Tour Maryland'S Eastern Shore

Maryland's Eastern Shore is flat, providing excellent bicycling opportunities any time except summer weekends, when automobiles fill the roads. Islands of the Chesapeake Bay and numerous inlets and rivers also provide beaches and docks for boats. Quaint historic towns offer opportunities for walkers.

Instructions

1. Drive across the Chesapeake Bay Bridge from Annapolis to Maryland's Eastern Shore on U.S. 50. Head south. Congestion and rubbernecking make the ride difficult on Fridays and Saturdays from the end of May through Labor Day weekend. Other times of the year or week are not nearly as bad.

2. Pass the Wye Island Natural Resource Management Area and Pickering Creek Audubon Center. These sites on U.S. 50, before entering the first town, Easton, suggest the importance of bird-watching and sanctuaries on the shore. You can see bald eagles, herons and ospreys.

Stop in Easton to enjoy one of three walking tours, available on the web at www.eastonmd.org/download/walktour.pdf.

Black ducks flock to the Cedar Island Wildlife Management Area off U.S. 13 in Tangier Sound on the shore's south side. Cedar Island boasts nearly 3,000 acres of tidal marsh, ponds and creeks.

3. Continue south on U.S. 50 through Cambridge and you arrive at Vienna at the State Route 331 bypass. Proceed north a few miles and you are in the heart of the Underground Railroad. Both Harriett Tubman and Frederick Douglass hailed from the Eastern Shore, Tubman from Dorchester County and Douglass from Talbot County.

4. Proceed to Ocean City at the end of U.S. 50. Once a summer place, the area is now a large oceanfront resort that hosts a convention center and year-round businesses.

5. Turn on to U.S. 301 when it splits from U.S. 50 to move north to the historic, scenic small towns.

Chesapeake City is the northernmost town on the shore. The C&D Canal connects the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays. Oceangoing ships sail by the town, inviting visitors to gawk. The C&D Canal Museum and Chesapeake City Historical District make excellent walking tours.

Chestertown was an important port of entry for colonial settlers to Maryland. Several buildings date to the 18th century. The town dock also ports the schooner "Sultana." The ship is a replica of a merchant vessel that served for four years as the smallest schooner ever in the British Royal Navy. Launched in 2001, "Sultana" now sails as the "Schoolship of the Chesapeake," providing educational programs for thousands of students each year.

These towns are only 30 miles apart, and the surface is flat, making for an excellent bicycle trip.

St. Michaels offers the Chesapeake Bay Maritime Museum, shops, restaurants and hotels. Dedicated to the preservation of the bay's maritime history, the island offers excellent walking opportunities for groups and couples. Some of the buildings on the island date back to the 1700s.

Tilghman Island is home to the last commercial sailing fleet in North America, the skipjacks, which are on display at Dogwood Harbor. The island is also known for its fishing and fresh seafood.

Tags: Eastern Shore, Maryland Eastern, Maryland Eastern Shore, Cedar Island, Chesapeake City

Remove The Scratches From Outdoor Unfinished Limestone

Soft, neutral tones make limestone a popular choice in a variety of building projects, including tile floors, fireplace hearths and outdoor walls, fences and patios. Builders often leave limestone unfinished to preserve its natural texture and tone. Without a protective seal, however, limestone has increased vulnerability to damage such as scratches. Fortunately, limestone's softness allows for the removal of light, medium or even deep scratches through abrasion techniques. Does this Spark an idea?

Instructions

Light Scratches

1. Dampen the wadded end of a clean cloth with mineral oil.

2. Rub the scuffed area, using medium pressure to buff out the scratches.

3. Wash the area with warm, soapy water. Rinse the stone, and then allow it to dry. Repeat the process if any signs of the scratches remain.

Medium Scratches

4. Sand the scratched area with silicon carbide 300-grit sandpaper, applying firm pressure to shear the stone surface until the scratches disappear. For large repair areas, use a power sander.

5. Massage the sanded area with mineral oil, using a clean cloth.

6. Wash the area with warm, soapy water. After the limestone dries, inspect the area. Repeat the process if there is still evidence of the scratches.

Deep Scratches

7. Abrade deep scratches with 100-grit silicon carbide sandpaper, using a power sander. Once the scratches become nearly invisible, finish sanding with 300-grit sandpaper.

8. Rub the sanded limestone surface with mineral oil.

9. Clean the stone with soap and water, and leave it to dry. If any of the scratches still show, sand the area again with 300-grit sandpaper, then re-treat with mineral oil and wash the area thoroughly.

Tags: area with, with mineral, 300-grit sandpaper, area with warm, clean cloth, power sander, Repeat process

Identify Landforms Of A Topography Map

Topography maps use contour lines to describe mountains, lowlands and waters.

At first glance a topographic map looks like a random assortment of lines, curvy shapes and pastel colors. Topographic maps use contour lines or level lines to represent an area's three-dimensional surface features in a two-dimensional medium, such as paper. Mapmakers assign representative shapes or contours to particular types of landforms such as mountains and river valleys, and they place numbers adjacent to lines to indicate elevations. These lines run through and connect all areas of the same elevation. The maps depict landforms from a top-down perspective, so features appear to you as if you are viewing them from directly above.

Instructions

1. Locate a number written next to or between two segments of a line on a topographical map. The lines are usually brown. This number represents elevation.

2. Interpret the elevation that the number represents by referring to the map's key or legend. Determine if the number five, for example, represents five feet or five meters of elevation above sea level.

3. Follow or trace the line on the map. All areas along the line are at the same elevation.

4. Locate steep increases in elevation by noting how close level lines are to one another. The lines of a steep slope are close together. The lines on the map which are farthest apart represent the most gradual increase in elevation.

5. Locate an isolated hill on the map by looking for a series of concentric rings. Notice the difference in the elevation of the inner ring (the top of the hill) and the outer rings, which represent the descending slopes.

Tags: contour lines, elevation Locate, level lines, maps contour, maps contour lines, number represents

The Best Accounting Phd Programs

Top accounting schools offer courses in financial accounting.

The top accounting Ph.D. programs are located at some of the top graduate business schools in the nation. Some of these schools are world renowned and offer numerous degree programs and various specializations within many of these. "U.S. News & World Report" ranked the top business schools in the U.S. in the discipline of accounting in 2010.

University of Illinois

The No. 4 rated accounting program in the nation is located at the University of Illinois (UI). UI was formerly the No. 3 ranked program in 2009, but slipped to the No. 4 position for 2010. Nonetheless, the Illinois accounting program has consistently been highly rated for its accounting program for years. The Ph.D. program emphasizes various areas of accounting research including microeconomics, statistics, research methods in accounting and contemporary research in accounting.

University of Illinois--Urbana-Champaign

College of Business

515 E. Gregory Dr.

Champaign, IL 61820

217-244-7602

mba.illinois.edu

University of Chicago

The third highest rated accounting program for 2010 is the University of Chicago's Booth School of Business. The Booth School is one of the top-rated business schools in the world and is renowned for its research and programs in various aspects of business. The Ph.D. in accounting is such a program. Students at the Booth School receive generous financial aid packages and laptop computers as part of their admission. Research in the Ph.D. program emphasizes areas such as taxation, auditing and research in capital markets.

The University of Chicago

Booth School of Business

5807 S. Woodlawn Ave.

Chicago, IL 60637

773-702-7743

chicagobooth.edu

University of Pennsylvania

The University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School of Business is the second highest rated program for the study of accounting at the doctoral level. The Wharton School also ranked No. 2 in the nation in 2009. Specializations within the Ph.D. program include finance, research theory in accounting, economics, empirical research, statistics and econometrics. One of the strengths of the University of Pennsylvania program is opportunities students have to pursue joint-degrees and multi-disciplinary research. Students can pursue studies in law through the law school or studies in other areas outside of the business school.

University of Pennsylvania

Wharton School

420 Jon M. Huntsman Hall

3730 Walnut St.

Philadelphia, PA 19104

215-898-6183

wharton.upenn.edu

University of Texas

The perennial favorite among accounting programs on the "U.S. News & World Report" rankings list is the McCombs School of Business at the University of Texas (UT). Ranked No. 1 in both 2009 and 2010, the University of Texas accounting program offers a Ph.D. in addition to various master's degrees in the accounting field. Students in the Ph.D. program at UT benefit from the numerous accounting research centers sponsored by the Texas program. One of the hallmarks of the UT program is its emphasis on applied research. Students study areas such as behavioral research in accounting and analytic research in accounting.

