Fun Places For A Roadtrip In Minnesota

There are no end of fun places for a roadtrip in Minnesota

From museums to geological wonders to centers of consumerism, there are a variety of places to explore on a road trip in Minnesota. Beginning in Austin and traveling north through the Twin Cities, the Niagara Cave, the SPAM museum, the Mall of America and the Science Museum of Minnesota are just a few of the sights and experiences throughout the state.

Niagara Cave

Voted "Best Family Destination" for two years in a row by Bluff Country Travel Guide's Reader's Choice Awards, Niagara Cave in Harmony is worth a stop on any roadtrip. Visitors explore the cave for one hour on a guided tour that highlights a 60-foot waterfall, 400-year-old fossils, calcite flowstone and stalactites. Also, the cave features a geological wedding chapel, the site of more than 400 weddings. In addition to picnic tables, facilities at the cave include a mining sluice that allows visitors to mine for their own gemstones.

SPAM Museum

Celebrating all things SPAM, the SPAM museum in Austin, Minnesota is 16,500 feet of exhibits that include videos and a SPAM game show. With free admission, the museum features trivia and historical context, providing educational elements of the role of SPAM in history since the company began in 1937. Exhibits like the World War II display highlight SPAM's place in the war, and the CyberDiner is a working restaurant that is a vintage throwback centered around the main menu item, SPAM.

Mall of America

In Bloomington, Minnesota just outside St. Paul and Minneapolis, the Mall of America attracts more than 40 million visitors each year. The mall contains over 520 stores, around 20 restaurants, and 25 rides and attractions at Nickelodeon Universe, the nation's largest indoor theme park. In addition to the theme park, other activities include a movie theatre, miniature golf, the House of Comedy, and the Underwater Adventures Aquarium, with over 5,000 sea creatures.

Science Museum of Minnesota

Located on the banks of the Mississippi River in St. Paul, the Science Museum of Minnesota has offered exhibits and programs since 1907. Permanent galleries include the Human Body Gallery, Experiment Gallery, and Dinosaurs and Fossils Gallery. The 10,000 square feet of temporary exhibit gallery space is part of the total 370,000 square feet that makes up the museum. Science Live theatre presents demonstrations and interactive programs for kids.

Tags: Mall America, Museum Minnesota, Niagara Cave, Science Museum, Science Museum Minnesota

The Salary Of A Petroleum Technologist

Petroleum technologists help to design and operate oil drilling rigs and refineries.

Most petroleum technologists are employed in the oil and gas industry, and use their skills in engineering, geology and chemistry to locate and develop sources of oil and gas and to design and build drilling platforms, refineries and pipelines. Petroleum technologists work in a very wealthy industry and most of them are well paid.

Salary

Most petroleum technologists earn between $54,000 and $77,000 per year as of 2010, according to the website Pay Scale. Alberta Occupational Profiles reports an average of $31.97 an hour, or $64,000 per year for a full time employee. Annual bonuses may boost this income by as much as 10 to 15 percent. Most full time petroleum technologists who are employed by companies also receive benefits such as medical and dental care and paid vacations.

Duties

Petroleum technologists may work in a number of different areas within the field. Workers with widely divergent specialties, such as chemists, geologists and physicists, may all be referred to as petroleum technologists. Oil exploration involves analysis of land forms and the composition of rock strata to determine the location of oil fields. Once oil has been located, exploratory rigs are built followed by drilling platforms. Support development includes roads, power lines, pipelines and sometimes airfields or helicopter pads. The development of all of these things requires a wide variety of expertise from petroleum technologists.

Factors Influencing Salary

As in most industries, a petroleum technologist's salary increases as she spends more time in the industry and gains more skills and experience. Beginning technologists with more extensive educations begin at higher rates of pay, and the company that a technologist works for will also effect income levels. Many technologists receive bonuses or increased pay for working in remote or difficult locations.

Prospects

The future of the oil industry is a subject of much debate in some circles. Many analysts claim that the worldwide oil industry is approaching the same peak of production that the United States passed at a national level in 1971. Should this be the case, the effect that it will have on petroleum technologists is difficult to predict, but will probably not be beneficial to salary levels. Decreased availability of petroleum may lead to layoffs in the industry, which would lead to lower average salaries because of employment competition.

Tags: petroleum technologists, drilling platforms, full time, Most petroleum, Most petroleum technologists

Propose A New Project

Engage and involve other staff members.

Coming up with an exciting new project is the first step in bringing it to completion. Involvement in an innovative project makes your work more interesting and challenging and benefits your company, but you need to do your research and convince your boss that your project is too good to refuse. Share your vision, but be prepared to compromise, as some of the most exciting innovations start with small steps.

Instructions

1. Research your project. People quickly lose interest if an idea seems vague or half-baked. If you want to expand your company's product line, for example, identity potential target markets, assess how it fulfills gaps in the market and back up your research with solid statistics.

2. Pitch the project. Different companies have different management styles, and the introduction of your project may depend on company etiquette. Some managers prefer an informal one-on-one approach during a project's initial stages, while others require project ideas to be pitched at staff meetings. Outline the nature and purpose of your project and its potential benefits for the company.

3. Foster team spirit. Make your project manager feel involved in the project from the outset. Ask for her advice, respect her expertise and promise to keep her informed about developments. Enlist the help of coworkers whose skills and talents can help make the project successful. If, for example, you are proposing a new computer system that will save time and increase productivity, get key members of your company's Internet technology department on board.

4. Explore alternatives. Being flexible and willing to compromise helps, as people don't always get exactly what they want. If your project is experimental and potentially high-risk, suggest implementing a pilot scheme. Managers might feel more comfortable if an innovative new product or service is piloted at a small, target audience.

5. Write a proposal. Provide a realistic timeline for your project. Outline how it complements existing initiatives or services. Provide an overview of your research to date. Include estimated costs and potential profits, the number of people who would need to be involved to bring the project to completion, and list available resources.

Tags: your project, your company, your research

Sabal Palm Problems

Florida and South Carolina's state tree, the sabal palm (Sabal palmetto), also called the cabbage palm, grows to a height of 50 feet as a landscape tree, according to Floridata. Its trunk measures up to 10 to 15 feet in diameter. A relatively hardy tree, it offers low maintenance and exceptional salt tolerance. Does this Spark an idea?

Considerations

In 2008, many sabal palms began to die around the Tampa, Florida region. Phytoplasma, an unculturable bacterium, caused the rapid decline, through death of the tree's canopy, flowers and fruit, according to the University of Florida's website. Administration of the antibiotic oxytetracycline HCl works as a cure -- if the infection is relatively new -- or as a preventative. Owners must destroy severely infected trees.

Disease Prevention

Ganoderma butt rot (Ganoderma zonatum) also afflicts sabal palms. There is no cure for the disease and the tree will ultimately die, according to the University of Florida IFAS Extension's website. A fungal infection, it enters the tree through wounds near its base. Avoid watering the tree's trunk because excessive moisture can help the fungus to gain entrance into the tree's system.

Pest Identification

Cabbage palm caterpillars (Litoprosopus futilis) and scales commonly infect the sabal palm, but are controllable through insecticide spray applications. The giant palm weevil (Rynchophorus cruentatus) can kill newly planted, young sabal palms if not controlled, according to the University of Florida's IFAS Extension website.

Tags: according University, according University Florida, sabal palms, University Florida, Extension website

Middle School Electrical Projects

Using electricity in middle school projects is a bright idea.

The study of electricity is a fascinating subject for scientists of all ages. Middle school students are old enough to begin working with electricity, provided they follow all safety procedures. Teachers can conduct a wide variety of projects in the classroom. Students can complete even more experiments at home with common items. Educators should encourage children to think about the uses of electricity and form hypotheses about its properties.

Continuity Testers

Homemade electronic testers can help students determine the flow of electric current items around the classroom or at home and are easy to build. The important components, including snap connectors, insulated jumper leads and a buzzer can be purchased at electronics stores. Attaching these items to a power supply will allow students to test electric current by clipping probes to the metal prongs of a plug. Students should test the current in a variety of items, such as lamps, televisions and cell phone chargers to compare how much current flows through different items.

Conductive Soil

Examining the conductive properties in various types of soil combines the study of electricity with geology. Students gather samples of different soils, including those with a high volume of sand, clay deposits and those supplemented with fertilizer. Samples will need to be dried in the sun or by oven and measured for consistent weight. Current can be measured by placing electrodes in the soil and connecting them to an ammeter and DC 12-volt battery.

