in science class. As such, use documentaries to illustrate the scientific concepts you are teaching. Some films may depict the life cycle of a flower, for instance, without being mundane and slow. After each film, ask your class what they learned and to clarify the processes they witnessed. Over time, you may find that films contribute great educational content to your curriculum.
Field Trips
Take your students outside of the classroom to explore science up close and personal. Depending on the type of science you are teaching, the field trip possibilities are endless. Take your astronomy class to the local observatory to see Venus or arrange a hike where geology students can collect and observe different types of rocks. Zoology students will benefit from a trip to the local zoo as well. Students can even visit a greenhouse where they can learn more about growing plants.
Projects
Projects are staples of many science classes. They allow students to explore and create on their own, while making use of the scientific process. Have students create a hypothesis based on a question or idea their project seeks to determine. They can then perform and repeat experiments to test whether their hypothesis is true or not. Be sure that students document their experiments and results as they go along and provide a conclusion of what they learned in the process.
Tags: science class, Take your, they learned, what they, what they learned, your class
Completing an undergraduate science degree can provide a competitive advantage when entering an advanced degree program or obtaining a job. Individuals can choose different science majors such as chemistry, biology, environmental sciences or zoology. Some science majors seek work in hospitals, research facilities or independent laboratories. Other science majors seek employment opportunities in government agencies.
Clinical Research Coordinators
Clinical research coordinators provide administrative support to research departments. Some duties include assisting physicians with patient screenings, collecting laboratory reports and following up on clinical patients. Employers seek applicants with an associate's or bachelor's degree in science such as biology. Clinical research coordinators find work in different environments, including hospitals, research facilities and cancer centers. The Simply Hired Job Search shows an April 2010 report of average annual salary of $52,000.
Food Chemists
Food chemists are science professionals involved in testing food and beverage samples, performing food experiments and writing the results of each experiment. Some food chemists perform supervisory duties such as training food interns. Employers seek a bachelor's degree in biochemistry or chemistry. Food chemists can find work in laboratories and food manufacturing companies. The Simply Hired Job Search shows an April 2010 report with average annual earnings of $52,000.
Laboratory Technicians
Laboratory technicians are responsible for maintaining equipment, completing laboratory tests and helping senior scientists with quality control. Employers seek applicants with a bachelor's degree in chemistry, biochemistry or general science. Some work environments include medical research institutions, independent laboratories and academic settings, including colleges. The Simply Hired Job Search shows an April 2010 report with average annual wages of $35,000.
Zoologists
Zoologists study animals in laboratory settings and nature. Some duties include monitoring animal behavior patterns, collecting data and preparing laboratory reports. Entry-level field technician positions require a bachelor's degree in zoology. Positions in teaching or researching requires a master's or doctorate degree. Work environments include wildlife environments, zoos and government agencies. The Career Builder Salary shows an April 2010 report with an average annual salary of $55,000.
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A weather inversion, or temperature inversion, is a layer of atmosphere where the decrease in temperature with an increase in height is much lower than expected. Eventually, the temperature begins to increase instead of continuing to decrease. Typically, temperature continues to drop the higher you get. The inversion creates a "ceiling" of atmosphere that literally traps pollutants and smoke.
Stable Atmospheric Conditions
Stable conditions occur when the atmosphere warms up with height.
When the atmosphere warms up with height, a stable atmospheric condition is created. This is why pollutants are able to be trapped. A cooled atmospheric layer, in contrast, is an unstable atmospheric condition in which pollutants can disperse.
Regional Subsidence Inversion
Elevation can affect regional inversion.
If air comes down from a high elevation to a low elevation, the air warms up due to compression. This air also tends to be dry. In this type of inversion, the air originated over dry land and lost any of its moisture when it rose over a mountain range. The warm air mixes with the cool air of the ocean and forms a layer over the top of the cool air.
Radiation Inversion
Radiation inversions often happen in winter.
Radiation inversions often occur in the winter season. Nights are cool and have relatively low wind and no clouds. The ground emits heat into space in the form of long wave radiation. When this happens, the dirt and land cools. The cool land takes the heat from the lowest atmospheric layer of air, causing this layer to become colder than the layer of air above it.
Marine Inversions
Marine inversions happen over the ocean.
Air that is located over the ocean is cool and moist. This air can be blown towards lands by wind. Since cool air is more dense than warm air, it stays underneath the warm air. Since land heats up as the day goes on, the warm air rises and mixes with the cooler air from the ocean.
Signs of an Inversion
Smog in Cairo is a sign of temperature inversion.