University of Texas

McCombs School of Business

1 University Station,

B6004

Austin, TX 78712

512-471-7698

mccombs.utexas.edu

Tags: accounting program, School Business, Booth School, University Pennsylvania, University Texas, 2010 University, business schools

The Average Starting Salary For A College Graduate With A Bachelor'S Degree In Economics

An economics degree can prove financially rewarding for recent graduates.

For a college major that is intellectually stimulating, opens doors to a wide range of career options and holds the potential for a strong starting salary, economics is hard to beat. The American Economic Association and "The Wall Street Journal" both reported that economics majors, on average, earn higher starting salaries than majors in many other fields, including many business concentrations.

Average Salary

In a 2008 survey of starting salaries by academic major, "The Wall Street Journal" reported that economics majors earned an average starting salary of $50,100 a year. The survey revealed that economics majors earned higher starting salaries than majors in the other social sciences, such as political science, anthropology, sociology and psychology. Starting salaries in these fields ranged from $35,900 a year for psychology majors to nearly $41,000 a year for graduates with political science degrees.

Economics vs. Business Majors

The Journal also reported that economics majors, on average, have higher starting salaries than business majors. Compared to the average starting salary of $50,100 a year for economics degree recipients, starting salaries for majors in accounting, finance and business management averaged $46,000, $47,900 and $43,000 a year, respectively. Although it is not occupation-specific, a degree program in economics provides the intellectual base for a successful business career. The problem-solving and analytical skills taught in economics courses apply to many jobs in business, according to the American Economic Association.

Ranking

In a 2007 study of starting salaries by academic major, the American Economic Association reported that economics ranked fifth highest, trailing engineering and computer science majors, but exceeding business and other social science majors.

Potential

In addition to a strong starting salary, an economics degree provides excellent preparation for graduate-level study, leading to even greater career opportunities in a variety of fields. The American Economic Association reported that a bachelor's degree in economics prepares students for master of business administration (MBA) studies, law school and graduate studies in economics.

Tags: reported that, that economics, American Economic, American Economic Association, Economic Association

Painting & Animation Software

Painting and animation software can mimic traditional art tools.

With the rise of digital art applications, studio artists are no longer limited to traditional drawing, painting and animation tools. There are many software applications available that allow artists to create original pieces that can bear a striking resemblance to works created with oil, chalk, watercolor, acrylics, pastels, pencils and more.

Adobe Illustrator

Adobe Illustrator is the industry leader in illustration software. Users create vector-based artwork using an extensive set of drawing and effects tools. Illustrator is used by print, web, animation and video artists because the graphics created in the software can be exported and optimized in many different media formats. Illustrator can be purchased as a standalone product or bundled with other Adobe design products.

Canvas

ACD Systems' Canvas software is a competitor to Illustrator and a powerful application for drawing and editing vector and raster graphics. Many artists use Canvas because of its extensive paintbrush tools and its ability to import more than 100 types of file formats. Canvas is popular among technical artists because of its ability to import files and data used in the transportation, aviation and geological research. Canvas tools comply with Aviation Transportation Authority (ATA) and Petroleum Industry Protocol (PIP) standards.

Adobe Photoshop

Adobe Photoshop is primarily a tool for processing, editing, optimizing and managing digital images. Native Illustrator files can be seamlessly imported into Photoshop as well as many other file formats. Users can also draw raster graphics in Photoshop. Many designers use Photoshop to create low-bandwidth GIF animation to display on websites. Photoshop comes in several versions tailored to specific audiences and skill sets. In addition to the full version, the lightweight Photoshop Elements targets consumers with limited design knowledge while Photoshop Lightroom is tailored for serious photographers.

Adobe Flash

Adobe Flash is software used to create interactive and animated content for the web, mobile phones, kiosks and other devices. It is the leading tool for creating web animation. Flash has a limited set of tools for creating original graphics but it imports all types of media file formats. Interactivity can be enhanced using Flash's native programming language called ActionScript and with PHP and JavaScript.

CorelDRAW Graphics Suite

Corel's CorelDRAW Graphics Suite is an all-in-one application for vector-based illustration, digital painting, image editing, animation creation and page layout. It is a cheaper alternative to standalone or bundled Adobe products. A special feature of CorelDRAW Graphics Suite is its inclusion of more than 1,000 professional fonts and a library of clip art and royalty free photos. Illustrations and animation created in the application can be exported in a wide range of file formats for different media, including web and print.

Tags: file formats, CorelDRAW Graphics, CorelDRAW Graphics Suite, Graphics Suite, ability import

What Is A Player In Dating

When you are part of the dating scene, one type of person you most likely want to avoid is the player. This person can cause confusion among those he or she meets about actual intentions. It may seem like he wants a relationship with you, when in reality, chances are that is not the case. A player may leave a myriad of people hurt because of his actions, especially if they are done in secret.

Definition

A player is a person who intentionally plays mind games with those around him or her, specifically those whose attention she is trying to win, even if the attention is only temporary. Instead of focusing her attention on one person, she tries to win the affections of more than one person, usually without any of them knowing about the other.

Not Gender Specific

Despite the term usually associated with a male, the term "player" is not gender specific and can be used to refer to a male or female.

Signs

The signs that a person is a player include he or she comes into and vanishes out of your life, avoids the cell phone when in your presence and things just don't add up as far as where he has been.

Motivation

A player is usually looking for sex, control and the thrill of the game.

Relationship Status

The person does not have to be single in order to be considered a player. A player can also be someone in a relationship or is married.

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The Average Salary Of Well Loggers

Well loggers provide detailed geologic information for oil drilling operations.

Drilling for oil and natural gas involves well logging, also known as borehole logging. Professionals involved in this process install scientific equipment, collect data using physical samples and interpret the data collected. Experts working as part of the well-logging process also specialize in software programs and have knowledge of the geology in regions with large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Well-logging duties combine several career specialists and the salaries paid recognize the diversity of training and education for each field.

Drilling Engineers

A variety of occupations work as part of well-logging operations, including operating engineers, equipment operators, service unit operators, rotary drill technicians and wellhead pumpers. Workers earn hourly pay, typically for contract assignments in various geographic locations that require travel during the year. The median hourly pay ranged from an hourly low of $14.72 to a high of $27.95. Well loggers working in oil and gas industries topped the salary chart with hourly median wages reaching $31.58 for oil and gas extraction workers. Rotary drill operators in oil and gas industries took home a median wage of $22.01 an hour. College-educated mining and geological engineers, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, earned a median hourly salary of $41.99 in 2010, but the geological drilling specialists focusing on oil and gas made $55.90 for an hour of work.

Technology Installers

Modern techniques in well logging include the use of computerized hardware to capture data from the well as the drilling tools collect samples of the rock core. This highly technical equipment requires installation, monitoring and repair by workers holding training certification or degrees in the technology field. Trained technology specialists working in research and data collection the oil and gas industry took home a median hourly wage of $49.59 in 2010, according to the bureau.

Software Specialists

The computerized hardware used to evaluate data from the well core samples mandates specialized software and trained computer operators to develop the software to do the sophisticated analysis. Software specialists and programmers design programs for specific drilling applications for field well loggers working in the oil and gas industry. The Bureau of Labor Statistics recorded the median hourly salary for professionals in the software development field as $42.21 in 2010.

Geoscientists

Geoscientists play a key role as a member of a well-logger team. Geologists and related specialists use higher-education training, including the study of Earth's layers, gas and oil, underground water sources, basic principles of physics and mathematical science, to locate oil and gas reserves. Scientists working in the well-logging operations focus on directing the drilling operation and analyzing core samples taken from the drilling. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported geoscientists earned a mean hourly wage of $44.89 in 2010. Entry-level pay started at $21.07 in the same year.

Tags: median hourly, Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor Statistics, Labor Statistics, computerized hardware

Train As An Analytical Lab Technician

Analytical lab technicians test, interpret and document lab results.

Candidates with a college major in the physical sciences can opt for a career as an analytical laboratory technician. These professionals work in a variety of industries, including the medical, pharmaceutical, energy and geochemical sectors. Working with scientists and engineers, analytical lab technicians monitor, test and analyze materials used for consumer, commercial and industrial use. To qualify for this role, candidates must be able to use a variety of lab equipment and techniques to perform material, chemical and physical analyses.