Generator

Teachers can discuss the importance of generators and help students generate examples during class discussion, such as a hospital continuing to have electricity during a power outage. It is possible to create a simple generator in class that can power a small Christmas light bulb using a cardboard box, magnet wire and a ceramic magnet. Strip the wire and wrap it around the box. Bore a hole in one side of the box, and connect the wires to the small bulb and magnet to produce electricity.

Create Lightning

Middle school students will feel powerful when they are able to generate their own lightning. Push a thumbtack through the center of a metal pie plate and mount a ball point pen on the tack. Rub a wool sock quickly over a piece of styrofoam. Using the pen, lift the pie plate and set it on the styrofoam. Have students turn out the lights, place their hands on the pie plate and watch the spark!

Tags: electric current, help students, Middle school, Middle school students, school students

Causes Of Natural Disasters

The causes of natural disasters are many. Human activities play a role in the frequency and severity of disasters. A natural disaster is a disruption in the balance of the environment. The human factor raises the cost, in both property damage and loss of life. Understanding the causes of natural disaster can provide clues to their prevention. Does this Spark an idea?

Lightning is the primary cause of fires.

Floods

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), barring fire, floods are the most common natural disaster affecting Americans. Floods are a factor in 90 percent of natural disasters. Flood events have both natural and man-made causes. Storm events can create flood waters that exceed the capacity of the environment or man-made structures. Levees and dams provide a false sense of security as became evident during the Great Flood of 1993 in the Upper Mississippi River valley. A painful lesson was learned. Wetlands destruction removed a natural means to absorb floodwaters.

Fires

Fires are nature's environmental managers. They create and maintain ecosystems such as prairies and pine forests. In fact, prairies evolved with the presence of fire. The health of the ecosystem is dependent on this disturbance. Fires remove a buildup of litter on the soil surface, allowing nutrients to be released into the environment. It also creates favorable conditions for seed germination. Suppression of fire allows litter to accumulate, setting the stage for catastrophic fires. Plants and trees have adapted to the presence of fire. However, the higher temperatures of crown fires can kill plants entirely. These fires are more difficult to control. Suppression of fires is expensive, upward of $1 billion annually, according to the U.S. Forest Service.

Drought

Drought has had more widespread effects than any other natural disaster. Each year, drought costs the United States more than $6 billion. It's safe to say that droughts have greater impacts in modern times. More people are affected by loss of land and food crops as well as environmental damage. The immediate effects are overshadowed by secondary issues. Compacted, dry soils are vulnerable to topsoil loss and erosion. Dry conditions make fires more common. Evidence suggest global warming may be the cause for an increase in drought frequency and changes in the global climate.

Weather Events

Like drought, an increase in severe weather events has been recorded in the last 100 years by the National Climatic Data Center. While notification systems are in place, vulnerabilities still exist for property damage and crop loss. Development has also complicated the effects of such events. An increase in development leads to a decrease in wetlands and an increase in impervious surfaces such as roads and driveways. This creates a scenario for floods and flash flooding. As with drought, scientists believe a link between global warming and climate changes exists.

Prevention/Solution

Not all natural disasters can be prevented. Each natural disaster has its own factors and complications. Understanding the basic principles of ecology can provide keys to lessening their effects. Nature evolved with natural disasters and disturbance. The best prevention is looking at the strategies found in nature.

Tags: natural disaster, natural disasters, evolved with, fires more, global warming, presence fire

Events For Science Projects

Make science projects exciting by showing them off at a science event.

Science can be amazing, but just having a school science fair where participants roam around looking at many different projects is not the most innovative way to highlight your students' work. Create an event that highlights your students' science projects. Develop theme events at school to get the school and community involved in science learning, or create theme rooms to show off the different aspects of your students' science project themes.

Health Fair

Do science projects about parents and teachers at a health fair.

Science experiments can be an incentive for people to get healthy. Open this event to the school community or the community at large. Have participants compete to see who has the slowest resting heart rate, the fastest increase in heart rate when using an exercise bike, and the best ability to fill balloons on a single breath. Have students study the human body, then each group of students can organize a table on one aspect on human physiology, exercise and health.

Crime Day

Solve mysteries using science projects at a crime day.

Science is not only about flashes and bangs, it's also about solving mysteries. This event is most suitable for older students. Discuss the use of science in solving the mysteries of archaeology and forensics. Students can do science projects on the unique nature of fingerprints. They can look at animal skulls to determine how large and how old the animal was and what it ate, and perhaps get some clues into why it died. If you feel really ambitious, do insect and decay experiments with items like old fruit and meat and track the creatures that begin to inhabit these items.

Mad Science Day

Become a mad scientist with wild science projects.

This one is sure to go off with a bang. Students love to feel like mad scientists experimenting with strange substances. This is the time to do experiments about the solid to gas conversion with dry ice. Creating magic mud with cornstarch and water highlights the strange nature of colloidal substances. Students can also create bouncy, rubbery polymer from borax, water and glue. All these experiments should take place with adult supervision. Of course, a large baking soda and vinegar volcano is sure to add just the right touch for the beginning of your Mad Science event.

Science in History

Study great moments in history through science projects.

As part of this event, students can relive important moments in the history of science. How did the Wright Brothers try to get off the ground? Build model planes and fly them. Did Newton really get a good understanding of gravity when an apple fell on his head? Have students research the history of science and find a particular moment that interests them, then relive it in front of the class or at a school assembly.

Tags: science projects, your students, event Science, Have students, heart rate, history science

Uses For Geode

You can display your geodes in a variety of ways.

If you have a geode collection that is just sitting around, try using the rocks in innovative ways to display them around the house. Geodes that have been broken open and polished can be turned into a variety of useful household items; the intricate interior crystals can add a sparkle to a dreary room.

Paperweights

Small to medium geodes make for useful paperweights in an office or on a home desk. You could opt to use a whole, unbroken geode as a paperweight, but a fractured geode with exposed crystals usually makes for a more interesting and visually appealing paperweight. If you use a fractured geode, you will probably want a piece that is large enough to effectively weight down a stack of papers. You can leave the fractured geode unpolished for a more rustic feel, or you can polish the geode for a smooth, sleek finish. Polish geodes with the proper sanding equipment; many industrial sanders are expensive, so unless you already own a sander or would benefit from purchasing one, you should consider taking your geodes to a specialty store like a rock and mineral retailer.

Bookends

Medium to large geodes make sturdy bookends for an office or a home library. You can take your geodes to a specialty store to have them fashioned into level, polished bookends, or you can do it yourself with the proper polishing materials at home. You will need at least one geode per pair of bookends, depending on the design you choose to use; each half will hold either side of the book stack together. If you'd like a more rustic pair of bookends, you could opt to leave the geode halves unpolished; however, you will probably want to at least cut the halves to be level, otherwise they will not be able to support the books very well.

Bowl or Dish with Lid

Geodes of any size can be split open and polished to produce a one-of-a-kind bowl or dish to house various household objects. You can surprise your guests with a variety of intricate crystals when you remove the lid of your geode bowl, or you can give the bowl as a special gift.

Geode Table

Large geodes make for beautiful and interesting glass-top coffee or end tables. This project might be difficult to do on your own, especially if you lack the appropriate tools. Take your large geode to a specialty rock store to see about making a custom table for your home or office.

Tags: fractured geode, geodes make, your geodes, geodes specialty, geodes specialty store

Landforms In The Badlands National Park

Badlands National Park

Located in South Dakota, Badlands National Park features stunning and rare landscapes created from sharply eroded buttes, carved spires and delicate pinnacles. Millions of years of water and wind erosion washed away soft sediment, leaving harder surfaces of colorful rock and volcanic ash. The terrain preserved the largest fossil beds from the Oligocene epoch and today the park's unique landforms are like geologic sculptures that remain a marvel for geologists and visitors alike.

Hoodoos

Hoodoos are fragile pinnacles or spires of rock formed by wind and water erosion. Visible stripes or horizontal strata reveal layers of rock and sediment with varying degrees of hardness. In the Badlands, the hoodoos resemble surreal and gravity-defying moonscapes. Badland hoodoos change constantly and visible shifts can be seen after a single thunderstorm.

