Create Online College Courses From Scratch

Teaching online courses is no different than teaching courses in the classroom. If you have been struggling with create an online college course and you are doing it from scratch, there are some helpful suggestions you can follow that will make the process much easier. Building an online college course from scratch can be a difficult process, but if you have a plan in place to begin with, you can save yourself a lot of time and effort.

Instructions

1. Set a time budget. Because teaching online is no different than in the classroom, an instructor teaching from home must be a good classroom manager. Many of the same procedures for classroom teachers apply to teaching online; it is simply a matter of taking those steps and translating them into an online format. You will be communicating with your students on a daily basis, so determine how much time you have each day to devote to every class and stick to it. This will make the rest of the class creation process go much smoother.

2. Divide course material into manageable units. Use your textbook as your guide. Because students will spend a significant amount of time with the textbook, make it the basis for structuring your course. For example, a course that is fifteen weeks long could be divided up into a five three-week sections of material. If you have a textbook that is fifteen chapters in length, the process is easy--one chapter per week! More chapters require more reading on the part of the students. Determine which chapters you will be using and when and incorporate this material into your course syllabus.

3. Give your students assignments that require them to do research on their own. At the beginning of the semester when you are creating your course, determine which types of assignments to give your class. Having the class write a three-to-five page essay on a major issue that is covered in several chapters of the book is a good way to do this. Require the students to do additional research and set a minimum number of sources you will require them to use besides the textbook. This also serves as a great way to prepare your students for their exams.

4. Create audio and video lectures if possible. Here you will need a digital video camera of some type or an audio voice recording device. Create your first four or five lectures ahead of time so that you can have them uploaded and ready to go before starting the semester. This will give you time to continue working on new ones as the semester goes along and it will keep your students from having to wait for new lectures. Make sure you are familiar with the memory limits of the online platform you are using. There is nothing more frustrating than creating an hour long lecture only to find that it is too large to upload to your server.

5. Create reading quizzes and exams at least three to four weeks in advance of the due dates. Most online platforms allow for multiple exam formats, including objective and essay-type exams. If you are creating a course from scratch, you should stick to the objective exams for the first semester so that the answers can be automatically graded. This will save you significant time and effort so that you can focus on lectures, grading and other writing assignments.

6. Utilize as many communication tools as you can in order to keep your class running smoothly. Your students will be used to using various instant message programs like yahoo and other programs like Skype. Choose one or two of these to set up an account and have these on when working at your computer so that you can quickly and easily answer questions for your students when issues arise.

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Topographic Map Activities & Lesson Plans

Topographic maps show not only locations, but elevation levels of those locations. They are useful tools in providing information about heights in relation to distances. Topographical map activities help students learn topography, understand more about elevations and enhance map reading skills.

Using Topographical Maps

Teachers can get hold of topographical maps printed by the USGS. Teachers should provide each student with one or a copy of one. Then, as a class, teachers can go through the directions, the scales and the way that elevations are shown on these maps. Students should then work in groups to identify and locate various features on the maps that they have been given. Teachers who wish to create a fun atmosphere can turn this into a game for groups of students. Some examples of game or review questions might include finding the highest point in a specific country or region, or finding the lowest valley that is nearest to where they live. Going through the maps as a class and having students answer questions in groups will help students to become familiar with topographical maps.

Map Creation

Many topographic maps show differences in elevation by color coding areas on the map. Give students a blank map of a country or region. Students should look up various elevations on the Internet, and color-code the map in correlation. Students can use online atlases or offline sources like atlases and globes to gather information, and can create their own color-coding system based on the facts that they find.

Many students have trouble correlating various colors with different elevations. Give students a blank map of a country or location and have them research the various elevation points. Students can then use clay to create mountains, peaks and plateaus, depending on the research that they find. This activity can be tailored to students' ages. Very young students can create mountains and valleys in a general fashion---putting mountains where they are located. Older students can have more specific requirements, such as the correct number of mountain peaks and a height scale that corresponds to the actual elevation points.

Floor-Size Maps

Students and teachers can work together to create larger topographic maps. Draw out the country or region on a piece of paper or another surface that is the size of the floor area in which you have to work. Research elevations of the area in question. Using your creativity and the creative ideas of the students, create a topographic map. You can use found items, like carpets, chairs, bean bags and even desks to simulate the various elevations of the locations.

Tags: country region, that they, blank country, create mountains, elevation points, Give students, Give students blank

Oil Exploration Tools

Many complex tools are designed for oil exploration.

Oil and gas industries around the globe are actively exploring for oil, natural gas and hydrocarbon deposits beneath the surface of the earth. Depending on where the oil is located, or what terrain the company is exploring, many tools are used for oil exploration. Tools vary among those that are used for exploration on frozen land, at sea or at other locations.

Pilot Drill Control Tools

When exploring for oil, drilling depths can exceed 6 miles into the earth's surface. At these depths, the drill bit is often removed from the hole, and complex instruments inserted into the drilled shaft that collect data and feed it back to the drilling platform. AC induction motors, casing scrapers, and harmonic stabilizers are all used on the end of the drill string to collect data, or stabilize the drilling process. These tools are often called pilot drill control, or PDC tools.

Magnetic Tools

Oil bearing rock is rarely magnetic, and non-oil bearing rock is often highly magnetic. Therefore oil exploration is performed using tools that measure magnetic fields. Two different magnetic tools are used to measure the magnetic field, and the field differences of rock formations under the earth's crust. Two frequently used tools are the field balance and airborne magnetometer. These tools can measure any slight difference in magnetism in specific rock formations, and in the air just above the ground over large areas respectively. The fluctuations in the magnetic fields indicate when oil is present in the rock substrates.