If you notice that the sky is exceptionally hazy, this may be due to a temperature inversion. This is because inversion layers trap pollutants and smog. For example, think of the air quality in Los Angeles, which often has a temperature inversion in the atmosphere. Also, extra-red sunsets often point to a temperature inversion. Inversions are possible when there is no wind current. Wind mixes up the air, typically preventing an inversion.
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Pragmatics or social language coexist with language development.
Pragmatics is social language involving learning rules for interacting with others in socially acceptable behaviors. Pragmatics usually coexists with language development both consisting of learning vocabulary and grammar in progression at distinct ages, developing into meaningful speech patterns for communication.
Pragmatics
Modeling pragmatics assists your child in learning use words in communication for different purposes. It is helpful for you to demonstrate to your child components of social language and using correct language patterns to match a situation, like speaking differently in a classroom than on a playground. Another component includes following conversation rules as turn taking in conversation, rephrasing when misunderstood and staying on topic, according to the American Speech and Language Association.
Langauge Development
Language development is acquiring certain speech patterns at various ages. As your child learns language mostly from you, it is typical for him to pick up cues in other environments and copy different language uses in a variety of situations.
Warning
Your child's skills to use language influences his ability to build friendships, and interact with adults and peers. If your child is not expressing or using speech as compared to his peers you may want to consult with a medical professional to determine language and pragmatic delays.
Tags: social language, your child, language development, Pragmatics social, Pragmatics social language, speech patterns
Volcanoes like this one often cause earthquakes after or in the wake of an eruption.
Earthquakes have many facts and a long history to base activities around for teaching students. The movement of the earth's crust over the mantle, called plate tectonics, causes earthquakes when pressure buildup and friction release in violent forces rising to the surface, moving the land under our feet. The awesome power, frequency and potential violence of earthquakes makes them intriguing for students and teachers alike.
Coloring Pages
The U.S. Geological Survey offers many free drawings about earthquakes, their history, nature and science for teachers to use in the classroom. These drawings are made to be colored. Through this activity, the students learn about an interesting aspect of earthquake study, such as a map of the plates of the earth, a hazard map that shows the frequencies of earthquakes in different regions of the United States, and an image of the first seismograph, which was used by the ancient Chinese.
Plate Tectonics Vocabulary
The Quia website offers a free concentration game for vocabulary about plate tectonics. The game reviews terms and definitions about plate tectonics, an integral concept for understanding earthquakes. Some terms include asthenosphere, subduction zone and the Himalayan Mountain Range, the tallest mountains in the world that have created massive collisions of plates.
Word Search
The Association of Bay Area Governments in and around San Fransisco Bay created a number of activities to teach kids be safe during an earthquake. One of these is a word search for terms related to emergency supplies that you should have in case of an earthquake. These supplies include a blanket, radio, water and food. Another word search relates to earthquakes themselves, with terms like magnitude, waves, shaking and fault.
Tags: plate tectonics, about plate, about plate tectonics
The Princeton Review career quiz is one of many tools the company provides to its customers. This short survey is taken by those entering the workforce and by those wishing to change careers. The quiz provides insight into the types of employment best suited to the individual. It can be helpful in narrowing done the avenues in which the person would most likely enjoy working.
Function
The Princeton Review career quiz functions to begin the process of finding a career in which you can succeed. The theory behind the questionnaire is to identify "who" the person is so that suitable careers can be suggested and explored. It functions only as a preliminary tool meant to lead to a more in depth and specific assessment. The test works to provide a "quick and dirty" indication of the types of jobs a particular type of person should consider.
Features
This career assessment tool is free and can be taken by an individual in a matter of minutes. There are 24 multiple choice questions to be answered. Most of these questions ask you to identify what your preferences are or how you think you are likely to react in certain situations. Some of the questions directly deal with careers. Some question may ask you whether you would rather be a tax lawyer or newspaper editor. Other queries aim to find out more generally what type of person you are in general.
Considerations
Those taking the Princeton Review career quiz should be aware that behavior is considered in two ways. The first way is how you typically behave when there are no stressful situations occurring. The second way looks at how your behavior is when you are stressed. Often the same type of behavior is exhibited regardless of the presence of stress, but behavior is sometimes altered in difficult incidents.
Also, the career quiz tests for your motivations. It helps determine what you need and what you are interested in. These needs and desires have to be met by your work environment and co-workers for you to be in the type of employment suited specifically to you. The test is meant to identify your motivations and match them with complimentary careers.
Types
The results of the quiz are categorized into types which are represented by four different colors. These colors are based on your behavior and motivators. These colors are red for "expediting," green for "communicating." blue for "planning," and yellow for "administrating." These colors or types are used to generate lists of careers which are compatible with them. For example, a red result could indicate you would be happy with careers in architecture, geology, engineering, or criminology. Blue result might recommend employment as a teacher, writer, musician, or child care worker.