Scarp and Scoria

Scarp and scoria are hard, erosion-resistant surfaces that comprise visible landforms. Scarp is hard rock that has withstood millions of years of erosion and comprises the sharply carved buttes that remain standing throughout the Badlands park. Scoria is the hard, dark crust formed from lava flows and ash. It is visible as the dark gray layers or black stripes embedded within the scarp.

Fossil Beds

The Badlands are the world's richest source of Oligocene-era fossil beds, dating back about 30 million years. Vertebrate fossils of large mammals have been found in the Badlands. They reveal that the Badlands were once forests that provided a home for the ancestors of horses, rhinoceros, bison and bighorn sheep. Geologists speculate that large numbers of mammals were killed by floods and preserved for millennia in the river sediment.

Tags: Badlands National, Badlands National Park, National Park, that remain

History Of Mt Rose In The Sierra Mountains In Nevada

History of Mt. Rose in the Sierra Mountains in Nevada

Mt. Rose is a 10,776-foot peak lying between Reno, Nev., and Lake Tahoe. The Mt. Rose area has served as a key source of lumber and as the site of an important meteorological observatory, and it also lends its name to a popular ski area that lies in its shadow.

Geological Origins

According to the Central Sierra Historical Society, the Sierra Nevada, of which Mt. Rose is part, first began to take shape 250 million years ago. That's when the grinding of tectonic plates beneath the ocean caused the crust of the Pacific plate to melt and form plumes of liquid rock that floated to the water's surface. These plumes joined together and formed a single mass of embedded rock, which began rising 80 million years ago to form the Sierra Nevada.

The 1800s

White explorers first arrived in the area around Mt. Rose in the 1840s. In 1859, prospectors discovered a large deposit of silver ore known as the Comstock Lode at nearby Virginia City, Nev., which set off a 20-year boom period. That boom, and its need for building material (i.e. wood) would have a profound effect on Mt. Rose. Writing in the May 1913 edition of the journal Botanical Gazette, Albert W.C.T. Herre observed that the mountain's flanks were covered with pine and scrub trees.

"During the Comstock boom, this timber was greatly depleted, parts being deforested even up to the timber line," he wrote. Lumbering would continue along Mount Rose's slopes well into the 20th century.

On Jan. 1, 1895, Dr. James Edward Church of the University of Nevada became the first white man to make a winter ascent of Mt. Rose. It would be the first of many winter visits by Church.

Mt. Rose Weather Observatory

On June 29, 1905, Church established one of the nation's first high-altitude meteorological observatories on the summit of Mt. Rose. According to the Nevada Historic Preservation Office, "At the observatory, he carried out his famed snow studies and developed the modern science of snow survey. Dr. Church's Nevada system of snow survey is used throughout the world today to predict seasonal water flow from precipitation stored as snow pack."

Names

The north summit of Mt. Rose is now known as Church Peak, in honor of Church's work at the observatory. As for the name Mt. Rose, its origins are less clear. "Where did Mount Rose get its name?" asks a brochure on the area published by the Washoe County Regional Parks and U.S. Forest Service. "It's not exactly certain --- the name came either from early 1800s settler Jacob H. Rose, who built a lumber mill near Franktown, or Rose Hickman, a friend of Washoe City newspaper editor H.S. Ham."

Skiing

According to the Web site of the Mt. Rose Ski Tahoe ski area, Reno and Washoe County locals began skiing the peaks next to Mt. Rose in the 1930s in an area where a handful of surface lifts were built. Following World War II, a ski lodge and different ski area named Sky Tavern was built in that same area to accommodate skiers.

The Mount Rose Highway, nicknamed the "Highway to the Sky" and connecting Reno with Lake Tahoe, was improved for winter travel beginning in the early 1950s, providing better access to the mountain's slopes. New trails were cut, including the area known as the Reno Ski Bowl, which served as an alternative site for the 1960 Winter Olympics at neighboring Squaw Valley.

In the early 1960s, the Reno Ski Bowl became the Slide Mountain Ski Area, part of which became the Mt. Rose Ski Area in 1964. Slide Mountain and Mt. Rose Ski Area merged in 1987.

Protected Wilderness

In 1989, the U.S. Congress created the Mount Rose Wilderness area and added it to the National Wilderness Preservation system. The area now encompasses 31,310 acres --- including Mt. Rose itself.

Tags: Mount Rose, History Rose, History Rose Sierra, Lake Tahoe, million years, Mountains Nevada, Reno Bowl

Salt'S Density In The Sea

The density of salt in the ocean depends on the concentration of dissolved solids in the water, according to Herbert Swenson of U.S. Geological Survey. Scientists measure salt density in the ocean in parts per thousand, expressed as 0/00. For example, 25 0/00 means 25 pounds of salt in 1,000 pounds of water.

What Affects Salt Density?

Sea water has about 220 times more salt than fresh water from a lake, according to Herbert Swenson. Factors that determine salt density include rate of water evaporation, precipitation, ice melt and deposits from rivers, according to Robert Stewart at the Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University.

Saltiest Areas

According to Robert Stewart, mean ocean salinity is 34 0/00. The seas in the polar and equatorial zones represent areas of lowest salt densities, due to ice melt and greatest rainfall, respectively.

Measuring Constituents

The difficulty in measuring sea water composition has to do with problems including the lack of precise procedures and methods, the size of the ocean and its complexity. Ocean currents, waves and mixing of the water horizontally and vertically add to the difficulties, according to Swenson.

Tags: according Herbert, according Herbert Swenson, Herbert Swenson, Robert Stewart, Salt Density

Become An Oil And Gas Landman

Become An Oil And Gas Landman

An oil and gas landman acts as a field representative for oil and gas companies who want to buy the rights to explore for petroleum from landowners.

Instructions

1. A landman is the field representative for a company that wants to buy the resources that are on or below a landowners property. Oil and gas landmen specialize in petroleum work. It is a very lucrative career and one that is increasingly in demand in areas such as Pennsylvania where natural gas exploration is occurring. To become a landman you should have a degree from a four year university that is accredited and accepted by the AAPL or American Association Of Professional Landmen. To become a landman you do not have to have a license in most states, however it helps greatly to become registered or certified by the AAPL. To take the RL test the AAPL requires that you be a member and be currently working in the field of land work, such as for a Certified Professional Landman. Your first step in the process then is to find a practicing landman to work for. Then you can study for and take the AAPL test.

2. An oil and gas landman must understand real estate law, deeds, mineral rights, oil and gas terms and much more. There are study manuals available that can help you master all of the terms and procedures that pertain to oil and gas leasing. Study these well before requesting to take the AAPL test. After taking the AAPL test and passing it you will become a registered landman. The next step is to work in the field of landwork, usually as an apprentice for a Certified oil and gas landman for around five years. Depending on the firm you work as a field agent for you may be able to perform most of the duties of a landman and earn a good salary.

3. After you have at least five years of landwork under you belt you can take the test to become a Registered Professional Landman. With ten years experience you can become a Certified Professional Landman. With either of these AAPL certifications you may be able to find work directly representing an oil and gas company as a field agent. The key to becoming a successful landman is continuing education and keeping abreast of changing laws. It helps greatly to have good people skills since you will be meeting with land owners to try and negotiate a reasonable deal with them. If you can convey the mutual benefits of the deal your employer has proposed you can become a valuable asset and earn good money as a landman. You can find the complete list of requirements at the official site of the AAPL at Landman.org

Tags: AAPL test, Professional Landman, become registered, Certified Professional, Certified Professional Landman, earn good

Plant Fossil Identification

Plant fossils are important discoveries because they tell us about climatic changes that did or did not support species development over geologic time. They are also important because they are the basis for all carbon based- or "fossil"--fuels including coal, oil and natural gas. As we confront global warming from burning of fossil fuels, the information provided by plant fossils becomes even more important.

Coal

Plant fossils that relate to the Paleozoic/Devonian/Carboniferous geologic age, which occurred about 360 million years ago, make up coal. During the Carboniferous period, a warmer climate allowed for abundant plant life that pulled carbon out of the atmosphere as it grew through photosynthesis. The warmer climate also produced a lot of lakes and lagoons. Over time, plants died and were encapsulated in sediments that were compressed into coal, a most abundant fossil fuel source.

Lycopods were primitive trees that grew up to 100 feet tall and their leaves, stems and trunks make up most coal deposits. Burning of these plant fossils emits the previously trapped carbon into the atmosphere, warming the planet.