Radar Wave Generators

Radars utilize ultra high frequency waves that penetrate the ground and identify oil deposits. The radar waves bounce back to the radar generator as they travel though the ground. The radar waves reflect differently when they bounce off solid rock as compared to when they impact an oil reserve under the ground. Depth and density of the materials from which they reflect are identified by the characteristics of the wave that returns to the radarscope. The drawbacks of radar generators is the high amount of power required to power the radar waves.

Sonar Wave Generators

Lower frequency sound waves, or sonar waves, are also used to detect hidden oil fields within a surrounding dense mineral substrate. Sonar for oil exploration acts like that on a submarine. The sonar waves bounce back from solid surfaces, and become distorted if they bounce back through an underground oil field. Sound generators can produce sonar waves at different frequencies in order to effectively explore different substrates.

Tags: bounce back, radar waves, sonar waves, bearing rock, collect data

The Differences Between Divergent & Convergent Plates

Japan was formed by convergent oceanic plates.

The study of plate tectonics encompasses three kinds of plate boundaries that move on the Earth's surface to create its geologic features: divergent, convergent and transform boundaries. Divergent plates are those which are moving away from each other, while convergent are moving towards one another. Transform plates move horizontally against each other. These plates and their boundaries exhibit different characteristics which contribute to the way they shape the planet.

Divergent Plates - Oceanic

The boundary of divergent plates under the ocean's lithosphere produces a mid-ocean ridge. This is due to the convection currents lifting the lithosphere which then stretches and produces a fissure. Magma from the mantle, located below the lithosphere, flows into the fissure and solidifies. Characteristics of the boundary between divergent plates is a mid-ocean ridge --- such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge; volcanic fissure eruptions and creation of new seafloor; and widening of the ocean basin.

Convergent Plates - Oceanic

Subduction occurs when convergent plates meet under the ocean, with one plate moving below the other. As the subducted plate is forced deeper into the Earth it heats and melts. The resulting magma forces its way upwards through the overlying rock and forms a volcanic eruption cone when it reaches the surface. These cones start deep under the ocean; with time they grow to be higher than sea level, thus forming an island chain such as in Japan and the Aleutian Islands. Deep oceanic trenches are also formed along the convergent plate boundaries.

Divergent Plates - Continental

The Red Sea in the Middle East was formed by diverging continental plates.

The thick continental plates exhibit different behavior when located above a divergent plate boundary. The plate is arched upwards and pulled thin causing a fracture that produces a rift-shaped structure. Faults develop on both sides of the rift as the plates pull apart, the central portion slides downwards and earthquakes occur. Fresh water streams and rivers will flow into the rift forming a long narrow lake; if the rift becomes deep enough ocean waters can flow in creating a long narrow sea. The Red Sea is a prime example of a deep rift that has become a sea. In its early stages of development, the East Africa Rift has several lakes and is still above sea level.

Convergent Plates - Continental

The Himalaya Mountains are still being formed by convergent continental plates.

Convergent boundaries between continental plates subject both plates to a powerful collision as neither plate is subducted due to their lower density in relation to the mantle. Compression of the rock in both plates results in intense folding and the creation of many faults. Often broad folded mountain ranges are formed. The Appalachian Mountains are an example of an ancient plate collision. The Indian and Eurasian plate are now colliding and forming the Himalayas.

Convergent Plates - Continental and Oceanic

Collisions between continental and oceanic plates result in the denser and thinner ocean plate being subducted. As the plate is forced deeper into the mantle, it melts and forms magma. A zone of earthquake activity forms and possibly an ocean trench forms directly offshore of the continent. Volcanic eruptions a few hundred miles inland are also evident. Examples of this type of convergent boundary include the Andes Mountains in South America and the Washington-Oregon coastline of the United States.

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Topics For A Research Paper For Physical Education

Physical Education improves motor skills.

You're in school and your gym teacher asks you to write a research paper. You are aghast, a research paper in physical education? You wonder if it can be done; you've never heard of such a thing. Yes, it is possible, but before you even begin you must pick your topic.

Brainstorming

Brainstorming is one way to choose a topic for your paper. Get out a piece of paper and randomly write down anything you can think of related to physical education. As you write, you will find yourself attracted to one or two topics. Once you've finished, group your information. First, put your two topic choices at the top. Below each heading, write in those ideas from your brainstorming session that fit within that heading. Some will fit into both. That's OK. Also include any ideas that randomly come to you. Now look closely at the one that appeals the most to you. Ask yourself if you have enough ideas within the topic to write a complete paper and if the topic is within your research limits and abilities.

Sports

If you write about sports, there are many to choose from: Soccer, football, tennis, rugby, basketball and hockey only begin the list. And there are many ways to approach this topic. One is to pick a sport, write about its history, popularity, development, and pros and cons. Another is to choose a famous player or coach. Write a biography; include her upbringing, reasons she was drawn to that sport, what she did to become successful, how she first got into it, what her successes or failures were, what her future plans are and what she sees as the benefits and negatives of the sport. A third possibility is to write about a team. Research its history and development. Include important coaches and players, key losses and wins, its origin and its popularity.

History

You can write about the history of education. Find out when, why and where the first P.E. classes were offered. Compare the activities of these first classes to those offered now; give examples. Find out if the curriculum was or is gender-specific. Look into the activities offered by all-girls schools and all-boys schools at different points in time. Compare the average amount of time students spent in physical educations in past eras to now and, if there was a change, why the change occurred. This can be a broad topic. If, as you begin researching, you become overwhelmed by the amount of information you find, narrow your research to one particular aspect of its history.

Purpose

Physical education classes typically have offered a wide variety of activities and lessons. Determine why certain activities are offered and whether the intent was satisfied. For example, find out why certain games are played; maybe it's to improve health, foster teamwork and cooperation, or maybe they're offered just because they're fun. For sports, what is the purpose of teaching sports? Maybe it's related to popularity, personal preference or to improving coordination and strength. Take a broader view and include the reason that gym classes have typically been part of the educational curriculum and whether their purpose has changed over time.