Instructions

1. Start preparing for your analytical laboratory technician career in high school. Take courses in physics, chemistry, biology, statistics, advanced mathematics and English. Volunteer for science projects or join extracurricular activities that involve scientific research and laboratory work.

2. Complete an Associate in Applied Science or Bachelor of Science degree at an accredited community college, technical school or university. Major in the physical or life sciences. Take courses in geology, astronomy, physics, chemistry, writing, algebra, applied calculus, psychology, economics and the humanities. Build your computer literacy by enrolling in classes such as database management, computer networks and programming. Attain knowledge and experience in analytical chemistry and general laboratory practices.

3. Secure a part-time analytical lab technician job or internship during your college program. Shadow more experienced analytical lab technicians and learn perform basic job tasks. Help collect and analyze data, and practice working with lab tools and equipment. Learn accurately record laboratory notes, conduct standard tests and interpret different types of data. Develop knowledge of standard laboratory regulations, practices and procedures.

4. Obtain full-time employment and start your on-the-job training. Build your expertise in the latest, state-of-the-art laboratory equipment. Practice your presentation and interpersonal communication skills by reporting your findings orally and in writing. Gain proficiency in computer modeling, spreadsheet, database and word-processing software. Develop working knowledge of analytical testing equipment, including electroplating, filtration, wet chemistry techniques and spectrophometers.

Tags: analytical laboratory, analytical laboratory technician, analytical technicians, Build your, laboratory technician

A Tutorial For Arcview Gis

ArcView can be used to combine data with maps, creating a useful analytical tool.

ArcView GIS is a computer mapping software program that takes advantage of unique geographic identifiers to create connections between user data and mapping files. If you have a table of census data, for example, you can combine those geographic identifiers with mapping files, called "shapefiles," and create graphics showing concentrations or changes in populations. The major criteria for using ArcView effectively are a strong understanding of relational databases and unique values used to create "joins," or combined tables.

Instructions

1. Open ArcView. Add a geographic "theme," or a map and associated tables of a place, by clicking on the "Add Theme" button near the top of the screen. A "theme" might be something like a map showing all U.S. counties that includes a unique geographic code. The code is usually a five-digit string of numbers known as a Federal Information Processing Standard code.

2. Add a table by clicking on the "Table" icon in the left pane, then clicking "Add." Browse to the table you want to use. As a general rule, database files with *.dbf extensions work best in ArcView. Your table should appear on the screen.

3. Double-click on the geography table in the "Table" pane to open it, too. Arrange the two tables where you can see both. Click on the unique identifier in your data table, such as a FIPS code, to highlight it. Then click on the unique identifier in your geography table, which would also be a FIPS code. Click on the "Join Tables" icon at the top of the screen.

4. Click on the "View" window showing the map. Next, click on the "Legend" icon near the top of the screen. Select "Graduated color" from the dialog box. Use the pull-down menu in the box to select the geographic characteristic you want to display, such as total population or change in population. Click "Apply."

5. Save your project by clicking on the "Save" icon in the upper-right corner of the screen.

Tags: FIPS code, geographic identifiers, geography table, identifier your, mapping files, near screen, unique geographic

Types Of Micas In Schist Rock

Biotite and muscovite are the types of mica found in schist rock.

Micas are any of several minerals known for their ability to cleave into thin flexible sheets. They are abundant around the world in many colors and common to many kinds of rocks. The most common source for mica is mica schist, but in fact schist contains only two types of mica, biotite or muscovite. Others include ruby, green and phologopite (or amber) mica.

Biotite

Biotite is a mica common to many igneous and metamorphic rocks, including schists of all kinds, where its distinctive dark color is visible to the naked eye. Biotite is usually jet black, though it can also be dark green or brown. It is also notable for its perfect cleavage into thin, flexible black strips. Biotite schist is usually all biotite with some muscovite.

Muscovite

Muscovite is also common to many igneous and metamorphic rocks, including all kinds of schists. This mica is lighter in color, typically yellow, brown, green, red or transparent. It, like all micas, has perfect cleavage into thin, transparent sheets. Muscovite schist is light to dark gray in color, but its large deposits of muscovite makes it glitter.

How Mica Gets Inside Schist

Schist forms when shale, clay, lime and igneous rocks are exposed to heat and pressure over a long period of time, usually on the ocean floor, making it a metamorphic rock. It is not under these extreme conditions enough for all the components to blend into one homogeneous rock, as in slate, leaving large chunks of mica and other minerals in its composition. These large crystals are also what makes schist so easy to split.

Other Minerals in Schist

Other common schists include garnet schist, chlorite schist, blue schist and green schist. The composition and quantity of minerals depends on the type of schist, but most schists contain quartz, feldspar, chlorite, garnet, hornblende, actinolite, kyanite, magnetite and pyrite (also known as fool's gold) among many others.

Tags: common many, into thin, cleavage into, cleavage into thin, common many igneous

The Average Salary Of Oil Engineers

Oil engineers often work at oil production sites.

Oil engineers are formally called petroleum engineers. Petroleum engineers work in conjunction with geologists. They design drilling methods to extract oil and gas below the earth's surface. They also design drilling equipment and monitor extraction operations.

Earning

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), petroleum engineers earned an annual median wage of $108,910 nationally as of May 2009. Oil engineers who earned the least up to that time made less than $58,600 while those who earned the most made more than $150,310. Starting salaries of recent graduates are among the highest of those holding a bachelor's degree. Petroleum engineers earned an average starting salary of $83,121 as of July 2009.

Petroleum engineers are concentrated in the oil and gas extraction industry. Within this industry, they earn an annual mean wage of $126,090 according to the BLS. Oil engineers are also employed in the mining and manufacturing industries. The highest-paying industry is the office of administrative services in the government sector. These engineers are paid an annual mean wage of $146,460.

Geographic Location

Oil engineer earnings are affected by their geographic location. For example, Alaska employs the most petroleum engineers per one thousand workers; however, Arkansas has the highest-paid petroleum engineers of any other state. Oil engineers in Arkansas earned an annual mean wage of $180,150 as of May 2009, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Engineers in North Dakota made an annual mean wage of $163,060. In states such as California, Texas and Colorado, oil engineers earned salaries well above the national average.

Employment

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, oil engineers held 21,900 jobs in 2008. The number of engineers employed in the field is expected to increase by 18 percent through the year 2018, which is faster than average across all occupations. The BLS indicates that job prospects are excellent for petroleum engineers because relatively few candidates graduate from the field.

Other Engineer Earnings

Other engineers who may work in conjunction with petroleum engineers include mining and geological engineers as well as environmental and possibly agricultural engineers. While these engineers earn relatively high salaries on average, their wages are still less than those of oil engineers. For example, mining and geological engineers earn an annual median salary of $75,960 according to the BLS. Agricultural and environmental engineers earn salaries ranging from $68,000 to $75,000 per year.

Tags: annual mean, annual mean wage, engineers earned, mean wage, Bureau Labor

What Landforms Were In The Paleozoic Era

Carboniferous forests were prominent across Paleozoic land.

An explosion of invertebrate lifeforms began in the Paleozoic period, along with other major events that changed Earth as we know it today. During the Paleozoic period, shifting of the Earth's tectonic plates caused the formation of a super-continent, a noteworthy mountain range still seen today, some prominent interior plains and cut out bluffs along some rivers.

Pangaea

In the Paleozoic era, a super-continent formed when two mega-continents called Gondwanaland and Laurasia collided. As Pangaea formed because of the Earth's plates shifting--also known as plate tectonics--so did many of the landforms still present on the planet today. Pangaea began during the early to middle Jurassic period and lasted until the Cretaceous period, before shifting of the Earth's core caused Laurasia to rotate clockwise and move northward with North American and Eurasia.

Appalachian Mountains

Believed to be the highest mountain range around 466 mya (million years ago), the Appalachian Mountains stretch from the island of Newfoundland to central Alabama. In the earliest Paleozoic era, the Appalachians were a passive plate margin and periodically submerged beneath shallow seas. The Appalachian Mountains formed when a neighboring oceanic plate collided and began to sink beneath the North American craton (an old, stable part of a continent). This was caused when motions of the plates changed during the early Paleozoic era and began the mountain-building tectonic collisions during the Paleozoic era.