Other Plant Fossils

Other plant fossils from different geologic times tell us about the climate of the period during which they grew and offer insights into the development and extinction of species on earth over millions of years. Spore-like fossils like Hornworts occurring about 540 million years ago show us how plant life emerged and colonized land early in the geologic period.

Fern fossils, dating back about 400 million years, like Zosterophyllophytes and Trimerophytes, proliferated in hot swamps, suggesting a global warming period. The geologic record suggests their disappearance correlates to a period of mass extinction and then their reappearance later led to seed plants, like conifers, about 300 million years ago during a more arid climate, and then later flowering plants about 80 million years ago during another warming period.

Plant Fossil Identification

Plant fossil identification can help you generally date the plant to the geologic period in which it originated. For example, spores originated in the Cambrian era; ferns originated in the Devonian era during a warming period; while conifers originated during an arid period.

Most plant fossils are found during the exploration for fuel sources as all fossil fuels are composed of plant material.

Tags: about million, about million years, million years, warming period, because they, fossil fuels

Conservation Biology Scholarships

Conservation biology majors may qualify for a variety of scholarships.

Today as ecosystems are destroyed, resources depleted and more species become threatened, the field of conservation biology is more important than ever. However, there is also a blissful side to majoring in this discipline. You get to learn about the sheer diversity of plants and animals and submerse yourself in their habitats during field work. If you are pursuing academic studies in conservation biology, you may qualify for a variety of scholarships.

National Fish and Wildlife Service

The National Fish and Wildlife Service established the Rich Guadagno Memorial Scholarship Fund in memory of a former refuge manager at Humboldt Bay National Wildlife Refuge. Mr. Guadagno performed several important duties in the nature refuge including wildlife management. He died as a passenger on the September 11, 2011, hijacked plane that crashed in Pennsylvania.

Every time a donation is made to the fund, the National Fish and Wildlife Service matches it. The service allocates some of the funds to scholarships. Students who are studying and genuinely interested in conservation biology and wildlife protection are eligible for these funding options.

Ms. Claire Thorpe, Assistant Director

Western Partnership Office

National Fish and Wildlife Service

1133 Fifteenth St. NW., Suite 1100

Washington, DC 20005

202-857-0166

email: claire.thorp@nfwf.org

The Field Museum, Chicago

The Field Museum in Chicago offers a continuous learning style scholarship to students from around the world. The museum is a natural history exhibition hall and has displays that represent anthropology, botany, geology and zoology disciplines. It offers a visiting scholarship to students who would like the valuable opportunity to do some research on site, work with its collections and receive training from experienced curators. The funding covers transportation, room and board costs for the duration of the research period. To apply, students must define the rationale of their research project, explain how it is related to solving a natural or anthropological problem and show how the Field Museum's collections would play a role in research methods. Applicants must also contact one of the museum's curators ahead of time to discuss project details; the idea is that the curator will write a letter of support for the student. At the Field Museum, several curators specialize in conservation biology and could adequately supervise a student wishing to do research in that area.

Chair, Scholarship Committee

Office of Academic Affairs

The Field Museum

1400 S. Lake Shore Drive

Chicago, IL 60605

email: chair_scholarship@fieldmuseum.org

California State University, Fullerton

Many say that Rachel Carson started the environmental movement in the United States. When she wrote her book "Silent Spring" describing the tragic effects of such pesticides as DDT on birds, animals and even humans, widespread attention to the book quickly made the country aware of conservation. To celebrate her accomplishments, the California State University Fullerton campus set up the Rachel Carson Scholarship in Conservation Biology, worth $500. Biology students entering their second, third or fourth year at the university may apply. Students must write a 500-word essay on their legitimate desire to pursue a career in conservation biology and how their past experiences may be related.

Dr. Robert Koch, Chair

Department of Biological Science (MH-282)

California State University, Fullerton

800 North State College Blvd.

Fullerton, CA 92831-3599

657-278-3614

e-mail: rkoch@fullerton.edu

Tags: Field Museum, conservation biology, Fish Wildlife, Fish Wildlife Service, National Fish

The Disadvantages Of Topographic Maps

Topographic maps are often carried by campers as an aid to becoming familiar with the camping area.

A topographic map is a standard camping item for many hikers and backpackers. Along with a compass, one of these maps can be extremely useful for people starting on a long backcountry journey into unfamiliar terrain. However, there are limits to what all the lines and symbols can tell the map reader.

Topo Maps Are Static

Perhaps the biggest drawback of using a topographical map is that the information can be dated. Every map gives the date as to when the survey was made, but map readers should be aware that the landscape and places on a map can change over time. These changes can be man-made, such as a newly built road or building. Sometimes even larger changes can occur, such as a lake that's been drained. All of these possibilities and more need to be taken in account when using a topographic map.

Then there are the natural changes that can on occasion confuse the hiker or, in some drastic cases, change the effectiveness of the map. Such natural events as landslides, avalanches, earthquakes, forest fires or hurricanes can make various places unrecognizable or sometimes unusable. All hikers should be aware of these possibilities.

Size

Topographic maps are large and bulky, and so they might become a hindrance to backpackers and other wilderness adventurers, who wish to travel light. The 32- by 40-inch size also means that backpackers and canoeists must be very careful how the maps are packed. Water is the greatest threat, for if one of these large maps gets soaked, it may become difficult to read. As a result, many people who travel in the backcountry have switched over to using detailed trail maps, which are condensed versions of topo maps. Sometimes these maps are plastic-coated so as to be impervious to the elements.

The Forest From The Trees

Another disadvantage of a topographic map is that the information displayed is not exact. This can be particularly apparent when traveling through roadless or trailless areas. In these cases, a topo map does not supply much information as to the nature of the vegetation. The map fails to specify whether a forest is thick and bushy or populated by tall trees with little undergrowth.

Computer-generated Topos

Two companies, DeLorme and National Geographic, now sell topographic maps on CD discs. These map systems can be used to print out the specific section of a quad. This system can be an advantage in that it eliminates the need for carrying full-sized U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) topo maps.

However, hikers and campers should be aware that the accuracy of the DeLorme system is sometimes slightly skewed in the placement of trails, roads and waterways. The National Geographic system works better, for these computer maps are direct copies of USGS quads. However, this map program is more expensive, and you will need a laser printer to obtain good map detail.

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Earthquakes That Changed Landforms

Earthquakes created the desert of Death Valley in California and Nevada.

There are two primary causes of earthquakes: volcanic eruptions and tectonic plate activity at tectonic plate margins and faults. Notable domestic landforms that were affected by earthquakes include the Grant Teton Range in Wyoming, the Sierra Nevada Mountains and Death Valley. Earthquakes can do more than just alter landforms on the Earth's crust, however. According to the Nelson Daily News, massive earthquakes such as the March 11, 2011, earthquake in Japan can actually shift the mass of the Earth and affect its rotation.

The Grand Tetons

Mountain ranges throughout the world are affected by earthquakes.

According to the Greater Yellowstone Resource Guide, earthquakes built the Grand Teton mountain range in Wyoming about 10 million years ago. The Teton Fault is located on the eastern front of the Teton Mountain Range. The western side of the fault was pushed up by this tremendous pressure to form the Teton range, and the eastern side of the fault drops down to form the Jackson Hole Valley.

Death Valley and the Sierra Nevadas

Death Valley was once under the ocean.

According to the U.S. Geological Survey, during the late Paleozoic and Mesozoic era, the Death Valley region, previously underwater, was a changing landscape of erupting volcanoes and uplifting new mountains. These changes were caused by a tectonic collision to the west. Resulting volcanic action occurred just west of Death Valley. The volcanoes eventually cooled and solidified, forming the granite rock now exposed in the Sierra Nevada Mountain ranges.

Sagami, Japan

The Pacific Disaster Center (PDC) lists the 1923 earthquake at Tokyo-Yokohama as one of Japan's worst natural disasters in history. The PDC reports that the ground shook for five minutes as the Sagami Bay Fault ruptured and pressure along the fault line was released. This caused "submarine slides" of the Earth's crust under Sagami Bay, which resulted in a water-depth change of more than 820 feet.