Benefits
Proponents of the career quiz claim it is very accurate and one of the best free tools for aiding people in their employment decisions. It is also respected for not only considering a person's job interests, but it is also praised for giving insight into which careers will be most likely to "treat" an individual the way he desires. For example, some persons require job environments that are calm and quiet in order to produce their finest work and enjoy their job. Others need a more stimulating environment with much "moving around" to be at their best and happiest.
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Science activities for substitute teachers need to be educational but also somewhat simple to teach.
Teachers must plan activities that will be available to someone who takes their place if they miss a day of work. Although teachers can use a modified version of their regular lesson plan for a substitute teacher, science teachers often must rearrange their plans completely for a substitute. Substitute teachers cannot be expected to supervise experiments, lab equipment or explosive elements and expensive equipment. Science teachers need a variety of resources to use as activities for substitute teachers.
Science Research
For a general science activity any time of the year, students can use computers, the school media center or encyclopedias and textbooks to research the branches of science, famous scientists and their inventions or discoveries, and the history of a particular branch of science, such as chemistry or astronomy. Students can even use this information to write questions for their classmates to answer during class or on a future class assignment.
Fast Food Nutrition
Students can go online and research daily nutritional recommendations from the Food and Drug Administration. They can then research the websites of a variety of fast food restaurants and list in spreadsheet form the calories, fat, sodium, cholesterol and carbohydrates found in popular menu items. They can use this information to come up with recommendations for healthy eating choices at these restaurants and display this information on a poster or slide-show presentation.
Question Based Inquiry
Students can practice answering constructive questions in this lesson plan. The substitute holds a container full of relevant science topics and allows each student to choose one topic from the container. The student must come up with at least 10 questions about his topic, using a variety of question words and detailed information. For instance, instead of asking, "What is astronomy?" he might ask, "What is the history of astronomy?" or "Who first determined that astronomy was a branch of science?" Students can use their textbooks, the Internet, encyclopedias and other reference sources to find the answers to their questions.
A Day in the Life
For elementary-school children, the entire day can focus on a particular type of animal, such as ocean animals or zoo animals. When students enter the classroom, the substitute teacher will put the name or picture of an animal on their backs. They must ask yes or no questions of their classmates to discover what animal they are. For the rest of the day that animal will guide their activities. Students will work in groups based on animal types such as cats or mammals, line up based on animal attributes and work together in centers based on the first letter of their animal name. They can play games with animal sounds and movements, such as "Simon Says." They can read stories about animals at story time and color animal pictures during arts and crafts. The whole day becomes a science activity that is fun for the students and the substitute teacher.
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Interactive activities to visualize water erosion.
Environmental issues are becoming a hot topic of discussion in elementary schools. More teachers and schools are implementing methods to conserve our environment. Water erosion is a topic that teachers can expand on through scientific activities and experiments. Teachers can engage students with water-erosion lessons that provide hands-on exploration.
Clay Experiment
The teacher needs to prepare a clay mound in a tray or pan. Small rocks, counters and pennies can be pushed into the top of the clay. It is best to perform the experiment outside to avoid mess. The teacher can then spray the clay mound with water mist to show how the clay washes away. The rocks, counters and pennies will create summits out of the clay. The students can conclude the soft surface of clay is less durable than harder surfaces in terms of water erosion. This allows students to critically evaluate other ways in which water erosion can occur.
Simulated Beach Erosion
To show the effects of water erosion on our beaches, a simulated beach can be made. The teacher can use a large, enclosed tray to create a small-scale beach. On one side of the tray, the teacher can make a small sandy beach. The teacher can place pebbles and stones in the sand. Add water to the other side of the tray to complete the beach. Salt water can be used in place of fresh water to ensure a more authentic version of the activity. The teacher can then move the tray to create wave-like motions in the water. Students record their observations and draw conclusions on the water erosion of beaches.
Grand Canyon Interactive Activity
Using the Grand Canyon as a visual example of water erosion allows students to see the full extent of this environmental issue. The rock layers of the Grand Canyon can be discussed prior to this activity, showing the extent of the erosion that has occurred over the years. Students will first use an interactive map of Arizona on the internet, and zoom in on the Grand Canyon to find its location. The students then trace the Colorado River, seeing where it runs through the canyon. Then they watch the video "Grand Canyon: The Hidden Secrets," and afterward complete National Geographic's "Grand Canyon Brainteaser" to demonstrate what they learned. The teacher can have students create a poster to solidify what they learned about the Grand Canyon.