Interior Plains

During the mountain-building tectonic collisions, a low-lying region in northwest and central North America had formed called the Interior Plains. As the tectonic collisions took place along the eastern and western margins of the continent, the Interior Plains remained relatively unaffected. The Interior Plains are extensive physio-graphic divisions that include the Interior Lowland Plateaus, the Central Lowland, the Great Plains, the Manitoba Lowlands, the Prairie Grassland, the Northern Boreal Plains, the Mackenzie Delta and the Southern Boreal Plains and Plateau.

Mississippi Limestone Bluffs

As the Paleozoic era progressed, six periods of the era began and ended and influenced the evolution of lifeforms on Pangaea. During the Mississippian period--named for the rocks from the age exposed in the Mississippi River Valley today--warm shallow seas and swampy marshlands covered the majority of the lands in the Mississippian period. Many of the limestone bluffs seen today from the Mississippian era tower over rivers, having been cut away by the seas that covered them 345 to 310 mya.

Tags: Appalachian Mountains, Interior Plains, tectonic collisions, Boreal Plains, during early

Tools Used To Measure The Speed Of Floods

Tools that measure the speeds of floods are important to public safety.

Measuring the speed of floods can be difficult. The duration of flood discharge is typically only a few hours to a few days, the work is time consuming and strenuous, and gathering measurements puts human life on the line.

Still, for public safety, it is necessary to gauge the speed of floods. To do so, geologists and engineers use several tools to document the velocity of the stream on horizontals and verticals, the average surface velocity and the velocity of the width through a single cross section.

Ott-type Curent Meter

The Ott-type current meter is a torpedo-shaped instrument with a propeller. Suspended by a cable, it's placed into the water where it will accurately measure stream flow velocity. It can measure flow speeds from 0.1 to 33 feet per second by equating the proportional rotations of the instrument's propeller to the velocity of the water.

Surface Velocity Meters

Using a similar propeller technology as the Ott-type meter, surface velocity meters measure flood speeds with dangerous velocities. These meters are attached to rods and extended by hand from bridges, banks, or boats, in order to provide a safe immediate measurement.

Fluorometric Dye

If the flood current is steady and slow, engineers use a fluorometric dye to determine speed. Once the dye is put in the water at point A, an instrument at point B downstream will measure for concentrations of the dye. From this, flood speed of travel is calculated.

Acoustic Doppler Current Profiling

Acoustic Doppler current profiling needs a boat to be put in action. The Doppler instrument is dropped in the water. As the boat moves, the instrument takes measurements of depth, speed and water direction, immediately converting this data to binary data to provide real-time measurements.

Tags: Acoustic Doppler, public safety, speed floods, surface velocity

Rock Sampling Tools

Rocks contain many elements, ores, and minerals that require specific tools to extract.

The study of rocks and earth is called geology. Many different tools are used in geology to take rock samples, depending on where the sample is being taken. Rock sampling is carried out for scientific and commercial reasons. NASA took samples of rocks from the moon to assess the properties of lunar materials. Mineral companies take samples from potential mining sites to assess whether it will be profitable to mine.

Rock Hammer

Referred to as a rock hammer or geological pick, this tool is a versatile handheld device that can help the geologist extract rock samples. The tool is shaped like a hammer with a grip at one end. The other end is put to a dual purpose. One side of the head looks like a normal hammer. This is used for splitting open rocks to get at the minerals and ore inside. The other side of the head is tapered into a chisel. This is used to chip rocks away from a larger surface. The rock hammer is designed to save the geologist time by eliminating the need to change tools often. Rock hammers come made from different materials and in different sizes to deal with a variety of types of rock.

Auger

Rock samples do not always come from the surface of the ground. Samples are also taken from within the earth. To reach these samples, geologists need to drill a hole. An auger is a tool used to drill a short hole into either rock or earth. Handheld varieties are commonly used in ice fishing, and there are motorized varieties that are often used in commercial activities. The auger works by spinning like a corkscrew. This brings the minerals and earth to the surface following the rotating blades. This process is ideal for taking rock samples as the auger brings the material up to the surface. When using a motorized variety, however, it is necessary to use caution as lubrication and oil from the tool can spoil rock samples.

Containers

An essential tool of rock sampling is a proper container for placing the sample in. Most commonly used are clear plastic bags. These come in a range of sizes and the rock can be seen through the plastic for quick identification. Some rock samples however require to be transported and stored immersed in water. Immersing some rock samples in water will slow down the oxidization process. When stored in this way, the rock samples are placed into either glass or plastic boxes, which are rubber-sealed to prevent evaporation and contamination from outside elements.

Tags: rock samples, commonly used, into either, rock hammer, side head, This used

Work In The Oil Industry

Like the military, the oil industry employs individuals from diverse professions. These professions range from electricians, crane operators, cooks, medics and engineers to geologists. Working in the oil industry entails hard work, but many of the jobs in the industry offer remarkable financial remunerations. Getting a job in the oil industry involves a combination of having the requisite competencies and establishing good professional networks. These two factors are mandatory for both entry level and advanced level job seekers.

Instructions

1. Decide which type of work you wish to do within the oil industry. Take into consideration factors such as your educational background, your career prospects and professional interests. Recognize that you can work in upstream offshore jobs or in downstream onshore jobs.

2. Obtain training from well known providers such as American Petroleum Institute (API). Contact the Oilfield Training Program, program coordinator at (225) 642-3015. Obtain certification and accreditation in your field of interest from the Association for Drilling Contractors, especially if you wish to work in downstream onshore jobs such as drilling and geology.

3. Meet the basic requirements, which include attaining physical fitness by regular exercise, passing a medical examination, testing drug and alcohol free, have a valid driver's license and a clean criminal record and be 18 years and above. Demonstrate industry specific competencies such as ability to work with machinery, good organizational and team work skills and enjoy doing manual activities.

4. Log on to online recruitment agencies such as Oil Careers to find job placements in your career areas of interests. Apply online to oil companies, such as Shell, for upstream commercial jobs in the oil industry. Do not send CVs to oil industry companies if there is no suitable job opening for you; this will save you time.

5. Utilize personal and professional networks such as colleagues, friends and family members for information about companies that are hiring. Note that the oil industry is very complex and usually hires its own people first.

6. Apply for jobs during the high peak seasons, which range from November to March. Keep an eye on the news for information about oil prices to help you determine a suitable time to apply. Make applications when oil prices are high because then there is more work within the industry.

Tags: downstream onshore, downstream onshore jobs, information about, jobs industry, onshore jobs, professional networks

Make Creative Porcelain Plates

Creative porcelain plates take on almost any shape

When making a creative porcelain plate, focus on the process rather than the product. This fosters creativity. Be open to your immediate environment and gather inspiration from shapes and materials available to you.Mold a slab porcelain plate into any shape and size you imagine. When porcelain clay is moist and plastic, it follows the directions of your hands and turns into the plate of your imagination. Incised and painted decorations add to this personal clay expression; the possibilities are endless. Porcelain is high-fired to cone six, which is over 2,200 degrees to form a durable, waterproof plate.

Instructions

1. Find a plate that is the shape and size that you wish to duplicate in porcelain clay.

2. Wrap the plate in plastic wrap; keep the wrap as flat and wrinkle-free as possible. Decide which side of the plate form you want to duplicate; both the top and bottom of the shape will work for this procedure. Whichever side you choose, make the plastic wrap as tight and smooth as possible over this surface. Any wrinkles will transfer to the wet clay body.

3. Roll the porcelain clay out with a rolling pin; make your slab 3/4 of an inch thick. Roll the clay between two pieces of old sheeting to keep it from sticking to the rolling pin. The fabric peels easily from the slab. Flatten the clay outward from the center; turn it over to get an even thickness.

4. Place the slab over or in the plate, depending on which side you prefer to use as the model for your plate. Press the clay gently to form a plate shape. Realize that any indentations in the form will be transferred to the damp clay.

5. Trim the edges of the porcelain clay off the form with a butter knife.Use your imagination to make the edge creative. Flat edges are not a prerequisite on a creative plate. The porcelain will direct you to the shape it wishes to become.

6. Smooth the edges of this damp clay with a wet sponge.

7. Press found objects into the moist clay to leave their impression.

8. Prop up any edges that have a tendency to slump out of the desired shape. You can use found objects to do this. Be aware that corners or any sharp edges will be molded into the wet clay and remain as an imprint as it dries. Rounded cans, therefore, are good props.

9. Move any found objects that are holding up your form as soon as the clay can maintain the desired shape without their assistance. This will take a minimum of 24 hours. Do not dry too quickly, as it may crack. Loosely-placed plastic wrap will slow drying time. Drying time depends on the temperature and humidity. Drying must be slow and even.