Inclusion

In recent years, students with special needs have entered the general education classrooms and the gym teacher finds himself in the unusual position of teaching an active gym class to students with motor disabilities, vision and hearing limitations and learning challenges. Sometimes these students come with personal aids; sometimes they do not. Research why the educational system began inclusion classes, whether they have been typically successful, how inclusion has affected the overall instructional methods of the teacher and the modifications necessary to teach P.E. to students with various ability levels.

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Free Distance Learning Courses In Uk

There are a range of distance learning courses available in the U.K.

Distance Learning allows you to boost your education and skills from the comfort of your own home. It gives you flexibility to study when your schedule allows it and you often only need access to a computer in order to complete the training. In the United Kingdom, a range of distance learning courses are offered. Although for most courses payment is required, there are some free options available.

Beginners' Tutorials

The tutorials are divided into 56 explanatory categories ranging from C++ Programming to Accountancy and MS Word. Each category features a range of step-by-step tutorials for a variety of users including business and personal use. These are largely aimed at beginners. The tutorials are displayed directly on the web browser and so no additional programs are needed. Unfortunately, the website has not been updated for the latest versions of programs such as MS Office. For most categories, an abbreviated version of the training materials are free but you can also pay for a more in-depth version.

Learn Direct For Business

This program offers taster courses in subjects such as Business and Management and Information Technology. The courses aim to be interactive, including quizzes and games. In general, the courses are at a basic level as they aim to enhance essential, day to day, skills. They are useful for those with little experience of formal learning and for non-native English speakers.

BBC Academy

The British Broadcasting Coooperation (BBC) offers free online courses on television, radio, broadcast management and broadcast technology. Examples include Good Shooting Guide, Microphones and Sound for Radio and DV Camera Shooting Guides. These courses were originally designed for use by BBC staff and have not been altered for public release. Consequently, they contain reference to some BBC specific phrases and procedures.

Online Web Practicals

These are provided by Oxford University's Department of Chemistry and are designed for undergraduates who are following science-based programs. Courses are segregated into first, second and third year relevant modules and include both chemistry related tutorials as well as information on IT and software applications. Example courses include Databases for Chemists, IT Course Modules for Graduates and Superconductor Preparation. No special software is needed to use these tutorials.

Writers Bureau

This offers home study courses in poetry, journalism and creative writing. Although for many lessons you have to pay there are some free tutorials on writing and marketing your work. The site also offers full money back guarantee if you are not successful having completed one of the paid courses.

Tags: learning courses, range distance, range distance learning, some free, there some, there some free

What Human Activities Affect The Carbon Cycle

Deforestation is a human activity that has a major impact on the carbon cycle.

The carbon cycle involves the movement of carbon between the atmosphere, biosphere, oceans and geosphere. Since the Industrial Revolution approximately 150 years ago, human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation have begun to have an effect on the carbon cycle and the rise of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Human activities affect the carbon cycle through emissions of carbon dioxide (sources) and removal of carbon dioxide (sinks). The carbon cycle can be affected when carbon dioxide is either released into the atmosphere or removed from the atmosphere.

Burning of Fossil Fuels

When oil or coal is burned, carbon is released into the atmosphere at a faster rate than it is removed. As a result, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases. Natural gas, oil and coal are fossil fuels that are commonly burned to generate electricity in power plants, for transportation, in homes and in other industrial complexes. The primary industrial activities that emit carbon dioxide and affect the carbon cycle are petroleum refining, paper, food and mineral production, mining and the production of chemicals.

Carbon Sequestration

When plants remove carbon dioxide from the air and store it, the process is called carbon sequestration. Agricultural and forestry methods can affect how much carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and stored by the plants. These sinks of carbon dioxide can be farms, grasslands or forests. Human activity in managing farmland or forests affects the amount of carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere by plants and trees. These sinks of carbon dioxide affect the carbon cycle by decreasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the air.

Deforestation

Deforestation is the permanent removal of trees from forests. Permanent removal of the trees means new trees will not be replanted. This large-scale removal of trees from forests by people results in increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere because trees are no longer absorbing carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. As a result, the carbon cycle is affected. According to National Geographic, agriculture is the primary cause of deforestation. Farmers remove trees on a large-scale basis to increase acreage for crops and livestock.

Geologic Sequestration

Human activity can affect the carbon cycle by capturing carbon dioxide and storing it underground rather than permitting it to be released into the atmosphere. This process is called geologic sequestration. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, geologic sequestration could retain large quantities of carbon dioxide for extended periods of time and consequently reduce the concentrations of carbon dioxide above-ground.

Tags: carbon dioxide, carbon cycle, affect carbon cycle, carbon dioxide atmosphere, dioxide atmosphere, from atmosphere

What Kind Of Animals Live In A Louisiana Forest

American alligators are primarily found in southern Louisiana.

Forested areas in Louisiana range from pine forests in the northern region to cypress swamp forests in the south. Both forests have a wide variety of wildlife species. The warm temperatures in Louisiana attract birds during the winter months, and cold-blooded reptiles receive enough warmth to survive year-round. Many of the Louisiana forests' wildlife species are also wetlands creatures, due to the high number of lakes and rivers in the state.

Birds

The Mississippi Kite, or Ictinia mississippiensis, is a hawk that migrates to the forests in southern Louisiana in the spring. These hawks usually stay on the fringes of the deep forests, but within close proximity of rivers and lakes. Birders can find Mississippi Kites on the highest branches of tall trees, including magnolias and white oaks. Adult Mississippi Kites are approximately 14 inches in length.

Northwest Louisiana forests are home to the red-headed woodpecker, or Melanerpes erythrocephalus, which seek refuge in this area of the United States in the fall and winter. This bird can be identified by the red feathers on its crown. When fully mature, these birds are approximately 5 to 7 inches in length.