Tags: Grand Canyon, water erosion, allows students, clay mound, counters pennies, erosion beaches
If you are teaching elementary school children about basic geology and paleontology, the children can become disinterested if you are only lecturing to them about minerals and fossils. Instead of only teaching geology in the front of the classroom, bring the lessons to life by showing the kids make a fossil replica using craft supplies. This will allow the students to see how fossils are situated inside rock and stone in the natural world.
Instructions
1. Form 1/2 lb. of modeling clay into a ball, and cut the ball in half using a clay wire. Select any color clay you prefer.
2. Place a seashell in between the two halves of clay, and press the clay around the seashell firmly. Pull apart the halves of clay and remove the seashell to expose the impression of the shell in the clay.
3. Pour 1/2 cup of plaster of Paris in a bowl, and add in 1/4 cup of water. Mix well for 2 minutes with a spoon.
4. Pour the plaster into the impression of the shell in both halves of clay, and allow the plaster to set for 1 hour.
5. Pull the clay away from the plaster to reveal the fossil. Repeat with other types of shells if desired.
There are many advantages in using renewable sources of energy.
The forces of nature have been powering the Earth's activity since the beginning of time. The wind, the sun and the thousands of lakes, oceans, rivers and streams have moved soil, heated rock and provided life-giving moisture for all of the biological and geological events that occur every day on this planet. These same forces are available to the human race to use, and there are many advantages of renewable energy sources such as these.
Crops for Fuel
Biofuels are a topic of growing interest for many who see definite advantages in using plants normally grown for food to be processed for fuel. Although the main focus is on corn and its fuel by-product, ethanol, other food crops are being studied for their potential use as an alternative source of energy.
Additionally, land use is being researched as part of the effort to maximize the available renewable sources. One such study, being conducted by an environmental engineer at the Argonne National Laboratory as part of the U.S. Department of Energy's Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy program (EERE), is looking at ways to use land that previously was seen as marginal for crop production because of inadequate soil quality or because of its location. The study focuses on areas of Nebraska farmland that have been disregarded as suitable for food crops, either because the land is used as a buffer zone between roads and fields or hasn't been productive due to soil or water integrity. The results of this study so far have shown that an increase of 22 percent in biofuel production is possible if marginal land is used for this purpose. One of the other advantages of this approach would be to use groundwater contaminated by nitrates from farming processes, which is unsuitable for crop production, as renewable sources of irrigation water for biofuel crops.
Environmental Factors
The awareness of suspected damage to the environment from industrial power plant processes has resulted in an enormous amount of research by scientific groups and citizen organizations concerned about this issue. One such group, the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS), reports that emissions from power plants release a significant amount of nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide into the air each year. The group believes that the advantages of using renewable sources of energy include not only reducing the presence of these harmful elements in the environment, but easing the overall effect of implementing compliance regulations such as the Clean Air Act and the Kyoto Treaty as well. UCS points to the difficulty in maintaining a sufficient governmental regulation of pollutants due to cost concerns, resulting in a piecemeal approach that will prove to be ineffective in the long run. In their estimation, renewable sources of energy, such as biomass technology, produce virtually no emissions of carbon dioxide and other pollutants compared to fossil fuels such as coal and even natural gas.
Solar Energy
The discovery of solar power as an energy source in 1767 by Swiss scientist Horace de Saussure set into motion an interest in the use of the sun's heat and light. In 1839, French physicist Edmund Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic properties of the sun's energy, which has led to vast amounts of research into the ways that solar power can be used for electricity needs. These pioneers in solar energy research started a trend that continues today, as solar panel designs and geothermal technology attempt to improve on the capability of mankind to use this ever-present source of energy to power the world. These technologies have shown that solar energy can be tapped, even in areas where annual sunlight availability is low, or where the remoteness of the location isolates energy users from main electricity grids. The advantage of photovoltaic systems in particular is seen in the lack of moving parts required in most systems, the low level of pollutants produced and the ease of installation and lack of large-scale maintenance required to keep such a system running for 20 or 30 years.
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A powerful 1975 earthquake caused Hawaii's Kilauea Volcano to erupt.
Volcanoes produce seismic activity as well as being affected by seismic events such as earthquakes. The question of which comes first --- an eruption or a quake --- can be as puzzling as the old chicken-vs.-the egg mystery. Furthermore, not all earthquakes incite or are related to volcanic action. But the Pacific Disaster Center notes a strong relationship between the two.
Releasing Magma
Maps of earthquake locations throughout the world show volcanoes in close proximity, the Pacific Disaster Center says. They both occur at the edges of tectonic plates, which are huge slabs of the earth's crust --- both on land and under the ocean --- that slide, bump into each other and pull apart again.