10. Remove your porcelain plate carefully from the plastic wrapped plate mold. When bone dry, handle porcelain with a gentle touch to avoid breakage and cracks.

11. Paint a design onto the dry porcelain plate form with glazes; these personal elements add to the creative component of your plate.

12. Fire in a kiln to cone six.

Tags: porcelain clay, porcelain plate, found objects, plastic wrap, clay with, damp clay, desired shape

The Average Salary Of A Mining Engineer

A mining engineer oversees a mining site.

Mining engineers look for different materials, such as coal, minerals and metals. These highly trained employees use sophisticated technology, such as satellite photography, to find new deposits. Mining engineers also design mining machinery and mines to safely bring these minerals to the surface. Engineers are present to supervise the construction of mines and inspect them to assure their safety.

National Salary

The mean hourly wage for mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers, was $39.46, and the mean annual wage, or average salary, was $82,080, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics in May 2009. Median annual wages for mining and geological engineers ranged from approximately $48,400 to $119,300. The lowest 10 percent of employees earned less than $48,400, and the top 10 percent of employees earned more than $119,300.

Starting Salary

PayScale lists the starting salary of mining engineers. In October 2010, mining engineers with less than one year of experience earned between $58,299 and $65,373.

High Employment

The architectural, engineering and related services industry employed the largest number of mining and geological engineers with an average salary of $77,210, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics in May 2009. Other industries that employed large numbers were: coal mining, $76,580; metal ore mining, $78,780; oil and gas extraction, $97,140; and the state government, $83,120.

Top-Paying Industries

The oil and gas extraction industry paid the highest average salary above all other industries to mining and geological engineers, with $97,140, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics in May 2009. Other industries that offered high pay were: management of companies and enterprises, $91,890; the Federal Executive Branch, $87,340; management, scientific and technical consulting services, $86,550; and support activities for mining, $84,410.

Top-Paying States

California paid the highest average salary above all other states to mining and geological engineers, with $97,760, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics in May 2009. Other states that offered high pay were: Texas, $96,130; Alaska, $95,200; Colorado, $92,190; and Alabama, $92,010.

Tags: geological engineers, mining geological, mining geological engineers, according Bureau, according Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor

How Marine Terraces Are Formed

A marine terrace is a flat portion of land on a coastline that overlooks the water and somewhat resembles a staircase. Marine terraces can have very high walls, and some are large enough to build towns or colonies upon. Marine terraces are formed by a specific geological process that incorporates erosion and by a buildup of coral. They are also known as raised beaches or perched coastlines.

Geological Process

Marine terraces in cooler climates are formed through a combination of erosion, abrasion and sea level change. Waves carry sediment that scrapes along a sea wall, breaking off small pieces of it and carrying it away. The sea wall is worn down and flattened over time. A marine terrace results when the water recedes during sea-level change, revealing the flat portion that was created by the erosion and abrasion. Tectonic uplift (when tectonic plates push land up) sometimes contributes to moving portions of marine terraces even farther above sea level. Tectonic uplift sat different times during many thousands of years form the stair-step terraces.

Biological Marine Terraces

In warm climates, marine terraces are formed by coral. Corals will begin growing at the top of the low-tide line and then spread out laterally. The continued spreading of the coral eventually creates a coral flat, mimicking the appearance of a marine terrace formed through geological means.

Sediments

The sediment found on marine terraces is usually very thin. It is composed of sediment typically found in the ocean, since the platforms were once underwater. Typical marine terrace sediment includes marine fossils, shells, and sand. The oceanic sediment is further proof that the terraces are formed by the fluctuations in sea level combined with erosion and abrasion.

Age

Marine terraces take many thousands of years to form. In California, one of the highest terraces is 600 feet high yet has taken 500,000 years to form. The strength of currents will affect the rate at which the terraces form, as stronger waves lead to stronger erosion and abrasion. Biological terraces take significantly less time to form, as their growth depends on the speed at which a particular population of coral can spread.

Tags: erosion abrasion, marine terrace, terraces formed, years form, flat portion, formed through

The Average Salary Of A Geologist

Geologists study the earth's surface.

Geologists study the Earth's crust and work in private industry, government and academia. Geologists often earn more than $50,000 at the start of their careers, according to a 2010 survey by the Payscale website.

Considerations

Self-employed geologists earn some of the highest salaries in the field of geology. According to a 2010 report by Payscale, these professionals report salaries between $35,375 and $92,873 a year. Geologists employed with the federal government earn salaries up to $65,339 annually.

Experience

After one year of experience as a geologist, earnings range from $40,209 to $53,796 a year. After five years, geologists earn up to $61,848 annually and after 10 years, earnings could go up to $72,456.

Location

Geographic location has some bearing on a geologist's salary. Those working in the state of Florida can expect to earn up to $50,238 each year. Working in Texas results in the highest incomes, with those professionals reporting annual earnings of up to $93,322, according to a Payscale 2010 report.

Tags: 2010 report, geologists earn, Geologists study

Science Project Making Bricks With Sand Dirt & Clay

The higher the clay content, the more orange the dirt appears.

A science project examining brick making is most suited for a high school student, although it could be completed by a committed middle school student who is interesting in construction and is not afraid to get dirty. Handmade brick from natural clay deposits consist of clay, sand and dirt in various proportions. By testing those proportions, the student can determine where or how the strongest bricks can be made.

Research

Before beginning your science project, research methods of making clay bricks by hand. Focus particularly on the proportions of sand, soil and clay in bricks. The rule of thumb in brick making is that bricks with higher sand-to-clay ratio are stronger. Talk to masons in your area. Research the Internet for persons or companies that still make clay bricks by hand who can impart practical knowledge. Contact the Soil Conservation Service or the U.S. Geological Survey to locate areas of clay-bearing soil in your state and the recorded proportions of clay to sand.

The Experiment

Based on geological data gathered prior to beginning your experiment, choose three to five areas to test the ability of the soil to make quality bricks. Rank these locations highest to lowest according to the proportion of sand to clay and hypothesize which location will make the strongest bricks. Alternatively, you can choose a single location of high clay concentration and add different amounts of sand to the soil that you harvest and predict which bricks will be the strongest.

Testing the Ground

While the U.S. Geological Survey will have used sophisticated scientific equipment to verify the exact proportions of sand, soil and clay in the area you have chosen to harvest for brick making, you can field-test the soil to determine an approximate proportion. Add 3 inches of dirt to an 8-ounce glass jar with lid and fill the jar with water. Shake the jar vigorously to suspend the dirt in the water. Allow the jar to sit overnight. The clay will precipitate out the water more slowly than the sand and soil, producing a clearly defined line between the two components. Use a ruler to measure the height of each division and divide it by 3 inches to get the percentage of each component in the soil.

Testing Your Brick

Make at least five bricks from each soil location that you test or each proportion of sand that you add. Allow the bricks to dry for a minimum of three weeks. You should try to make all of the bricks on the same day or within two to three days to guarantee that drying time does not factor into the strength of the bricks. Roll each brick end over end five times and record the results. Next, stack 50 pounds of weight on each brick and wait five minutes. Finally, immerse each brick in water for 30 seconds, then remove the brick. If the brick breaks, cracks or disintegrates during any of these tests, you do not need to continue testing in the next step. The batch of bricks containing the highest number of individual bricks to pass all three tests should be declared the strongest.

Tags: sand soil, brick making, clay bricks, each brick, beginning your, bricks hand

Elements Of Magnetite

Magnetite gets its name from the fact that it attracts magnets. Some magnetite is called lodestone because it is a magnet itself, attracting iron particles. Notable deposits of magnetite can be found in Germany, Russia, South Africa and the U.S. Many properties, some that can be seen and some that cannot, are unique to magnetite.

Physical Characteristics

Magnetite is black and has a luster that can be either dull or metallic. Its fracture, or characteristic breakage under stress, can be subconchoidal, meaning the broken surface is flat but with irregular, rounded corners. It can also be completely uneven. There is no cleavage, meaning the individual crystals do not break and fragment smoothly. Magnetite can develop a yellowish-brown rust if left moist.

Crystal Structure and Chemical Formula

Magnetite is an iron oxide mineral. Its chemical formula is Fe2+Fe3+2O4. Impurities can take the place of either of the two Fe (iron). The crystals are usually octahedral in shape but can be dodecahedral as well as a combination of the two. They are, however, seldom cubic. They can appear as grains, veins or can be non-discernible, which is known as massive.