Mammals

The official Louisiana state mammal is the Louisiana black bear, or Ursus americanus luteolus. This black-haired mammal lives in central and southern Louisiana forests and is also found in southern Mississippi. Some black bears have white fur on their bellies. These bears weigh up to 400 lbs. when they are adults. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Louisiana black bears are threatened.

The swamp rabbit, or Sylvilagus aquaticus, is a small mammal found in southern Louisiana's forests and swamplands. This nocturnal animal forages for food at night and hides in tall grass during the day. The average length of an adult swamp rabbit is 19 inches.

Amphibians

According to the U.S. Geological Survey, the American bullfrog, or Lithobates catesbeianus, is the largest frog in the United States; adult frogs have a maximum length of 8 inches. American bullfrogs are found throughout the state of Louisiana, primarily in riparian and wetlands areas.

Found in southern Louisiana is the spotted salamander, or Ambystoma maculatum. Its native range extends from New England to the Louisiana Gulf Coast. Adult spotted salamanders are approximately 6 inches long. These types of amphibians are primarily active in the winter months.

Reptiles

The American alligator, or Alligator mississippiensis, is native to swamp forests, rivers and marshes in southern Louisiana. Male American alligators have an approximate length of 13 to 14 feet when they fully mature, while females reach lengths of 10 feet. These reptiles differ from crocodiles since the teeth on their upper jaw overlaps their lower jaw; in crocodiles, the lower teeth fit into their upper jaw.

The speckled kingsnake, or Lampropeltis getulua holbrooki, is found in forested areas in central and southern Louisiana, near the cities of Lake Charles and Alexandria. This snake has black scales with dashes of light-colored scales, giving it a "salt and pepper" appearance This type of snake is not venomous, but it will bite when threatened.

Tags: southern Louisiana, Louisiana forests, approximately inches, found southern, American alligators

Tools Used By Scientists

A microscope magnifies extremely small objects.

Scientists use complex and precise tools to perform research. In the field, scientists use highly accurate measuring devices to find data about how a system or process works. To record and analyze the data they find, scientists often use powerful software programs and computers. Depending on the type of research they do, scientists may use dozens of tools in the course of one research project.

Astronomy Tools

Astronomers study outer space. They use high-tech telescopes to study distant events. Many telescopes use a complex system of lenses and mirrors to magnify the light given off by an object in space. Other telescopes capture emissions that the human eye cannot see. For example, a radio telescope captures radio emissions and helps scientists analyze information that is not visible to the human eye. Often, astronomers use telescopes in conjunction with complex computer systems. This helps them analyze large amounts of data and build theories about how our universe works.

Geology Tools

Geologists use tools that help them determine what is happening deep underground. For example, a seismograph is a tool that measures shock waves as they pass through the earth. If a large rock deep underground shifts position, a shock wave will travel outward from it. Strong shock waves are called earthquakes. By analyzing the data that a seismograph produces, a geologist can predict earthquakes and analyze the types of rocks and materials through which a shock wave passes.

Laboratory Tools

Scientists who work in laboratories, such as chemists, geneticists and biologists, use complex tools to analyze objects and chemicals. For example, an optical microscope is a tool that magnifies the light that bounces off objects that are too small for the naked eye. An electron microscope is a powerful tool that allows researchers to see objects that are too small for light waves to reveal. Another example of a laboratory tool is a centrifuge, which spins mixtures of materials very quickly in order to separate them by their mass.

Measuring Tools

Many scientists rely on ultra-precise measuring devices. For example, a scientist who needs to know the exact weight of a material will use a scale that is many times more precise than the average bathroom weight scale. Scientists who measure distances may use a laser measuring device rather than yardsticks or rulers.

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Dig For Crystals In Arkansas

You can find quartz crystals in the mountains of Arkansas.

The Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas have some of the finest-quality quartz crystals in the world. This is a prime location for people who want to try their hand at unearthing their own crystals. Digging for crystals can be a fun activity for the whole family, and even beginners can often make great finds if they follow a few steps.

Instructions

1. Find a location to dig for crystals that is legal. Many crystal mines around the Hot Springs area of Arkansas allow you to dig for a small fee. There are also two areas near Mount Ida where you can dig for free--Jessieville and Perryville. It's a good idea to go to one of these spots because the material has already been extracted from the mine veins, and you will only have to dig through the tailings. Digging at these locations will save you a lot of time and energy.

2. Wear old clothes and old, durable shoes. This can be a messy job that could ruin your clothing.

3. Apply bug spray before starting your dig.

4. Put on work gloves. Quartz crystals are sharp, so you will want to protect your hands from cuts.

5. Dig through the mine tailings using your small shovel until you find a pocket of crystal. There is no sure-fire way to pinpoint where the crystals will be. You just have to start digging.

6. Dig around the crystal with your small shovel. Dig slowly and carefully so as not to scratch or break the crystal.

7. Move away rock debris using your garden rake.

8. Loosen the dirt around the crystal using your screwdriver.

9. Wrap large crystals in newspaper and place them in your bucket. Place smaller, more fragile crystals in seal-tight bags.

Tags: using your, around crystal, quartz crystals, small shovel, your small, your small shovel

Earth Science Experiments For Kids

Planet Earth

There are six main pollutants that are detrimental to the health of humans: nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, ozone, carbon dioxide, lead, and particulate matter. The experiments below deal with carbon dioxide and particulate matter, and also allow children to examine convection and inversion in relation to smog. The experiments are generalized so they can be adapted for large classroom groups or just a few children.

Collect and Measure Particulate Matter

This experiment lets kids measure particulate matter that is put into the air by different vehicles. Particulates are solids that are put into the air by burning wood, fuel and coal. Once they settle, they can be inhaled, causing coughing and breathing problems. You can use as many or as few vehicles as you like, but it's educational for the kids to interview the car's owner about how old it is, its make and model, the type of fuel it uses, etc.