When the plates move, pressure is released from inside the earth, creating earthquakes. Volcanoes form from magma (molten rock also called lava) that breaks through the earth's crust at plate boundaries. Movement of magma within existing volcanoes is one cause for many of the world's earthquakes, but usually small ones with a magnitude of 3 or less. The United States Geological Service (USGS) says that sometimes these earthquakes are the only sign that a volcano "is becoming restless."
Predicting Eruptions
An instrument called a seismometer is used to measure both earthquake and volcanic movement. By locating numerous seismometers within 12 miles of a volcano's vent, scientists can detect small earthquakes related to the volcano. These quakes are caused by shifting crust under the volcano and around its base as well as from the movement of magma within its cone. Almost all volcanic eruptions in Hawaii are preceded by an increase in earthquakes, according to the USGS. If sizeable enough, an earthquake can also cause an eruption. Hawaii's magnitude 7.2 earthquake in November 1975 not only created "remarkable ground movement," the USGS says, but also a tsunami and the eruption of Kilauea Volcano.
Producing Champagne Effect
Earthquakes can shake up the magma in volcanoes, creating a pop-the-cork explosion that scientists affiliated with Oxford University refer to as the "champagne effect." Their 2008 study was titled "The Influence of Great Earthquakes on Volcanic Eruption Rate Along the Chilean Subduction Zone." A report about the study in the "The Sunday Times" of London says that "volcanoes erupt up to four times more often after a large earthquake than they would without the seismic agitation." The Oxford research team based this conclusion on historical records of eruptions occurring over 150 years in southern Chile.
Tags: Disaster Center, earth crust, Kilauea Volcano, magma within, Pacific Disaster, Pacific Disaster Center, says that
Create an ash-blowig volcano in just a few easy steps
Volcanoes are places on the earth's surface where molten rock, gases and pyroclastic debris erupt through the earth's crust. Many volcanoes are in the shapes of domes or mountains. Magma is molten rock within the earth's crust that becomes lava when it erupts. Rock also comes from volcanoes in the form of ash, finely powdered rock that looks like dark smoke. Just a few steps can help you to create your own model volcano that erupts and blows ash.
Instructions
1. Select a spot in your backyard, and lay newspapers over the work area. Place a large cookie sheet on the newspaper, and place a piece of cardboard inside of the sheet to serve as your volcano base. Then, glue the bottom of the plastic film canister to the center of the cardboard platform. Allow the glue to dry for an hour.
2. Mix the flour and salt in a bowl and add one to two cups of water until you have a clay-like consistency. Mix the combination with your hands, making sure the mixture is moist but dry enough to cure quickly.
3. Mold the clay mixture around the base of the plastic film canister until you get to the top of the canister. Make sure the base of your volcano is wider than the top part, which should be narrow. Allow this mixture to dry completely. Make sure the inside of the mixture is not too wet or else the weight will cause the clay to break away from the canister.
4. Next, make lava channels and erosion gullies in the clay and paint the clay mixture brown. You also can use green paint to paint areas of trees or white paint to place snow on the top of the volcano.
5. Place 20 ml of water in the plastic film canister, followed by half of an Alka-Seltzer tablet. Then, quickly and firmly put the canister lid back on, and place one tsp. of real volcanic ash or cornstarch powder on top of the lid. Watch the lid bulge and then blow off violently. You will see the volcanic ash blow everywhere.
Tags: film canister, plastic film, plastic film canister, clay mixture, earth crust
A paleontologist is a geoscientist who specializes in the study of the evolution of life millions of years ago by analyzing the fossils of plants, animals and microbial life. Some paleontologists have an academic background in geology and others in physical anthropology, but they all use various technologies to analyze fossils and their placement in geological strata to increase our understanding of the history of life.
Education of a Paleontologist
All paleontologists have at least an undergraduate degree. According to O*Net Online, 57 percent of geoscientists (including paleontologists) had a bachelor's degree and 42 percent had a master's degree as of 2009. The average education level for paleontologists is probably even higher given the relatively high percentage employed in academia (almost all of whom will have a master's or PhD).
Annual Median Salary of Paleontologists
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the annual median salary of a paleontologist in 2009 was $81,220. Over 34,000 people were employed as paleontologists in the U.S. in 2009.
Annual Median Salary of Paleontologists by Industry
The BLS lists the oil & gas industry as the highest paying industry for paleontologists, with an annual median salary of $127,560. Paleontologists employed by architectural, engineering, and related firms earned a median salary of $66,770. Paleontologists working for the federal government earned a median salary of $90,220, and those working for state governments earned $57,770.
Employment Prospects
Employment prospects are good for paleontologists. The BLS projects that paleontologist jobs will grow by 14 to 19 percent between 2008 and 2018, slightly faster than average job growth.