Magnetism

The magnetism of magnetite is caused by a transfer of electrons between the two Fe (iron) ions in the crystal structure. This exchange is called an electric vector and generates a magnetic field. Magnetite crystals can appear in igneous rock as it's forming. These crystals automatically orient with the polarity and direction of the Earth's magnetic field. Once the rock has formed and cooled, the position of the magnetite crystals is fixed. When looking at specimens from around the world, information can be gathered to understand continental movement throughout time.

Uses of Magnetite

Most magnetite is mined to extract the iron. This iron is in turn often used to make steel. In coal mining, high sulfur coal chunks are often floated across a mixture of powdered magnetite and a liquid in a process known as gravity separation. Pyrite, a sulfur-based mineral contaminate, sinks in the high-density slurry and the pure coal floats. Magnetite is also used as a toner in photography and as a nutrient in fertilizers.

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Characteristics Of Index Fossils

The fossil record is famously incomplete, and though we still have much to learn about prehistoric life, we can at least, thanks to a particular type of fossil, begin to organize it. These unique relics, known as Index Fossils, serve one of the most significant purposes in the paleontological world.

Basics

There are many types of fossils---trace fossils, molds and casts---some of which may or may not fall into an even greater category of fossils that paleontologists use to determine and identify geological periods. This is done by looking for short-lived species. For example, if an organism existed for a very short amount of time, let's say during the Jurassic Period, then a paleontologist who finds a sample of sediment with those particular fossils inside can easily deduce when the sediment was created. These guide fossils, as they may be called in some circles, are crucial in identifying the chronology of certain sediment layers. But what are the most important characteristics to consider when identifying Index Fossils?

Abundance

To best allow paleontologists to correlate rocks with other rocks found at locations far apart, it's important that the index fossil be very widely distributed across a vast geographical region. Usually, these are marine organisms, which can easily be dispersed and often appear independent of rock type. What that means is that they can be found regardless of the type of rock, indicating that rocks containing the same index fossils are from a similar time period, and don't just carry those fossils because of their specific rock type.

Rapid Evolution and Extinction

A short lifespan of a given species is ideal for determining the exact age of certain geological strata. If an organism only existed for a narrow amount of time on the geological time line, then dating the rock from which its fossils are found is a much more precise and accurate measurement.

Physical Features

Ideally, index fossils are small. Large fossils are rarer and more complex, whereas smaller fossils are more abundant and hence easier to find and identify. Index fossils should have distinctive shapes and features, like spiraling shells. It's also helpful if the fossils are identifiable on the spot, without the use of a laboratory or special tools.

Examples

Some fossils have become so common and well-studied that they've become staple index fossils within the geological world. Such fossils include Trilobites, which look like a prehistoric horseshoe crab; Ammonites, predecessors of the modern nautilus; and calico scallops.

Tags: amount time, Index Fossils, index fossils, rock type, that they

Send A Photo Of Your Fossil To Identify

Photos can be sent to professionals for help with identification.

Identifying fossils can be difficult for the amateur collector who has limited resources at his disposal. Individual finds from non-professionals have led to major contributions in paleontology, and many scientists are willing to help identify a specimen.

For the collector who is distant from museum or university resources, sending photo images of a fossil find may be a viable way to get an identification from professionals. Knowing where, and what kind of images to send, will help the amateur and professional both get the best identification possible.

Instructions

1. Research places to send fossil photos before taking the pictures. There are numerous resources available, and knowing the best place to send the photos is important so that no one's time is wasted. For instance, you wouldn't send a scientist who specializes in invertebrates a photo of a dinosaur bone because these are two distinct areas of study.

Several online sites offer identification help from photos, such as FossilWeb.com and GeologyRocks.co.uk. Local geology clubs can also help, especially because they have a more intimate knowledge of regional fossil groups. Museums and colleges may also accept photos for review.

2. A fossil on a neutral background will provide more contrast for seeing details.

Choose a neutral or contrasting background for the fossil specimen. When sending a photo of something like a rock or fossil, using an opposing background will help the sample stand out. Put dark fossils on a light background and vice versa. For example, an off-white fossil clam shell will be more distinctive on a black backing, while a bone may appear more clearly on a white background. It is also useful to include something in the background for scale such as a ruler or coin.

3. Some fossils can be difficult to see against the background of the rock.

Illuminate the fossil with overhead light or spotlighting. Good lighting will help a professional pick out key characteristics for comparison and identification. This is especially true for fossils like molds and casts within a rock, which may be more difficult to see against the rock matrix background. Be aware of bright spots or glare, and adjust the lighting accordingly.

4. A 3-dimensional fossil should have multiple angles to see all characteristics.

Shoot images from several different angles. This is important for 3-dimensional fossils like bones or shells, where multiple attributes can be seen on the back and front. Take close-up photos of any characteristic that may be important to identification. For instance, a clam shell should be photographed from the top to see growth lines, shape and decoration, and then should be photographed from the bottom to show internal scars from soft parts and the hinge area. Then take a close-up of the hinge area, a distinctive part of a clam fossil, which can identify its species. Seeing a specimen from more than one point of view can give invaluable clues to a fossil's identification.

5. Provide diagnostic traits to help with identification, if requested. Some sites may ask for sizes and dimensions, as well as a description. It is also helpful to provide information on where the fossil was found and in what type of rock. Knowing the age of the rocks from the fossil collection site is also important.

Identify the fossil to your best possible knowledge. Any clue to a specimen's identity can be helpful, and the less work the resource has to do, the more likely it is that she will be willing to help name the fossil. If you think it's a coral or a bryozoan, say so. If you have field guides, take the time to see if there is a comparative match. If you're clueless, it's okay to say that too.

Tags: will help, background will, clam shell, difficult against, fossils difficult, fossils like, help with

Interactive Educational Games

Students can practice spelling skills, math skills and more with interactive educational games.

Flashy, interactive online games appeal to children, and they can hold their attention for long periods of time. Give your students a list of interactive educational games that allow them to learn and develop important skills while having fun. You can find a wide variety of free games for children of all ages. Players can work on their math and language skills, test their geography or history knowledge, and develop logic and memory skills.

Fun Brain Interactive Games

Funbrain offers interactive educational games for elementary school kids. In "Math Baseball," players have to answer a math problem to "swing" the bat. If your answer is correct, you'll get a base hit. Depending on the difficulty level of the question you answer correctly, you earn single, double-triple or home-run hits. Choose from several different levels and types of problems. "The Grammar Gorillas" game requires players to identify parts of speech. Correctly identify the parts of speech to win bananas for the gorillas. Play with nouns and verbs or with all parts of speech. In "Scramble-Saurus," you can help a dinosaur with poor spelling skills to unscramble vocabulary words in a wide variety of school subjects, including geography, geology, organic chemistry, World War II history, composers and more. Other Funbrain games include "The Plural Girls," "Mathcar Racing," "Proton Don" and "Spell-a-Roo."

Prongo Games and Quizzes

Prongo offers a wide variety of educational games for children ages 3 to 6. In the "Farm Stand Math Game," players add up the prices of goods, such as eggs and tomatoes. The "Copy Cat Jack" game helps children develop their memories and logical thinking. Players have to repeat a series of colors in the order given by the game. Colors are accompanied with sounds. The "Stock Market Game" teaches players about stock trading, and about the fluctuating values of individual stocks. Prongo also offers a variety of free quiz games about dinosaurs, outer space, inventors and more.

Scholastic Activities and Interactive Learning

Scholastic's Web resource for teachers offers a long list of educational activities and games. Children can come up with ideas for their own myths with the "Myths Brainstorming Machine," or use the "Poetry Idea Engine" to get inspired to write their own poems. In "Clean Up Your Grammar," players wander up and down a beach and put bad grammar in the trash can. The "Edit Dan's Copy" game helps players learn to revise punctuation mistakes, false capitalization and other typos. Students learn about Greek root words that are common in the English language with the "It's Greek to Me" Olympics game. Players learn about how ecosystems work with the "Build a Food Web" game, in which players have to decide which animals are predators and which are prey in a given ecosystem. Other Scholastic games deal with geography, dinosaurs, American history and more.

Tags: educational games, interactive educational games, parts speech, wide variety, children ages, game helps, games children

Get A Job In A Coal Mine

The coal industry is reviving due to the high costs of other fossil fuels.