Cut coffee filters into 2 inch x 4 inch pieces. Glue them to index cards. Start each vehicle and let it run for 1 minute. Hold the card near the exhaust pipe as the car runs. (Be careful that children don't touch the exhaust pipe or breathe in the exhaust.) Observe the cards under a microscope or magnifying glass. The more of those little brown and black dots on the card, the more particulate matter a car is putting out. In general, if the card is completely full, it's putting out about 3,000 parts per square inch of particulate matter. If the card is fairly sparsely dotted, the car is probably putting out about 100 parts per square inch of particulate matter.

The kids can compare and contrast the vehicle outputs and determine which types of vehicles put the most particulate matter into the air.

Smog in a Shoebox

This experiment is a bit more involved and should be administered by an adult, but it allows kids to see how smog gets trapped in the atmosphere.

Lay a shoebox on its side, without the top. On the top side of the box, cut two holes just large enough for two paper towel tubes. Put the tubes in the holes and use tape to create an airtight seal. Use clay to make a sturdy base under one of the tubes, and place a candle in it. The top of the candle should be at least 2" away from the bottom of the tube. Wrap saran wrap around the open side of the box and use to tape to create an airtight seal. Use a long match to light the candle through the tube. Wait for 5 minutes. Then, crumple up a paper towel or napkin, light it on fire for about 5 seconds, and blow it out. It should be smoking. Hold it above the second tube (the one without the candle).

What should happen: The cold air from outside the box should push the smoke into the box. Once in the box, the smoke will warm back up and rise up through the tube near the candle.

Now, blow out the candle and put ice cubes down both tubes. While the box is cooling, place a heat lamp directly over one of the tubes. Don't block it, but aim the heat into the box. Again, light a paper towel or napkin on fire for a few seconds, blow it out, and drop it down the other tube. Then, cover that tube with a piece of paper.

What should happen: The warm air will move over top of the cool air and trap it in the box. After 30 seconds, you can lift the paper and the smoke will be able to escape through that tube.

How Much Carbon Dioxide Does Your Family Produce?

This quick experiment will help your child understand his or her "carbon footprint."

Obtain receipts for gasoline and propane for the past month. Record the number of gallons of each used. Use last month's utility bill to determine how many "kilowatt hours" or kph your family used and record this number. If you use natural gas, also record how many "therms" of natural gas you used in the past month. Multiply your gasoline gallons by 19, your propane gallons by 12, your "kilowatt hours" or kph by 1.8, and your "therms" by 12. Add these numbers together. This will give you a good estimate of how many pounds of carbon dioxide your family produced in the last month.

If your kids are concerned about lowering their "carbon footprint," here are some easy tips: Turn off lights when no one's in the room. Turn off the TV when no one's watching it. Turn down the heat on your water heater. Use lower wattage light bulbs. Hang clothes on a clothesline instead of using the dryer.

Tags: particulate matter, paper towel, about parts, about parts square, airtight seal, carbon dioxide

Predict A Landslide

A landslide results from loose soils piling on top of hard earth like clay or bedrock. The loose soil lets water in but the layer underneath doesn't absorb it, and this instability can cause landslides. Predicting a landslide is possible in part because landslides typically occur where they have happened before.

Instructions

1. Know what factors contribute to a landslide. The geological makeup of an area is a good indicator. Gravity plays a role as well; the steeper the slope, the more likely it is to have a landslide. Weather such as heavy rains, quick freezing and thawing, earthquakes, fires, storms and volcanic eruptions can also be triggers. Additionally, erosion and changes in the landscape caused by humans can be predictors of landslides.

2. Check the water table levels. High accumulations of ground water can be dangerous in steep areas.

3. Look at any buildings in the area. Be aware that growing cracks in walls, window frames and pavement are a possible clue. Additionally, broken or leaking sewer lines, doors that don't quite close anymore, and sagging or very tight utility lines can also be warning signs that the ground is shifting and a landslide is inevitable.

4. Watch any tilted, curved or clustered trees carefully. If you spot exposed clay or blocked natural drainage, see an unusual spring flow or find ponds on sloping terrain, you may want to prepare for a landslide.

5. Listen. A faint rumbling sound can also let you know a landslide is coming.

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How Gold Is Mined & Refined

Bars of gold

The production of gold is a lengthy process that involves a lot of careful planning, analysis and industry. Once a sufficient source is located, extraction methods are determined by the composition of the gold ore, as well as the geological features and legal precepts that govern the site. After miners extract gold ore, it is refined into pure form and formed into gold bricks for transport.

Creating the Mine

After geologists use satellite surveys or chemical testing to find ore deposits, scientists use computers to create a plan of the mine electronically in order to ensure safe and efficient extraction. In addition, mining companies must obtain legal permits permitting them to carry out their work. Construction of the mine revolves around any existing geological barriers, as well as the physical composition of the gold ore.

Extraction of Gold From Low-grade Ore

Most gold mining in the United States is extracted through open-pit mining, or above ground. Throughout this process, gold ore is separated into two main categories and dispatched accordingly for refinement: low-grade ore and high-grade ore. Low-grade ore, containing less amounts of additional minerals, involves a simpler process of refinement. After being broken down into small chunks, the ore is distributed over a series of pads and doused with a cyanide dilute, which dissolves the gold throughout the heap.

Extraction of Gold From High-grade Ore

High-grade ore exists in a number of forms, and there are a variety of refinement processes available depending upon the composition of each. For all types, the ore is pulverized and ground into a powder. Workers use one of three types of chambers called recovery circuits that provide further processing before the cyanide dilute is used, as with the low-grade ore. These recovery circuits use heat and additional solutes in order to recover the gold from the ore.