Tags: median salary, Annual Median, Annual Median Salary, annual median salary, earned median
Dinosaurs were the dominant species on Earth until about 65 million years ago. At this time, a mass extinction occurred across the planet. It is believed a large mass impacted Earth, causing half of all living things to die. Many kinds of new organisms appeared after this event. The ones that took center stage were mammals. Before the dinosaur extinction, mammals were mainly small, nocturnal creatures, but afterward, these animals came out of the shadows and began to diversify.
Grasses
One kind of plant that thrived after the dinosaur era was grass. Grasses diversified on Earth about 54 million years ago. Today, more than 10,000 species of grass thrive on Earth. These plants quickly spread, forming savannas and prairies. No one is sure why grasslands begin to thrive, but scientists do know that Earth's climate had changed. Some think that, after the extinction event, Earth had drier weather. Others believe that Earth's carbon dioxide levels fell. Regardless, grass evolved by converting sunlight and nutrients in a more efficient manner. The explosion of grasses like wheat, rice and millet as well as forage grasses helped other mammals evolve after the dinosaur era.
The Age of Mammals
Without dinosaurs, there was a huge niche available for life. Mammals took over after the dinosaur era. Early relatives of primates, carnivores and herbivores appeared in the Paleocene era 65 million years ago. The first large mammal in this time period was the size of a pony and was called Pantolambda. After the Paleocene era came the Eocene era, beginning 55 million years ago. During this time period, herbivores diversified. First, odd-toed herbivores --- forerunners to horses --- appeared. After that came even-toed herbivores, forerunners to camels. Late-comers on the scene in Earth's long history finally appeared. The first apes evolved in the Miocene epoch, about 23 million years ago.
Whales
Ten million years after the dinosaurs, during the Eocene era, a land carnivore returned to the ocean. This carnivore was similar to the wolf, and its remains are found in modern day Pakistan. This animal had legs and spent some time on land, but was a forerunner of the modern-day whale. Fast forward 15 million years, and a fully aquatic whale called the Basilosaurus was on the scene. It still had small hind legs, though it could not walk. This ancient whale is now extinct. Current whales include toothed and baleen whales.
Homo Sapiens
Bipedal human ancestors appeared on Earth about 3 million years ago. The famous fossil "Lucy" is one of modern human's most recent ancestors, and was found in modern-day Ethiopia. Man is one of the most adaptable living organisms to ever evolve on Earth. Homo sapiens or modern humans are extremely new when compared with other living things on Earth. They evolved in Africa 200,000 years ago, and were hunters and gatherers. The skeletons of our direct ancestors were a much lighter build than the skeletons of other indirect ancestors. The first homo sapiens had large brains, small jaws and smaller teeth than any ancestor before.
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Individual universities, the oil industry and professional groups award school grants for geology to outstanding students and those in need of financial aid. Students who intend to pursue a career in one of the geological sciences qualify. Grants, available to both undergraduate and graduate students, cover research, field camp and general tuition.
Geological Society of America
The Geological Society of America awards research grants to graduate students in the geological sciences in the United States, Canada, Mexico and Central America. Applicants must be GSA members and enrolled in a North or Central American university. The Subaru Minority Student Scholarship Program awards undergraduate minority students pursuing a degree in each of the GSA regional sections. Three of the six GSA regions (northeastern, south central and southeastern) award scholarships to undergraduates. Division grants are awarded in specific disciplines like planetary geology, coal geology and geobiology.
Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Institute
The Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Institute awards scholarships to full-time junior and senior students pursuing a career in engineering or mining-related industries. The institute selects one student from each of the RMCMI states: Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, North Dakota, Montana, Utah and Wyoming. Continuing scholarships renew on the recommendation of the dean of the college the student is attending. The program also awards one-year scholarships to students in technical or trade schools in the eight member states.
The Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists
AEG awards scholarships to students in the fields of geology, environmental geology and hydrogeology. Grants awarded through the Marliave Scholarship Fund support outstanding seniors or graduate students in geological engineering. Undergraduate, masters and doctoral students qualify for Martin L. Stout Scholarships and Norman R. Tilford Field Scholarships. The Lemke Scholarship Fund awards students presenting a paper for the first time at an association meeting and Beardsley-Cooper funds pay for field camp tuition at accredited universities. Several AEG sections also award scholarships to students within their geographical areas.
University of Southern Indiana
The University of Southern Indiana awards eight scholarships to students demonstrating high levels of academic excellence. Applications, open to high school students applying to college for the first time, geology majors and earth-science teaching majors are reviewed by faculty. Five scholarships, given in honor of Walter F. Sill, go to students showing academic achievements in geology, to a student showing promise who wishes to study geology and to a student attending geology field camp. The Indiana Oil and Gas Association awards a scholarship to a student planning to work in the oil industry in Indiana. Two other scholarships award students planning to teach or to pursue environmental or business issues.