Tangshen, China

According to the PDC, the 1976 earthquake in Tangshen, China, probably caused the highest death toll of the past 400 years, and the second highest number of deaths in recorded history. Damage was especially bad in the Tangshen area. The earthquake resulted in extensive changes of landforms, including sagging and severe fissuring of the ground surface. The quake also caused new mud volcanoes to appear where none had previously been. Water and sand gushed up from the ground and spread over large areas of farmland.

The Great Lisbon Earthquake, 1755

The University of California at Berkeley says that the 1755 Lisbon earthquake's impact was both profound and long-lasting. The Nov. 1 earthquake was centered in the Atlantic Ocean. The worst damage occurred in the southwest region of Portugal. Moderate damage was done in Algiers and in southwest Spain. A very strong tsunami caused by the earthquake caused major destruction along the coasts of Portugal, Spain and Morocco. Many of the largest Portuguese mountains were shaken and split open, according to William Thomas Brande and and Joseph Cauvin, scientists who lived at the time.

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The Ph Scale & Life Classroom Activities

Both the study of the pH scale and life offer a few ways to approach the subject.

Two major topics in school science lessons are the pH scale -- used to measure the acidity of a particular substance -- and life, a broad subject which can include everything from examining definitions of what it is to be alive to cellular activity. These topics can crop up more than once as students progress through the school system, and so teachers can benefit from employing a range of interesting activities to teach these two subjects.

Cabbage Juice Test

This activity demonstrates a method of testing the acidity of a variety of substances. Each group of students is handed a beaker of red cabbage juice, six empty containers, and plastic cups containing liquids such as sugar, vinegar and baking soda. To begin, a small amount of each solution is poured into each empty container; each one is then labeled numerically. A tablespoon of the cabbage juice is then added to each container. The resulting color change in the liquid will indicate the acidity and pH scale number of the solution, as shown on the chart on the Middle School Science website. For example, if the liquid turns purple, this indicates a low pH value and thus a strongly acidic substance.

Taste Observations

Students can observe both acid and base solutions to learn the differences between each. Each student should taste an acidic substance, such as lemon juice, and record anything she notices; then, she should do the same with a base substance such as quinine water. The teacher should then explain where each substance falls on the pH scale, and students can record the characteristics they've noticed under a chart of the scale in their exercise books.

Life Definition Discussion

A powerful tool for teaching concepts of living things is a class or group discussion on the nature of life, followed by a research activity. The teacher should begin by introducing the idea that there are certain characteristics which define a living thing; for example, a living thing must use energy. Then the teacher should ask the class to research -- using library books or the Internet -- the answers to a few dilemmas around these definitions. For example, as the Exploratorium website suggests, the teacher could ask students to find out whether scientists consider a virus to be alive.

Food Chain Yarn Game

This activity is based around exploring the food chains which connect each species of animal and plant, and uses a ball of yarn to illustrate these links. Each student is given a hole-punched name tag labelled with a type of flora or fauna. One student's card instead says the sun; this child begins play by keeping one end of the yarn and then rolling the rest to a student carrying a plant tag. Play continues with each student threading the yarn through her card and handing the rest to a classmate whose card is next highest in the food chain. Once one food chain can go no further, play returns to the sun and a new chain is begun, until a food web is created. Colored yarn can be used to avoid confusion between food chains.

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Three Primary Types Of Erosion

Erosion is a natural process.

Erosion and its processes are an essential part of both the natural world and the study of geology. By learning how substances erode, we discover more about them and in doing so, gain a greater understanding of the natural world. Everything falls apart, but if we can observe how and why it does, then we can learn about everything from what building materials are best to survive in inhospitable environments.

Water Erosion

Raindrop erosion is caused by the impact of water on the surface of the ground. Sheet water erosion is much more severe, and takes place when the ground cannot absorb more water and the excess moves across the surface in a flood. Finally, rill and gully erosion is caused by water being concentrated into small drainage channels in the soil which swell and eventually cut through the ground at the surface. Left unchecked, these will eventually form larger gullies which will erode still further.

Wind Erosion

Wind erosion is most common in arid areas and can, in turn, be broken down into two different processes. Deflation is the process where particles are picked up by the wind and carried downwind and away from their point of origin. Abrasion, the second process, is a by-product of this, as the particles impact on, and in doing so erode, other surfaces as they travel past them. Five million acres of land in the United States are damaged by wind erosion every year.

Gravity Erosion

Mass movement, or movement downhill, is the most common type of gravity erosion. The most common form of this is known as surface creep and occurs very gradually. Large-scale mass movement is often referred to as a landslide. Slumping, the other primary form of gravity erosion, takes place when a substance fractures along a particular line and moves rapidly downhill. This is common in clay or clay-based soils.

Other Types of Erosion

Glacial erosion is caused by the movement of glaciers across the surface of the Earth, carving the ground beneath and around them as they go. Shoreline erosion takes several forms, and is caused by the tidal action of the sea eroding the rocks of the shoreline. One of the most notable forms of this is when hydraulic action fills a joint in rock with water, eroding it. Finally, thermal erosion is caused by the weakening of permafrost by moving water. This occurs most notably on the Arctic coast where temperature and wave motion combine to erode the base of coastal permafrost bluffs.

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Scholarships For Agriculture Students

Scholarships for Agriculture Students

Scholarships are available for students in just about every major. If you are a student studying agriculture, this is no exception as there are several agricultural scholarships available. There are scholarships for people who are high school students wanting to go into agriculture, current college undergraduates and even graduate students in the field.

American Agri-Women - Daughters of American Agriculture Scholarships

If you or your child are a female farmer or rancher, this scholarship is open to you. The scholarship awards money to women who are involved in agriculture and intend to study agriculture-related subjects in college. The scholarship, worth $500, is open to high school graduates, provided they can prove financial need.

Peggy Clark

Daughters of American Agriculture

2274 East Lytle Five Points Road

Dayton OH 45458

americanagriwomen.org/daughters-american-agriculture

Dairy Farmers of America Scholarships

For those students who are focused on the dairy industry, whether it be raising a herd of dairy cows or processing the milk, Dairy Farmers of America has scholarships available to you. In order to be eligible for this scholarship, you must be currently enrolled in or applying to an accredited two- or four-year school. This can be a college, university, or trade school. The scholarships are worth $1500 each.

David Darr

816-801-6432

dfamilk.com/newsroom/scholarship.html

Future Farmers of America National Collegiate Scholarship Program

High school seniors and current college students are eligible for these scholarships. In order to be considered for the scholarships, you must be a member of the Future Farmers of America. Your GPA and class ranking are considered, in addition to the your level of activity within Future Farmers of America, leadership ability and community service are all considered when determining winners. There are multiple scholarships available, but you only need to fill out one application and if qualified, the scholarship committee will award you with the scholarship that they see fit.

ffa.org/index.cfm?method=c_programs.Scholarships

United States Department of Agriculture 1890 National Scholars Program

If you attend one of the seventeen Historically Black land-grant Institutions for college, then you are eligible to receive this scholarship. Applicants need to be freshmen who are studying an agriculture-related field and must have a 3.0 GPA or higher, as well as a combined score of 1500 or higher on the SAT. If you receive this award, you must agree to work within the Department of Agriculture one year for each year you were awarded the scholarship.

USDA/1890 Programs

1400 Independence Avenue, SW

Washington, DC 20250 Mail Stop 9478

(202) 205-5692

ascr.usda.gov/1890programs.html

Tags: Farmers America, Future Farmers, Future Farmers America, scholarships available, this scholarship

The Pay Scale Of A Geologist

Geologists study natural aspects of the Earth, including dirt, rocks and water.

Geologists earn a wide variety of salaries based on numerous factors. A scientist's level of education can affect her earnings, although the industry chosen by a geologist may more significantly impact her salary. The number of years in the field affects geologists' earnings as much or more than any other factor, with strong data showing increased earnings for higher experience levels.

Experience

Earnings data shows that more experienced geoscientists earn more money than less experienced peers. The University of Tennessee's Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences provides salary data to aspiring geologists showing that a scientist's earnings can more than double over the course of her career. For example, a new geologist just out of school may earn between $25,000 and $60,000 a year. However, after the geologist works in the field for 10 years, she can earn between $60,000 and $90,000. With 20 years of experience, the geologist may make between $80,000 and $120,000 per year.