Creating Gold Bars

After the gold-containing cyanide solution is recovered from either type of ore, workers complete a series of steps in order to extract pure gold. First, the gold is extracted from the cyanide solution by combining it with carbon, which absorbs the gold while the cyanide solution is recycled for future use. Next, using special chemicals, the carbon is stripped from the gold and the product is purified using an electrolytic chamber. Finally, gold is melted down and pressed into gold bars. These bars are either destined for storage or are purchased for further production into jewelry or other special goods.

Reclamation

The final step of gold production with regards to mining is reclamation, where mining companies are responsible for restoring the land they have worked on. This process takes a number of forms, depending upon the intensity of the process, budget issues, legal contracts and associated legislation.

Tags: cyanide solution, composition gold, cyanide dilute, depending upon, Extraction Gold, Extraction Gold From

Attractions In The Georgia Ridge Valley Region

Lookout Mountain features dramatic views and spring wildflowers.

Situated on the Tennessee border in northwestern Georgia, the Ridge and Valley region comprises the southern tip of the Appalachian Plateau. The scenic geologic area is a result of tectonic plate shifts when the Appalachian range was formed. The process caused the surrounding area to ripple and warp into ravines, sheer ridges and ledges with vertical cliffs and drop-offs. Today, the region is blanketed with evergreen and hardwood forests, as well as dramatic wildflower patches, including rhododendrons and native azaleas. The largest of these formations is Lookout Mountain, which sits at the center of the region's scenic attractions.

Rock City on Lookout Mountain

Rock City is a tourist park on top of Lookout Mountain and offers quick access to several geologic features that characterize Georgia's ridge and valley region. Its paved Enchanted Trail is a self-guided path that showcases massive rock formations and other points of interest, including a 100-foot waterfall, a half-ton balanced rock and a panoramic point that is said to provide views of seven surrounding states. A highlight is the Swing-A-Long bridge, which is suspended between two rock formations. Visitors will also find restaurants and cafes, a pavilion for summer performances and kids' attractions, including Fairyland Caverns and Mother Goose Village.

Rock City Gardens

1400 Patten Rd.

Lookout Mountain, GA 30750

800-854-0675

seerockcity.com

Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park

Established in 1890, Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park was the first park in the country dedicated to the preservation of battlefields. The site commemorates a critical Civil War struggle known as the Campaign for Chattanooga. Union and Confederate armies fought to control the region because it was the gateway to the deep South. Visitors can take a self-guided seven-mile car trip to see Chickamauga Battlefield's monuments and historic points, or they can explore the park through a network of hiking and horse trails. On summer weekends, the battlefields host living history demonstrations of Civil War encampments and the daily lives of soldiers.

Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park

P.O. Box 2128

Fort Oglethorpe, GA 30742

706-866-9241

nps.gov/chch

Ridge and Valley Scenic Byway

The Ridge and Valley Scenic Byway is a 50-mile loop that features the varied geology of northwestern Georgia. The route traverses narrow Armuchee Ridges and parts of the Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forest. Along the way, travelers can stop at the Keown Falls Scenic Area to see its lovely waterfalls and John's Mountain Overlook and Wildlife Park. The loop passes through quaint farm towns, including Armuchee and Crystal Springs. Visitors will find ample opportunities to picnic or take short hikes. Allow a minimum of three hours for driving and side trips. The route is especially scenic during wildflower season in the spring and when the colors change in the fall.

The route begins on U.S. 27 at Summerville and loops back via State Highways 156 and 136.

byways.org

Tags: Lookout Mountain, Ridge Valley, Chattanooga National, Chattanooga National Military, Chickamauga Chattanooga, Chickamauga Chattanooga National, Military Park

Information On The Bandai Volcano

Bandai volcano is located in the Japanaese archipelego.

The Bandai volcano is located on Honshu, an island of Japan. In 1888, a volcanic eruption from Bondai would mark one of the most deadliest volcanic disasters in Japanese history. According to the website History, prior to 1888 Bondai had four previous eruptions. None of the preceding eruptions were as deadly as the 1888 eruption.

Volcano Type

Bandai volcano is known as a type of stratovolcano. Stratovolcanoes are the most deadliest forms of volcanoes. When a stratovolcano erupts, hot ash, debris and gases will explode into the air and land at high speeds. Stratovolcanoes are conical with a crater at the summit. A crater within a stratovolcano may have one main vent or several vents.

Bandai Peaks

The Bandai volcano now contains three peaks. O-Bandai is the largest peak, followed by Kushigamine and Akahaniyama. Prior to the 1888 eruption there was another peak known as Ko-Bandai. The Ko-Bandai peak collapsed in the 1888 eruption. Due to the eruption of 1888, much of the Bandai volcano's north side is now gone.

1888 Eruption

On July 15, 1888, the Bandai volcano erupted. Starting sometime after 7 a.m., volcanic rumblings began to be heard on Honshu. Within 30 minutes, the first explosion of the Bandai volcano would begin. Several eruptions would soon follow. According to History, the eruptions sent ash and steam spreading nearly 21,000 feet wide, with debris pummeling into the sky thousands of feet above.

Bandai Destruction

The eruptions of Bandai sent fiery mud onto Honshu. Many villages within Honshu were buried beneath mud and landslides. Hundreds of people died and many bodies were never found. Many victims were burned or suffered severe injuries. Across the world the sun was cloaked from ash from Bandai's eruptions for several months. After Bandai's eruptions abated, an 8,000-foot crater remained.

Current History

Bandai has had some seismic activity since the 1888 eruption, but they have been nowhere near as severe. It is unknown whether Bandai will have any future eruptions, but close observations are being conducted on the volcano.

Tags: Bandai volcano, 1888 eruption, Bandai eruptions, Bandai volcano located, most deadliest, volcano located

Write A Country Report

There are many reasons that you might need a report on a country. If you're doing business in China, you will probably benefit from knowing about it. If you're traveling abroad to France, it would be nice to have a basic understanding of its geography and people. Whether you're compiling a report for business associates or a teacher, there are some ways to put a report together that will keep everyone in the know.