Tags: scholarships students, field camp, graduate students, award scholarships, awards scholarships
The dictionary definition of a hot spring is a water source that is warmer than the surrounding area, but ask people who have been to one, and they will have a different answer. Hot springs have had a mystique about them for thousands of years. They are said to be mystical and have the ability to heal.
Geology
Hot springs, or thermal springs, are most commonly created from water trickling through layers of rocks, accumulating minerals and heating up from the pressure of the earth. If it encounters a fault line, it is thrust back up to the surface, bringing the minerals and heat with it. Because of the heat and high concentration of minerals, it is believed that hot springs have healing powers. The flora and fauna differs in the area of a hot spring because of the heat and difference in minerals. Often, bacteria from deep within the earth is brought with the springs, which changes the environment.
Recreation
For centuries, hot springs have been popular recreational spots. Hot Springs, Arkansas has built a tourism industry around their springs with restaurants, spas and outdoor activities. Chena Hot Springs in Alaska has an entire resort community that includes a wedding chapel and tours.
Healing
For thousands of years, people all over the world have flocked to hot springs because of the reported healing powers. Although not scientifically proven, believers claim that the concentrated minerals and hot water can have an impact on chronic diseases. The famous Lourdes Springs of France was said to have healed a young girl that later became Saint Bernadette Soubirous. Today, millions have visited the famous springs and it is considered a sacred place.
Spirituality
In addition to Lourdes, many other hot springs are known for attracting the spiritual. Ojo Caliente in New Mexico combines the springs with spiritual teachings and meditations, and Japan's onsens are as revered as Mount Fuji. Hot springs near Cuzco, Peru are both traditional holy places and New Age training grounds.
Most Famous
Some of the most famous hot springs are in the West of the United States. Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming features Old Faithful, a geyser that consistently spouts boiling water every 90 minutes. Because of the park's geothermic features, it boasts hundreds of hot springs, pools, streams and geysers.
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Fossils are created when organic material becomes trapped in a soft substance that hardens over time. These substances include tree resin, naturally occurring tar, ice, loose sand and soil, and natural concrete. Fossils are most often found in forms of sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock is made up of the hardened buildup of sand, clay and other materials that are deposited by wind and water.
Shale
Shale is a smooth rock that is made from layers of clay. The layers make the rock flaky and the clay gives it a gray, brown, black or red color. A variety of fossils have been discovered since 1909 in the Burgess Shale, a very large shale deposit in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. These include what are widely regarded as the most well-preserved fossils of specimens from the Cambrian period, including trilobites, worms, and crinoids, or "sea lilies."
Limestone
Limestone is white or off-white calcium-based rock that is created from the buildup of shells. Limestone is usually found in oceans or places that were once oceans, so most of the fossils found in limestone are from aquatic plants and animals. The Redwall and Temple Butte limestone deposits in the Grand Canyon have produced marine fossils including clams, trilobites and corals as well as the fossils of freshwater fish.
Dolomite
Dolomite is similar to limestone in that it is formed from calcium-rich animal shells, but it contains more magnesium. In 1999, fossilized organisms derived from cyanobacteria were discovered in a 3.45 billion-year-old dolomite deposit in the Pilbara Range in northwest Australia, reports BBC News. Cyanobacteria is one of the oldest living organisms, and the fossils are considered to be among the oldest ever found.
Sandstone
As its name indicates, sandstone is a coarse-textured rock composed of fused sand particles. Though you can often slough off grains of sand from sandstone with your fingers, the rock can contain fossils from organisms as delicate as jellyfish. The Navajo Sandstone in the Colorado Plateau houses fossilized stromatolites, which are originally formed from cyanobacteria. Like the cyanobacteria fossils found in the Pilbara range, these are among the oldest fossils ever discovered, according to the National Park Service.
Siltstone
Siltstone is a gritty rock made from mica, clay, silica and other minerals. It is similar to shale in that it has layers and shale often has large amounts of silt in it, but siltstone is harder and its layers are thinner. Fossilized corals, bryozoa (jellyfish-like animals), and gastropods (a class of animals including snails and slugs) have been found in the siltstone deposits of the Owens Valley formation in Death Valley National Park.
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Hydrogeologists study the earth's natural liquids.
Hydrogeologists study the interaction between the earth and liquids, particularly natural liquids like petroleum and water. They understand how fluids like these move above, through and underneath the earth, and can find employment either with the government, private industry or teaching in a university. Before a hydrogeologist can do any of that, though, he needs the proper education -- and the degree he must pursue depends upon his career goals.