Industry

The petroleum and gas industry pays salaries vastly superior to those in other industries. A 2009 salary survey conducted by the American Association of Petroleum Geologists emphasizes the salary gap between petroleum geologists and those working in other fields. Starting petroleum geologists can earn $99,800 per year, far higher than the $79,160 median annual salary for all geoscientists as reported by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Petroleum geologists with 10 to 14 years of experience can make between $160,700 and $102,500. Top petroleum geologists can earn up to $600,000 a year.

Education Level

The American Geological Institute reports on the impact of a geologist's education level on his earnings. New geologists holding a bachelor's degree earn an average starting salary of $31,366. Geologists earning a master's degree earn almost 50 percent more, with average earnings of $46,873. Geologists recently earning a doctorate degree in geology make an average salary of $72,600.

Job Prospects

The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects 18 percent job growth for geoscientists between 2008 and 2018. The bureau anticipates that a large number of older geoscientists will retire during this decade, possibly resulting in jobs with no qualified applicants to fill them. The bureau projects strong employment opportunities for geologists offering consulting services or willing to work in the oil and gas industry. However, those seeking academic jobs will face stiffer competition.

Tags: petroleum geologists, between petroleum, between petroleum geologists, between year, Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor Statistics

Measure The Specific Gravity Of A Wood Pellet

Most woods exhibit a specific gravity between 0.3 and 0.8.

Specific gravity bears a close resemblance to density. Density represents the ratio of an object's or substance's mass to its volume, typically expressed in units of grams per milliliter, g/mL, or grams per cubic centimeter, g/cc. Specific gravity represents the ratio of a substance's density to the density of water at 4 degrees Celsius, which is 1.000 g/mL. Thus, specific gravity and density are numerically identical, but density bears units of g/mL or g/cc, whereas specific gravity exhibits no dimensions. The volumes of irregularly shaped solids such as rocks or pieces of wood are best measured by cubic displacement, in which the experimenter immerses the sample in a water-filled cylinder and measures the change in water level.

Instructions

1. Place the wood pellet on a balance and record its mass in units of grams. If the balance only measures in units of ounces, use an online calculator, such as the one provided in the Resources section, to convert to grams.

2. Bend the bottom quarter inch of a 6-inch piece of wire at a 90-degree angle. Hold the small portion of the bent wire flat against the surface of the wood pellet and add a very small drop of quick-dry adhesive to glue the wire to the pellet. The wire will allow you to forcibly submerge the pellet of wood in the water; the volume of the wire and glue is small enough to not adversely affect the volume measurement.

3. Fill a 100-mL graduated cylinder with about 80 mL of water. Read the volume as accurately as you can and record this number. The volume on most graduated cylinders can be read to the nearest milliliter.

4. Immerse the wood pellet into the water in the graduated cylinder, using the attached wire to submerge it. You must submerge the entire pellet to obtain an accurate reading. While holding the pellet under water, take a new volume reading from the graduated cylinder.

5. Calculate the volume of the wood pellet by subtracting the initial volume of about 80 mL from the volume with the pellet submerged. For example, for an initial volume of 81 mL and a final volume of 95 mL, the volume of the wood pellet is 95 mL - 81 mL = 14 mL.

6. Determine the density of the wood pellet by dividing the pellet's mass in grams by its volume determined by cubic displacement. For example, if the pellet weighed 10 grams and it displaced 14 mL of water, then the density is 10 g / 14 mL = 0.71 g/mL, or 0.71 g/cc. This value also represents the specific gravity when expressed without units, i.e., 0.71.

Tags: wood pellet, graduated cylinder, cubic displacement, initial volume, represents ratio, specific gravity

The Parts Needed To Build An Analog Computer

Analog computers were predecessors to the modern day digital computers. They ranged from room-size mega-machines to desk-size models. Analog computers are in museums like the Smithsonian and at the Universiteit van Amsterdam in the Netherlands. In the 1970s, do-it-yourself analog computer kits like the Heathkit EC-1 were popular among science nerds and provided the means to build an inexpensive functional computer.

Housing

An analog computer requires a metal box housing that can hold all of the internal computer parts. Get a purpose-built empty steel case chassis that measures approximately 20 inches x 12 inches x 15 inches. If you want the casing mounted on a rack, make sure it is also fitted with a sturdy front panel.

Operational Amplifier

Operational amplifiers, or op amps, are the backbone of analog computers. They are electronic circuits that drive all functions and operations. Vacuum tubes provide the means for amplifying signals by controlling electron movement in low-pressure enclosed spaces. The Heathkit EC-1 computer, for instance, needed nine such devices.

Power Supply

A power supply is the main source of power for the system. To build an analog computer similar to the EC-1 as an example, you'll need a 100-watt power supply complete with a power cord that will fit into the housing.

Potentiometers

Five potentiometers are needed to build an analog computer like the EC-1 model. A potentiometer is a type of resistor that is used to adjust the level of input signals in the analog circuitry.

Relay Contacts

Relay contacts are controls that permit the flow of electricity to drive the operational amplifier. An open relay stops signaling while a closed relay contact sends signals forward. The EC-1 kit requires four sets of relay contacts to build an analog computer.

Resistors

Resistors control the amount of electricity channeled along a particular circuit. To build an analog computer, you'll need at least two of these. One will function as an input resistor and the other will function as a feedback resistor.

Capacitors

Capacitors are the analog equivalent of digital computer transistors. Each capacitor in the analog computer remembers, or can maintain the integrity of a single mathematical variable. You'll need at least one capacitor when you build an analog computer. Use more capacitors to solve multivariate complex problems.

Patch Cords

Patch cords are flexible electrical cables that have jacks at each end. They are manually adjustable and used during problem solving setup. They work by creating interconnections within the analog computer to solve mathematical problems. Get at least two or three cords.

Output Devices

You'll need an output device to see the results of your computations. An analog screen monitor or a graphical interface are acceptable choices.

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Magnetite Characteristics

Magnetite is an ore iron oxide (Fe3O4) found in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. In its detrital state -- ground into debris by the action of water -- it becomes a rough sand such as the black sands found on the beaches of Auckland, New Zealand. Magnetite is also considered a natural magnet and has many other unique characteristics.

Luster

Magnetite's luster, or sheen, may appear either metallic or non-metallic (rock like). The surface will appear either shiny or dull, waxy or iridescent.

Hardness

On the Mohs hardness scale, which rates hardness of minerals from 1 (soft) to 10 (hard), magnetite falls between 5.5 and 6.5. Magnetite is about as hard as feldspar, which is harder than apatite but softer than quartz.

Color

Color is one of the attributes geologists use to distinguish one mineral from another. Magnetite's color runs from a dark gray to black.

Streak

Streak describes the color of the powder created from pulverizing a mineral. It can also be found by rubbing the mineral on a white ceramic tile or plate. Magnetite's streak is black.

Cleavage

Cleavage illustrates the way minerals consistently split, either evenly in one direction or in multiple directions. Magnetite usually has no cleavage, although a few specimens have been known to have eight-way splits, meaning they break apart into eight uneven pieces.

Fracture

Fracture depicts the way mineral surfaces look when shattered. Magnetite appears conchoidal, or smooth, with shell-shaped convex and concave surfaces, like obsidian --- a black, volcanic glass with smooth, shiny surfaces formed by rapidly cooling lava.

Magnetism

Geologists and mineralogists check for magnetic properties. Since magnetite is attracted to magnets, it is considered a natural magnet.

Specific Gravity

Specific gravity tests a mineral's mass compared to water. Magnetite registers an average specific gravity of 5.1, in the same range as hematite and pyrite. Magnetite has a higher specific gravity than sulfur, quartz and calcite, and a lower specific gravity than cobaltite, cinnabar and gold.

Crystal System

Crystal systems describe a mineral's crystal formation. Magnetite has an isometric crystal system, meaning the crystals are symmetrical.

Transparency

Minerals fall into one of three levels of clarity. They are either transparent (diamonds and glass), translucent or milky, (opals and chalcedony) or opaque (jasper and turquoise). Magnetite is an opaque mineral.

Tags: appear either, considered natural, considered natural magnet, gravity than, natural magnet

What Is Radioactivity Used For

What Is Radioactivity Used For?

A natural process that occurs in unstable atoms, radioactivity, when properly used, delivers many benefits. The reliability of radioactive decay makes it useful to estimate dates on ancient objects. Nuclear power plants use the energy of radioactivity to generate electricity. The penetrating power of radiation makes it indispensable in medicine and industry.