Instructions

1. Organize your country report in a manner that is logical, according to your purposes. Begin with a title page and a brief overview of the country as a whole. Subsequent sections should include geographical information (topography, the big cities and where they are), political information (leaders and descriptions of big issues of the day) and an appendix in which you include bulk information that may seem useful.

2. Tailor your report to your specific needs. If you're a banker going on a business trip to Belize, you will want to include a section that details the country's biggest banks, those in charge of the banks and how much they have in deposits. If you're a geologist, you will want to report more in depth on the mountains, rivers and geological history of the area.

3. Focus on using traditional sources for research, including books, magazines and government publications. These are edited for content and accuracy, even if they are slightly out of date. There are great benefits, however, to using electronic sources to gather information for your report. To get a feeling for the country, take a look at the information provided by the U.S. State Department. For example, a quick look at the page for Ireland provides all kinds of diplomatic information, crime reports and the location and phone number of the U. S. Embassy.

4. Fill out your understanding of the country by looking at blogs written by people who are actually in the country. If you have the time and interest, you can even e-mail these bloggers with questions whose answers will look good in your report. If you're writing a report about Germany, for instance, it might be nice to know about local events. According to Brian at Young Germany, during the month of August, Hamburg is the host to a large festival, and "the area will be overrun with thrill-seeking teenagers and tourists, as well as the odd local adrenalin addict."

5. Polish your country report before you consider it done. Set it aside for a couple days. This will allow you to look at the report with a fresh pair of eyes. Put yourself in the mind of the intended audience. For example, if your report is being written for an attorney about to serve as counsel in Buenos Aires, read the report while pretending to be that attorney. Eliminate typographical errors and other mistakes by reading the report backward. This takes the words out of context, allowing you to see the flaws in your prose.

Tags: your report, will want, your country, your country report

Forces That Cause Landforms

A mountain is one example of a landform.

Landforms are defined as specific features that appear on the Earth's surface. Some examples are mountains, plains, plateaus, valleys and hills. What causes these landforms are different forces that work internally and externally on the Earth's surface and core to form some of Earth's natural features.

Layers of the Earth

Earth is made up of four layers: the inner core, the outer core, the mantle and the crust. Moving from the inner core to the crust, temperatures go from extreme heat to about room temperature. The inner core is a hot ball of mostly iron under extremely high pressure. The outer core is made up of mostly melted iron. The mantle is a thick liquid made up of iron, magnesium, aluminum, silicon and oxygen. The crust is made up of a mixture of solid minerals and is breakable.

Tectonic Plates

The Earth's crust is broken into plates that lie over the mantle. Because the mantle is hotter toward the interior and cooler toward the exterior, convection currents occur, which causes the plates to move above them. The edges of the plates are called plate boundaries. Volcanoes, earthquakes and mountain building or orogeny are found along plate boundaries.

Plate Boundaries

There are three different plate boundaries: divergent, convergent and transform. Divergent boundaries are where plates pull apart and lava pushes up into the space created. This forms most of the Earth's new crust. Plates are pushed together along the convergent boundaries and plates slide past one another along transform boundaries.

Faults

The San Andreas Fault is a landform caused by the shifting of plates.

Faults are a kind of transform boundary. Faults are a fracture or break in the Earth's crust along a line of weakness. Faulting can be caused by tensional or compressional forces put on rocks either laterally or vertically. An example of a fault is the San Andreas Fault in California. A block mountain, or horst, is another example of a fault. A block mountain has a flat surface and overhanging cliff and is formed when faulting in the crust causes a block of the crust to be lifted.

External or Internal Processes

Landforms can also be shaped by external or internal processes, which work on the crust of the Earth. External processes work on the surface of the crust through weathering, denudation (or removal of the surface), erosion and deposition (or the raising of land). Some of these works are caused by rivers, glaciers, winds and waves. Internal processes work on the interior layers of the Earth. Forces gradually build up and the crust will undergo movements in the Earth such as earthquakes, volcanic activity or mountain buildings.

Folding

Folding is a type of internal process on the Earth. Folding happens when forces on the Earth's crust push toward each other from opposite directions, which bends and folds the rock layers in different ways.

Tags: Earth crust, inner core, Andreas Fault, block mountain, Earth surface

Garnet Mining Methods

Natural garnets are inexpensive enough to make synthetic production unprofitable.

Garnets are silicate crystalline minerals that can have a number of different chemical structures. Although generally a deep red, some forms of garnet can be bright green. Garnets are formed deep underground; over time, geological action has distributed them at depths that allow for different types of mining methods. Although there are only two methods of mining garnets, there are numerous ways to produce synthetic garnets.

Open Pit

Many garnets are mined in open-pit mines. In open-pit mining, the shallow overburden, or soils over mineral deposits, is removed using large bucket shovels and dump trucks. Open-pit mines are appropriate for shallow deposits of garnet. These mines start with the removal of the dirt over the mineral deposits. Roads are built that wind down the sides of the pit, and trucks drive down to the pit bottom, where they are filled with soil and deposits likely to contain garnets. The trucks take the material from the pit to a processing facility.

Underground

Less common than open-pit mines, some underground mines produce garnets. Kimberlite, the mineral formation in which diamonds are often found, may contain garnet and other precious and semiprecious gems. Underground mines can exploit kimberlite deposits. Underground garnet mines are located in parts of Pennsylvania. Mines in other states, such as Little Pine Garnet Mine in North Carolina, have surface garnets as well as underground mine segments. Mine operations like this cater to amateur stone collectors, who enjoy the hobby of rock hunting.