Bachelor's Degree
A bachelor's degree may be sufficient for you to find a job, but not necessarily the one that you want. In this field, a B.A. gets you little more than an entry-level position, meaning that instead of working independently to analyze research, write reports and present findings to an employer, you may perform simple work like collecting data and taking orders in the field from a senior hydrogeologist.
Master's Degree
Most hydrogeologists have a master's degree. This is the most typical educational requirement for hydrogeologists working outside academia. Those working for private industry, geological surveys and federal agencies, for example, almost always need to have a master's. While some schools offer master's programs specifically in hydrogeology, others offer it only as a concentration within a geoscience or environmental science program.
Ph.D.
If you want to teach hydrogeology, you typically need a doctorate. A Ph.D. qualifies you to teach at a college level, and since hydrogeology is such a specialized field, you can generally only find opportunities to teach it at that level. Planning a teaching career or pursuing a high-level research position are typically the only instances in which you need a Ph.D. in this field. If you aren't interested in either of these, a master's is sufficient.
Areas of Interest
Hydrogeology is an applied science that requires a strong working knowledge of the instruments used to collect, organize and analyze data. Strong computer skills are required, including the use of computer modeling programs, data analysis, digital mapping and geographic information systems (GIS). You learn to use these and other programs while completing a master's program, which is one of the reasons why this degree is so vital to finding a career in hydrogeology.
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Landslides are a natural result of weathering and erosion.
Introducing science experiments during the elementary years is important in order to capture a child's natural curiosity, while also building critical thinking skills and understanding of the scientific process. Weathering and erosion are concepts students can readily identify with, and with simple experiments students can make the connections to this natural process on a larger scale.There are many simple experiments for third-grade students which can demonstrate the natural actions of the effects of weathering and erosion upon the earth.
Acid Rain
Acid rain accelerates weathering of natural materials.
Attributes of weathering can be found throughout a third-grade student's environment. Introduce a student to what increases weathering, such as acid rain, which changes a material over time. In order to simulate acid rain, use a water solution containing vinegar. Provide students with background information on how acidity levels in the environment breaks down natural material such as rock. To demonstrate this, have students keep an observational log on the effect of acid on limestone. Provide students with a small chunk of limestone and a cup of water infused with 4 tablespoons vinegar. Provide them with a second bit of limestone and a cup of plain water. Submerge the chunk of limestone in each cup. At specified intervals have students observe the limestone in both cups and record their findings. Sediment (or weathering of the limestone) should be noted at the bottom of the acid-laden cup. Discuss how acidic-based water breaks down rock and have students make connections to the greater implications of acid rain upon larger rock formations.
Solar Weathering
The heating of the sun upon rock, and the cooling of rain and snow, causes the weathering and breakdown of rock. Using a Bunsen burner and a bucket of cold water, replicate this process. Because the rock reaches high temperatures, the teacher should carry out this experiment for students as a demonstration. Students can hypothesize, record results and make connections to the environmental process.
Make sure to wear safety goggles as you carry out this experiment. Pick up a small piece of granite with tongs and hold over the blue flame of a Bunsen burner until the rock glows with heat. Next, plunge the heated rock into a bucket of cold water. Leave the rock in the water until it cools completely and then remove. Have students observe what is left in the bottom of the bucket. They should see some rock sediment. Have them observe the rock and write their observations of change. Repeat the process, demonstrating the weathering of rock due to sun and rain over time.
Temperature-Effect Experiment
Discuss with students how water seeps into the crack and crevices of wood and rock. Further explain how freezing temperatures cause liquid to expand. This process breaks down rock and wood matter over time.
Have students fill a small, clear plastic gravy separator, filling it with water up to the spout. Freeze the container. The next day, have students observe the container. The temperature drop and freezing should force the water up into the spout, demonstrating expansion. Relate this to the action of water, rain and snow which enters the crevices of rock or wood, freezing and expanding the materials,eventually breaking them down into smaller pieces.
Water-Erosion Experiment
The power of water along coastlines and riverbanks changes land contours.
Erosion occurs from the weathering aspect of land formation, as the smaller particles are moved from one location to another. Explain to students that this can be caused by wind or water over a period of time, or suddenly due to weather conditions. An example of this would be the sudden erosion of the coastline of Louisiana after Hurricane Katrina. Showing students a coastal map of the Gulf coast region before and after the storm will demonstrate this.
As an experiment, students can create a simulated land form and see how water (rain or flooding) can erode and reshape the land. Have students pack down sand into the bottom of a paint tray. Next, using a watering can, have students slightly sprinkle water on the packed sand and discuss what they are observing. The water should move the sand a bit. Next, have students pour the water. Sand should move down the slope of the paint tray, simulating land erosion. Explain to students the process of heavy rains upon land with the interaction of gravity, moving matter down slope
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