Power

Radioactive decay in uranium and plutonium fuel rods creates large amounts of heat. In a nuclear power plant, the heat is used to boil water and drive a steam turbine. The turbine runs an electric generator. A nuclear reactor uses no fossil fuels and produces no greenhouse gases. Some of the radioactive waste products are reclaimed for medical, educational and industrial use.

Illumination

In the early 1900s, watch and clock makers painted the dials with radium. This made them glow in the dark, but the dangerous radioactivity had serious health consequences. Today, exit signs and other items use tritium for the same purpose. The tritium doesn't give off light by itself; it's sealed in a phosphor-coated package and the coating glows. Tritium is far safer than radium for this use and can glow steadily for decades without electricity.

Medicine

Radioactivity is used for both medical diagnosis and treatment. Special radioactive marker compounds can be injected or eaten and then imaged in the body. A physician can then see problems with blood flow or intestinal blockages.

Many cancer treatments rely on radioactivity to kill tumor cells. In brachytherapy, a surgeon implants a small pellet of radioactive material inside a tumor. Over time, it is destroyed.

Science

The predictable decay of natural radioactivity lets scientists date ancient objects. They use different radioactive elements for longer and shorter time scales. Carbon-14, a radioactive isotope, is used to date the remnants of living things up to about 60,000 years. Isotopes of uranium, thorium, and other elements are used to date rock formations. They take millions or billions of years to decay, so they're better suited to geological time scales.

Detection

Neutrons, a highly penetrating form of radiation, are used to detect the presence of chemical compounds. This is a sensitive technology, able to discern to parts per billion, depending on the substance. When a sample is exposed to neutrons, each element reacts by giving off unique radiation of its own. Criminal investigations, which sometimes deal with tiny evidence samples, have benefited from neutron-activation analysis.

Tags: ancient objects, time scales, used date, What Radioactivity, What Radioactivity Used

The Most Common Precambrian Fossils

Fossils allow scientists to develop a cohesive idea of the planet's makeup throughout its history.

The Precambrian Era represents seven-eighths of Earth's history, but the fossil record for the era is extremely poor. Precambrian, which means the era before the Cambrian period, refers to the period of Earth's history before the formation of the oldest rocks with fossils in them. However, some scientists have found some fossils in the Precambrian Era rock, although the fossils are extremely hard to discern and identify.

The Type of Fossils Found

The Precambrian Era, which is divided into the Hadean, Archean and Proterozoic eras, refers to anything before 600 million years ago. The oldest fossils that scientists have discovered have come from the Archean Era. These fossils appear to be blue-green algae formations that floated in the ocean about 3.5 billion years ago. These formations are thought to be single-celled bacteria, and they are the earliest form of life that anyone has yet to discover.

What Scientists Know About These Bacteria

These first set of bacteria that comes from the Archean portion of the Precambrian Era were most likely chemotrophs, which means that they produced hydrogen sulfide or carbon dioxide. These bacteria, which are called prokaryotes (or single-celled organisms) eventually evolved into multicelled organisms. Whereas the bacteria most likely had very little genetic diversity, they eventually formed all of the life that is present in the world today.

Other Fossils From the Precambrian Era

All of the fossils found in the Precambrian Era were bacteria, but the prokaryotic bacteria eventually evolved into multicelled bacteria with a little bit more genetic diversity and movement. These multicelled organisms are called the metazoans, and they appear as fossils in more recent rock layers that are from the Precambrian Era. They might have been more algae-like and had denticles, plates and tubes that allowed them to move. These multicelled organisms can be found both in the Precambrian Era and Cambrian Era.

Recent and Disputed Findings

In China, scientist Rolf Harris discovered a 650-million-year-old fossil that appears to have a more complex bodily structure than any other fossil that has been dated to the era. With what appears to be a possible eye, head-like structure and a body, this fossil causes some scientists to rethink their vast picture of geological history. The fossil has been named Wassahpdug Haldanei, and scientists still debate its authenticity.

Tags: multicelled organisms, Earth history, eventually evolved, eventually evolved into, evolved into, evolved into multicelled, fossil that

The Geological Features Of The Silurian Period

Land masses formed vast supercontinents during the Silurian period, although North America was relatively in the same position.

The third period of the Paleozoic period is known as the Silurian period. Occurring 440 million years ago, this marked a time when the earth was still in its earliest stages of development. The period is broken into two segments, the early and late Silurian periods, and is believed to have followed a mass extinction during the Ordovician period. An examination of the geology of the Silurian period allows a better understanding of the structure of the earth at the time.

Basics

Dry land during the Silurian period looked much like the deserts of today. Salty deposits called evaporite formed due to arid conditions near the equator. It was also a time of great volcanic activity. Land was not green or lush, as it did not support much life. Dinosaurs, mammals, amphibians and birds were not present during this time. However, the Silurian period marked the time when life began moving from the oceans to dry land. The closure of ocean basins allowed for the diversification of land masses to support the emergence of terrestrial plants that later changed the atmosphere to form the ozone layer.

Land Masses

Continental land masses during the Silurian period looked nothing like they do today. Plate tectonics shifted and moved the continents, causing them to develop into large masses of land called supercontinents. The supercontinent Gondwana was the largest land mass, located around the South Pole. Other continents included Laurentia, Siberia and Baltica, which were clustered around the equator. At the end of the Silurian period, Laurentia and Baltica collided to form a new supercontinent called Euramerica. "In the North Atlantic area the Silurian marked the closure of the great 'Iapetus' Ocean that separated present day North America from Northern Europe," according to Silurian.com.

Oceans

One side of the globe was entirely covered by ocean during the Silurian period, as well as much of the North Pole. Shallow seas covered parts of other continents. Warming climates contributed to the melting of large glacial ice sheets that caused sea levels to rise across the globe. However, glaciers still remained at higher altitudes. Oceans covered New York and Nevada, and Wales was covered by a narrow ocean basin.

Mountains

As plate tectonics shifted and ocean basins closed during the Silurian period, it allowed the formation of new mountain ranges. Sediment deposits in England also created new mountain ranges. Toward the end of the Silurian period, two massive mountain ranges formed along the edges of the continental margins.

Tags: Silurian period, during Silurian, during Silurian period, mountain ranges, marked time, marked time when

Visit The Newbery Volcanic National Monument In Oregon

Seven miles south of beautiful Bend, Oregon, off Highway 97, you'll find large signs proclaiming Newbery Volcanic National Monument. No wonder you've heard so much about the natural beauty of Central Oregon. Vastly different landscapes populate this gorgeous region. Don't miss the lakes, campgrounds and rushing Deschutes River, among the lava lands.

Instructions

1. Stop by Lava Lands and the nearby Lava Lands Visitor Center for an easy to moderate hike behind the center that is slightly uphill. Experience the volcanic wonder of black jagged rocks, and the canyons and gutters formed by the lava pouring down 6000 years ago. Chipmunks dart between the boulders, and yellow flowers spring up amid the lunar landscape. Ask about the more difficult hike to the overhanging Lava Butte. You can even bring a dog on a leash.

2. Follow the signs to Deschutes Falls, one mile away. You'll find three adjacent trails: one for mountain biking, one for hiking and one for horseback riding along the Deschutes River. The rapids and scenery can take your breath away, but hold hands with little ones; don't expect guardrails or fences near the river's shore.

3. Drive one mile away to the fantastic Lava River Cave where you can truly explore the inside of the earth. Expect to rent a lantern and walk 2.2 miles in the 40 degree darkness, about one hour or more. This lava tube is considered Oregon's longest, the more astounding for never having collapsed. It was formed by a molten river.

4. Motor three more miles south to the Petrified Cast Forest to meander through a one mile hike that features the molten forms of trees petrified when the lava doused them more than 6000 years ago. This site never closes, but has no lights, so be careful after dark.

5. Finish up at the actual Newbery Crater, another dozen or so miles south. There you'll turn left to find a small interpretive center, then two crater lakes, Paulina Lake and East Lake, complete with cabins and campgrounds. These lovely lakes are considered local gems and remain popular for fishing and boating. Each small resort features a little restaurant and store.

6. Stop at the Obsidian Flow, marked by a sign. Here you can explore yet another lava landscape featuring the shinier black obsidian rock used by native peoples for arrowheads. This is a fascinating, moderately steep climb. Enjoy the magnificent vistas of Paulina Lake and distant pine forests from the top.