Coal mining is a dirty job. A dirty job that pays pretty well, even at entry-levels. According to the "Roughneck Chronicles," an online source of information about the various types of fossil fuel mining, including coal mining, the high entry-level pay and fast increases to top wages make it an attractive career for many, especially those who live in the mountainous rural areas where coal mines usually exist.

Instructions

1. Research the type of job coal mining is to be sure it is what you want to do. Coal mining is a hands on, dirty job. There aren't many office cubicles in a coal mine. You will be underground, sometimes in very tight spaces, working in the dirt.

2. Live near coal mining areas. Coal mining is a regional specific occupation. It is not possible to get a job coal mining where no coal, or coal mines exist. The most common areas for coal mining are in the Midwest and southeastern United States in states such as Tennessee, Kentucky, West Virginia, Indiana, Illinois, Ohio and Pennsylvania. Colorado is also an area with prolific coal mining camps.

3. Attend a coal mining class sponsored by the coal industry and often the states involved. Classes teach everything new workers need to survive under the mountains in coal mines. They include courses in gas-explosions, fires, as well as typical excavation methods.

4. Pass a qualification course and get a miners' card from the state you wish to work in. These cards qualify you to work in a coal mine as a miner, but not necessarily to drive heavy machinery. Coal trucks require an additional CDL license.

5. Have experience in earth moving machinery, especially longwall shears, sod and dirt cutting machines and plows typically used to loosen and move compacted earth walls. Have backgrounds in geology, heavy equipment mechanics, construction, engineering, analysis, and metallurgy. Other background experience that helps is either scholastic or field experience as a miner, mining foreman, process metallurgist, underground mine geologist, safety manager, project manager or supervisor.

Tags: coal mining, coal mines, coal industry, coal mining, Coal mining, where coal

Characteristics Of Muscovite

Muscovite, or mica, is found naturally on Earth.

Muscovite is a mineral, commonly known as mica. It is in a class of minerals that most students study in basic geology classes. In these studies, most people will learn identify minerals through their characteristics. Muscovite has several distinguishing characteristics that set it apart from other minerals and make it easy to identify.

Appearance

Muscovite has a sheen to it that looks similar to metal or aluminum. It has a light color spectrum and can be green, brown, yellow, silver or white. It often has distinguishable patterns similar to quartz or feldspar. The pattern looks crystal in nature.

Hardness

One of the easiest ways to identify naturally occurring minerals is to test their hardness. Muscovite's hardness is rated between a two and a three. This is rather soft on the scale used to measure mineral hardness. Falling on the low end of the hardness scale means it can be easily scratched by common objects, such as a penny or a fingernail.

Cleavage

Cleavage refers to how easily a piece of the mineral breaks off. The cleavage of Muscovite is perfect. This means that Muscovite will leave a straight, clean edge when broken. Muscovite is very easily broken and does so in sheets. When minerals have imperfect cleavage, it means they are difficult to break and leave jagged, imperfect edges when they are broken.

Luster

The luster of Muscovite is one of the easiest characteristics to use in identification. Luster is rated from metallic to dull. The luster of Muscovite is vitreous to pearly. This lands it on the metallic or shiny end of the luster spectrum. Seventy percent of all minerals are vitreous, and those that are classified as vitreous have a glassy surface. Historically, Muscovite was used for making windows, so peeling off a sheet of it and analyzing the luster is a good way to identify it.

Tags: luster Muscovite

Why Is There So Much Limestone

Water running through limestone produces unusual cave formations.

Limestone is a type of sedimentary rock made up mostly of calcium. This stone is extremely common in parts oft the world that were once covered by oceans. The skeletons of marine life, including coral, mollusks, sea urchins and fish, fell to the ocean bottom and were covered by sediment. Eventually, the skeletal remnants became high-calcium limestone deposits. Does this Spark an idea?

Content

Any sedimentary rock containing more than 50 percent calcite or dolomite can be considered limestone. This variable composition means that different types of limestone can have very different textures and hardnesses. Some limestone is soft and chalky in texture, while other specimens are filled with fossils, grainy and full of sand, or very hard and made of recrystalized material. Many limestone deposits contain shells and other fossilized animal remains.

Location

Limestone deposits formed all over the world. In the United States, large amounts of this stone appear in Florida, much of the Midwest, the central West and Southwest, and the Appalachians. Limestone deposits can also be found in parts of the British Isles, France, Sweden, Vietnam and China. The famous Niagara Escarpment on the U.S./Canadian border is formed in limestone rock.

Caves

Most caves form in limestone deposits. Acidic rainwater absorbed into the ground reacts with the alkaline limestone bedrock, eating away the calcium. Over time, the water creates a progressively larger space, eventually forming an underground stream. This process can take thousands to millions of years. The result is a system of caverns. Stalactites and stalagmites form from dripping water containing a high percentage of dissolved limestone. This water leaves behind some of the calcium as a deposit, eventually creating these distinctive cave structures.

Considerations

According to Loudon County, Virginia, extensive limestone deposits can adversely affect well water quality, both by increasing mineral content and by allowing easy well contamination. Dissolved limestone can leave calcium deposits on clothing and plumbing fixtures. Water flowing through limestone is also more likely to become contaminated, since surface water easily enters these stone formations. Loudon County recommends that homeowners with wells in limestone test their well water for chemicals, heavy metal and bacterial contamination on a regular basis.

Tags: limestone deposits, limestone deposits, limestone This, Loudon County, sedimentary rock, through limestone

Find An Obituary From 2002

Newspaper archives can be a source for locating old obituaries.

Historians and genealogists are not the only people who need to know find obituaries from 2002. Students working on research papers may need information found in an obituary to complete their work. And friends and family members who hope to reconnect with loved ones may discover they are too late. Their only recourse may be to search for and read the deceased's obituary. Regardless of the reason, knowing find an obituary is a skill you will use more than once.

Instructions

1. Type the person's name and city of residence into an Internet search engine along with the words "obituary" or "death notices." You will need to sort through the list of options which appear.

2. Visit the local newspaper's website of the deceased and search its obituary archives. Some newspapers require you to subscribe before granting you access to its old newspapers. Others like The Elkhart Truth in Indiana allow you to select the year 2002 and browse all obituaries submitted that year.

3. Check out the deceased's local library. Call it or visit its website for information on retrieving obituaries from 2002. Many people are interested in geology and librarians are used to fielding questions about old obits. They will direct you to archived newspapers or a database where you can search for the deceased's obituary by entering his first and last name. Follow the instructions on the site. It may direct you to mail a self-addressed envelope and money for printing a copy of the obituary.

Tags: deceased obituary, from 2002, obituaries from, obituaries from 2002

Hunt For Gem Stones In Oklahoma

Searching for gemstones in Oklahoma can be easy if you know where to look.

Gemstone hunting, which involves digging, panning and sluicing for gemstones, is a fun and even profitable hobby that can be done alone or as a family activity. Oklahoma, though not the richest state in mineral resources, has some excellent natural gem deposits and mines open to the public for gemstone hunting.

Instructions

1. Assemble a basic kit of gemstone hunting tools, such as rock hammers, picks, various hand tools and sluicing boxes. Be sure to investigate what tools are the best for mining the specific types of gemstones found in Oklahoma (primarily quartz and malachite).

2. Go to Comanche County, Oklahoma, (located in the Lawton area), which provides many locations for gemstone hunting. You can find quartz, malachite, egirine, orthoclase and barite in the various mines in the area, such as the Hale Copper mine in Sandy Creek, Texas Gypsum Company quarry in Fletcher and The American Girl Mine in Lawton.

3. Visit McCurtain County for an opportunity to hunt for quartz. The Stevens Gap Recreational Area at Broken Bow Lake, Watson, Buffalo mines and the Johnson copper prospect all provide access to quartz as well as other gems and rock.

4. Visit Garvin Country to hunt for a more unusual gemstone called brochantite. The Teepee Queen Copper Company area provides access to many unique gemstones and rocks.

Tags: gemstone hunting, quartz malachite

How Much Does A Volcanologist Get Paid

Volcanologists use knowledge of chemistry, physics and geology.

The bubbling magma, eruptive flames, billowing ash clouds and molten lava of volcanoes make them one of the most dramatic and potentially devastating geological phenomena on Earth. Some geoscientists known as volcanologists are dedicated to understanding these forces of nature. They study the processes and underlying formations that constitute formations to try to predict their eruptions and protect those living in their shadow. The salary that a volcanologist receives will be affected by factors like employer type and geographical location.

Average Pay

In May 2010, for the purposes of its survey of employment and salary levels across the country, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics classified volcanologists alongside other geoscience specialists, such as crystallographers and geodesists. It concluded, having gathered wage data from over 30,000 practitioners, that the average yearly pay across the profession was $93,380. The Russellville school district reported that the average salary for a volcanologist is between $30,000 and $90,000, dependent on experience.

Pay by Industry

The majority of volcanologists, like the majority of other geoscientists, work within architectural, engineering and related services. The bureau reports that the average salary in this sector was $80,460. Volcanologists employed as management, scientific or technical consultants earned an average of $73,990, while those involved in support activities for mining received $106,380. The average pay rate within the federal executive branch was listed at $95,580, significantly higher than in state government--$62,880.

Pay by Location

A May 2011 survey by SalaryExpert.com reported that, across certain major cities, volcanologists earned the highest compensation rates in Los Angeles, California, and Atlanta, Georgia--$102,146 and $95,384, respectively. In Charlotte, North Carolina, the average was $76,703, while Phoenix, Arizona, was listed at $70,153. The bureau listed Oklahoma and Texas as the most lucrative states for geoscientists, averaging $129,870 and $125,070, respectively. The rate within Alaska, across all industry sectors, was $103,880, while in Massachusetts it was reported as $102,060. In Pennsylvania, wages averaged $67,860.

Prospects

Volcanology is a small field of employment within the larger field of geoscience and hydrological science. However, volcanologists should benefit from the general trend in employment growth across the profession, with the bureau predicting growth of 18 percent between 2008 and 2018. While funding constraints within government bodies may restrict employment growth there, an increasing focus on environmental management and protection will motivate increases in opportunities throughout the rest of the industry. Volcanologists should, therefore, continue to receive good compensation rates.

Becoming a Volcanologist

An individual wishing to become a volcanologist must undertake several years of post-high school education. Candidates should study the sciences--biology, chemistry, physics--as well as algebra, trigonometry and pre-calculus at high school in preparation for college. Most colleges teach volcanology as part of a geology degree, alongside petrology, geomorphology and remote sensing. A bachelor's degree will enable a candidate to secure an assistant or technician position within volcanology, but to progress, candidates will need a doctoral degree, which typically takes four additional years.

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Landforms Associated With Earthquakes

The San Andreas Fault in California is a transform fault.

When energy builds up in the Earth's crust, the stress and strain lead to a sudden release of energy in the form of vibrations. Earthquakes are vibrations that radiate from the source of the released energy to the surface. Earthquakes tend to occur around certain types of landforms such as faults and volcanoes. Movement in the Earth's crust caused the formation of these landforms and the accumulation of stored energy that results in earthquakes.

Plate Tectonics

The theory of plate tectonics states that Earth's crust is composed of about twelve plates. These plates float atop a layer of molten rock and slide over, under and past each other. Plate movement causes displacement of portions of Earth's crust as areas of rock push above or below the surface or lock together. Energy builds as a result of this displacement. The release of built-up energy causes the crust to bend and break and sends vibrations to the surface.

Plate Boundaries

About 90 percent of earthquakes happen at the boundaries between plates. New landforms result from earthquakes at these boundaries. In spreading zones, molten rock pushes plates apart and forms ridges when it cools. Transform faults occur where plates slide past each other and form straight, shallow cracks; the San Andreas Fault is an example of a transform fault. One plate slides under the other in subduction zones and the sunken portion of rock melts. Deep ocean trenches and volcanic mountains form at subduction zones.

Faults

Earthquakes tend to recur in weakened zones of the crust called faults. A fault is a crack in Earth's surface where two areas of crust exert force on each other. Faults are classified according to the way they move. A normal fault occurs when tension between blocks causes one block to slip below the surface. Compression forces squeeze two blocks together to form a reverse fault where one block slips above the surface. Strike-slip faults result when either tension or compression causes blocks to slide past each other horizontally.

Volcanoes

Earthquakes have an association with volcanoes. Both earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur near the edges of plates. A release in energy from Earth's crust can trigger both events. The vibrations from an earthquake in the vicinity of a volcano can cause the onset of an eruption. U.S. eruptions including Washington's Mount St. Helens, Hawaiian volcanoes Mauna Loa and Kilauea and Redoubt Volcano and Mount Spurr in Alaska followed an increase in earthquake activity.

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Introduction To Metamorphic Rocks

Marble is a metamorphic rock.

Metamorphic rocks are created through a process known as metamorphism. These rocks, as their name suggests, are the products of rocks that have "morphed" from their previous form, or parent rock, into a new form through this slow-moving and natural process. There are several different types of metamorphic rock.

Metamorphism

Metamorphism is a process in which the rocks deep below the earth's surface change into a different type of rock due to intense heat and pressure. Rocks that are located anywhere from 12 to 16 kilometers below the earth's surface begin to morph when the temperature rises above 212 degrees Fahrenheit due to the presence of magma. Because the rocks are so deep below the surface, immense pressure, also known as lithostatic pressure, aids the heat in changing them. Rocks eventually adjust to these conditions and become metamorphic rock.

Types of Metamorphic Rock

Metamorphic rock exists in two basic forms: foliated and non-foliated. Foliated metamorphic rocks are recognized by their multilayered appearance. These metamorphic rocks look as though they are made of many thin layers of minerals, giving them a banded look. Foliated metamorphic rocks are generally formed at a lower temperature and pressure than non-foliated metamorphic rocks. Non-foliated metamorphic rocks are formed deeper below the earth's surface where the temperature is higher and the pressure is greater. These metamorphic rocks do not have minerals that give them a layered or banded appearance.

The Rock Cycle

Metamorphic rocks are part of the rock cycle which consists of three main types of rock: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. The rock cycle is used in geology to describe how all types of rocks are related, and how, under the right conditions, each type can transform into the other types. Both igneous and metamorphic rocks can become sedimentary through weathering and erosion. Both igneous and sedimentary rocks can become metamorphic rock under intense heat, pressure and with the addition of magma. Sedimentary rock becomes igneous rock once again after cycling through metamorphism to become metamorphic rock and then through a melting and cooling process caused by magma. This is a consistent cycle that doesn't change.

Common Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are commonly used for both building and decorative purposes. Examples of foliated metamorphic rocks are slate, gneiss and schist. These are widely used as building stones in architectural structures. Examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks are marble and quartzite. These rocks are also used for ornamental purposes as well as in all forms of construction.

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How Is The Carbon Cycle Involved In The Rock Cycle

Limestone caverns are an active component of the geological carbon cycle.

The carbon cycle is divided into the biological carbon cycle and the geological carbon cycle. The biological carbon cycle is the exchange of carbon between organisms that take in carbon dioxide and create oxygen, such as plants and certain algae, and organisms that take in oxygen and create carbon dioxide, such as people and animals. The geological carbon cycle is much slower than the biological carbon cycle, and it is here that the carbon cycle and the rock cycle intersect.

Instructions

The Rock Cycle

1. The rock cycle is a series of changes that describes the distribution of rocks on the earth's surface, their reactions to erosion and weathering, and their eventual return to the earth's mantle through tectonic subduction. The geological carbon cycle partially overlaps the rock cycle through the erosion and subduction of carbon-bearing minerals and the eventual reintroduction of that carbon through volcanic eruptions.

2. Carbon enters the geological carbon cycle when carbonic acid in the atmosphere bonds with minerals in the earth's crust to create various carbon-based rock, most notably limestone (calcium carbonate). This carbon-bearing rock is eventually washed into rivers by the natural processes of weathering and erosion, where it is carried to the ocean along with all the other dissolved minerals.

3. Once they have reached the ocean, the carbon-bearing minerals sink slowly to the bottom of the sea, where they become part of the sediment covering the abyssal plains. The abyssal plains are enormous stretches of flat terrain forming the center of tectonic plates. Since abyssal sediment is beyond the reach of most natural processes, it remains inert until continental drift brings it to a subduction zone, an area where one tectonic plate is sliding beneath another and returning to the semiliquid mantle.

4. When carbon-bearing minerals in the abyssal sediment are subducted, the heat and pressure separate the carbon from the minerals it has bonded to, returning it to a gaseous form. This carbon remains locked within the earth's mantle until it is returned to the surface in the form of a volcanic eruption and re-enters the atmosphere, ready to begin the carbon cycle again.

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