Tags: miles south, 6000 years, Deschutes River, Lava Lands, mile away, National Monument

Aapg Grants

The mission of the American Association of Petroleum Geologist Foundation, started in 1967, is to provide funds for geology-related education and charitable endeavors. To this end, the AAPG offers grants and scholarships to graduate and undergraduate students, primarily those belonging to AAPG student chapters at U.S. colleges and universities.

Bernold M. "Bruno" Hanson Memorial Environmental Grant

Named for a geological explorer who discovered over 20 fields of oil and gas, this grant is given to a qualified graduate student studying environmental issues specifically relating to energy minerals or petroleum production. Students working on technological applications in these industries to address environmental problems may also apply.

Specific School Grants

AAPG has several named grants for students studying at specific schools or in certain regions. The Michael S. Johnson Grant is for an Ohio State University student, while the Robert & Carolyn Maby Memorial Grant goes to a University of Wisconsin scholar. Students at Texas A&M University may apply for the James W. Milliken Memorial Grant. Student members of the AAPG Pacific Section Student Chapter are eligible for the John E. Kilkenny Memorial Grant for geologic studies in that part of the U.S.

L. Austin Weeks Undergraduate Grant

The L. Austin Weeks Undergraduate Grant administered by the AAPG offers funds to AAPG Student Chapter earth science majors. For the academic year 2011 to 2012, the $1,000 grant is divided between the student and the institution of higher learning's geoscience department. Student recipients may use the funds for educational expenses, while the geoscience department should use funds to support its AAPG student chapter. Student chapter officials, faculty advisers and departmental chairs nominate the student applicant.

Grants-in-Aid

The Grants-in-Aid program provides grants to graduate students demonstrating academic merit and financial need. For the 2011 to 2012 academic year, grants range between $500 to $3,000 for thesis-related expenses, including field and laboratory work. Grants cannot be used for tuition, room and board, salaries or conference attendance. While qualified master's degree candidates receive priority, doctoral students may also apply. The applicant's thesis should address petroleum and energy-mineral resource development or issues of environmental geology.

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Find Geodes In Southern Indiana

The southern bank of Indiana is an ideal place to find geodes.

Southern Indiana has an abundance of geodes and marine fossils. Hundreds of millions of years ago, the entire state was a salty tidal plain that was ideal for geode creation. Most of the geological and fossil specimens were lost in the northern half of Indiana from the movement of the glaciers that lasted until the most recent ice age. However, from the Ohio River north to the Martinsville area there is a wealth of geodes that you can readily discover.

Instructions

1. Locate areas where you are able to travel that are likely to contain geodes. Geodes and fossils are most easily found in areas that expose ground stratification, whether by natural or artificial means. That is, focus on places where more layers of the ground are exposed than just the topsoil.

2. Walk around the shores of bodies of water and try to find geodes that have been exposed by the raising and lowering of the water. While even small creeks will provide this opportunity, prime examples of exposed ground strata can be found along the Ohio River, the Wabash River, the White River, and Monroe Reservoir.

3. Drive along a state highway and look for places where the ground was excavated to build the road. There are miles of such roads, distinguished by sharp escarpments of exposed soilalong the roads. Park your car in a safe area and examine the area where the escarpment meets the ground. Because of rain and natural erosion, geodes are likely to have become exposed and rolled down to this area. A prime example of such a location is the excavated slopes around State Road 37 near Bedford, Ind.

4. Search for geodes on private property only if you have secured proper permission. On private property, some of the best places to find geodes are in crop fields. Many farmers would be grateful for the "service" if you asked to search their fields for geodes after the fields have been tilled, as the tilling process frequently pulls up geodes that could be a hazard for the farm equipment.

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Construct A Volcano Science Project

Volcano projects provide a visual aid for students.

Volcano science projects are used to measure a student's understanding of the principal parts of a volcano. In addition, science volcano projects provide students with a visual aid in preparing for a test. Constructing a volcano for a project can be done using paper or molding clay, however, for a professional look, use molding clay. In addition, by molding a volcano, users can add decorative details, such as snow and rocks.

Instructions

1. Mold the volcano. Using molding clay, construct the circular base of the volcano. Use your hands to create a flat, circular base, then shape and construct a cone. Start by forming a round cylinder, using your hands to rotate the clay. Mold the top into a V-shape for a cone. Continue adding layers of clay to the triangle until the volcano reaches the desired size.

2. Carve out a crater for the lava to spill out from. Use a cutting knife to construct a crater big enough to hold a 35mm film container. Remove the extra clay.

3. Decorate the volcano. Using acrylic paints, add color and environmental features to the volcano. Paint the entire volcano a solid color using a filbert brush; a filbert brush is ideal for painting large areas. Paint in one direction to avoid paint streaks. Allow the coat to dry. Add details to the volcano, such as snow, using paint. Use a round-tip brush to apply details. Add any rocks, toy trees or painted rivers surrounding the volcano.

4. Place the 35mm film container inside the volcano crater. Take a regular tablespoon and add two tablespoons of baking soda into the container. Add a tablespoon of dishwasher soap. Place five drops of yellow or orange food coloring. Cover the film container using the film cover.

5. Use a marker to label the visible parts of a volcano -- conduit, crater, base, country rock and throat.

6. Add vinegar to erupt the volcano. Please note, adding vinegar will cause baking soda and soap to react in a chemical explosion. Add vinegar in an area away from carpet, as the food color will stain the fabric.

Tags: film container, molding clay, 35mm film, 35mm film container, baking soda, circular base, filbert brush

Test Ph & Water Hardness

Water pH and hardness can be measured using testing strips.

Power of hydrogen, or pH, is a measure of the level of water acidity. A pH of 7 indicates that the water is neither acidic nor basic. The lower the number below 7, the more acidic water is. For health and safety it is important that the water acidity remains around 7. The hardness of water depends mainly on its calcium content. The higher amounts of calcium in water can produce buildups in water lines and even damage appliances that use water. Testing water for pH and hardness can be done using special testing strips.

Instructions

Measuring pH

1. Pour water to be tested in a clean glass.

2. Dip the pH testing strip in water for the amount of time recommended by the strip manufacturer, which is generally less than a minute.

3. Remove the strip from water. The color of the strip's head may have changed.

4. Compare the color of the strip's head with the color chart that came with it. The number indicated beside the color that matches the most with the strip's color represents the pH of water.

Measuring Water Hardness

5. Pour water to be tested in a glass.

6. Dip the water hardness testing strip in the water for the amount of time recommended by the strip manufacturer. This time is generally less than 30 seconds.

7. Take the strip out of water and compare the color of its head with the color chart that came with the strip. The number indicated beside the color that matches closest to the color of the strip's head determines the hardness of the water.

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Jobs That Involve Working With Geodes

Geodes are the cavities within rocks.

Geodes are geological rock formations. Geodes are cavities within rocks that are filled with crystals. The process of forming a geode takes millions of years, involving the slow feed of minerals and application of pressure to form the unique internal structure. There are many jobs that involve working with geodes.

Geologist

Geologists are scientists that study the composition, processes and history of the Earth, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Geologists attempt to determine how rocks are formed and often assist in identifying the type of rock or mineral; geodes can consist of many different types of crystal, such as amethyst, agate and jasper. To become a geologist, you must have a degree in geology. Geologists often work in rural, isolated areas.

Appraiser

Geodes, depending on the size and mineral composition, can be valuable. In order to determine the value of a geode, appraisers use knowledge of geology and market pricing to price geodes. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, to become an appraiser, you must have knowledge of appraisal techniques, which can be gained through work experience. Geological knowledge is also essential.

Jeweler

Geodes, especially those including agate crystals, are often made into jewelry such as rings or necklaces. In order to do this, jewelers cut out the agate and fashion it into jewelry. To become a jeweler, you can gain experience on the job or attend a technical school that offers a program on jewelry making that includes working with natural stones. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, jewelers are relying more and more on machines to make jewelry, so formal training is recommended.

Miner

Geodes have to be found, and this often requires digging. Miners look for geodes in natural formations such as caverns or large rock quarries. Most geode miners are independent contractors who procure geodes and sell them to jewelers and collectors. While mining does not require formal education, knowledge of appropriate mining techniques and equipment is important because it can be dangerous. In some states, mining for geodes without a license is illegal. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, machinery used for mining is becoming more advanced, so formal training may be required.

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