Synthetic

Although natural garnets are mined, synthetic garnets can be made using a variety of chemical formulas under pressure. Certain synthetic garnets, called homocreated garnets, mimic the natural stones, but many are produced using chemical compositions that would not occur in nature. Many lab-created garnets, such as yttrium aluminum garnets, are often used as gem-quality faceted synthetic gemstones. Yttrium iron garnets are magnetic and are often used in sensors and other electronic devices.

Tags: synthetic garnets, garnets mined, mineral deposits, often used, open-pit mines

The Mineral Rights On State Land In Connecticut

Connecticut allows limited mineral collection on state lands.

Mineral rights are held by a land owner. Only the land owner may extract or use mineral and other natural resources on the surface of his land or beneath the surface. Thus, the State of Connecticut owns the mineral rights on state lands.

Owner of Land has Rights

While the owner of the land has exclusive rights to extract and use the minerals on his land, he may always license or even sell those rights while still maintaining the right to use the surface of the land.

Connecticut Laws and Regulations

The Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection regulates public lands in the State of Connecticut. The relevant statutes and regulations can be found at the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection website (see Resources).

Limited Collection on State Lands

The Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection allows mineral collection on state lands in very limited circumstances. A limited number of sites are available for mineral collection, but only for educational purposes. Those seeking to collect state minerals for educational endeavors must first seek a permit from the Connecticut Department of Environmental Management.

Tags: Connecticut Department, Connecticut Department Environmental, Department Environmental, Department Environmental Protection, Environmental Protection, mineral collection

Places To Find Lake Superior Agates

Lake Superior agate

The Lake Superior agate is the state gemstone of Minnesota, prized for its rich coloring of red, yellow and orange, as well as for its distinctive "banded" patterning. This popular collector's rock can be found not only along the shores of Lake Superior, the largest of the Great Lakes and the largest freshwater lake on earth, but throughout much of the neighboring region.

Identifying Lake Superior Agates

A key to finding Lake Superior agates is the ability to identify them, which is not always easy. Some have the obvious banded patterning of an agate, or an iron-rich redness, but others look like plain brown or gray rocks, their beauty hidden inside. For this reason, it is important to use a field guide to minerals.

Distribution

Lake Superior agates were distributed by the Superior Lobe Ice Age glacier approximately 10,000 years ago. They can be found anywhere along the path of the glacier, which includes most of the eastern two-thirds of Minnesota, northwestern Wisconsin and Michigan's Upper Peninsula.

Primary Locations

All of the 2,700-mile Lake Superior shoreline is prime territory for lake Superior agate hunting. So are the waterways emptying into the Great Lake. Some rockhounds believe that the southern and western shores yield more agates.

Secondary Locations

Virtually any location in eastern Minnesota, western Wisconsin and northern Iowa where rocks are found in numbers can contain Lake Superior agates. They even can be found in large cities like Minneapolis.

Buying Lake Superior Agates

You can buy beautifully finished specimens of Lake Superior agates in rock shops, particularly those in the regions surrounding Lake Superior. Most of the towns along Minnesota's "North Shore," from Duluth to the Canadian border, have rock shops.

Tags: Lake Superior, Lake Superior agates, Superior agate, banded patterning, Lake Superior

Tell A Fossils Age

If fossils could talk, they could tell us exactly where they came from and how and when they ended up becoming fossilized. Unfortunately, this isn't the case. However, fossils do leave certain clues in the environment that can help determine their age. In fact, the age of the very ground or rock it was unearthed from may indicate how long a fossil was laid to rest before taking up residence in a museum. Still, dating the specific age of fossils can be a tricky business. That's why paleontologists use a variety of other methods to tell a fossil's age.

Instructions

Learn How Scientists Can Tell a Fossil's Age

1. Understand that you can't tell the age of a fossil by simply looking at it, especially with an untrained eye. A bone fragment found in a farmer's field, for instance, could have been left behind by a dinosaur, or it could be a chicken bone tossed aside at last summer's family picnic.

2. Know that there are two methods of dating fossils employed by the scientific community: absolute and relative.

3. Follow the relative method, a dating technique that's been in use for about 200 years, to tell a fossil's age. By this method, the age of the sedimentary rock surrounding the fossil is estimated based on its correlation to the geologic column. This simply means that if a layer of rock that housed the fossil is known to belong to the Cambrian Period, then the fossil likely deposited around that time.

4. Be aware that not all fossils can be dated using the relative method, nor is the method itself without flaw. For instance, environmental disturbances may not allow for the exact placement of certain regions in the geologic column.

5. Learn that absolute dating, also known as carbon-14 dating, relies upon the availability of enough organic material being present in the fossil to measure a radioactive isotope and its by-product, carbon-14. Since the rate of expiration of the isotope is known to be constant, the scientist can tell a fossil's age by comparing the amount of isotope present to the amount of the by-product. This method can be used to date fossils up to 40,000 years old. Older specimens are dated by measuring other by-products, such as uranium-235.

6. Learn more about how the age of fossils is determined and view sample specimens from the American Museum of Natural History (see Resources below).

Tags: tell fossil, geologic column, relative method

Spelunk

Spelunking, or caving, is the recreational sport of exploring caves. It is a physically strenuous sport that also permits those who partake in it to see a part of the world that few people get to see first hand. Many cavers specifically seek out and explore caves that are believed to be "virgin" or unexplored by man. Those who take up caving have an opportunity to learn a great deal about geology, and animal science as well as gaining a variety of basic survival skills. Spelunking does have the potential to be very dangerous if safety rules are not observed. It is usually done in small to medium sized groups, and is not the sort of activity that you can teach yourself to do. The only safe way to learn is from those who are already experienced.

Instructions

1. Get to know some cavers in your area. If you reside in the United States, the local chapter of the National Speleological Society (see link) is a good place to start. The local chapters are called "grottoes" and hold usually hold regular meetings. New cavers are usually warmly welcomed. The grottoes usually sponsor regular caving expeditions at varying levels of difficulty. There are usually some intended for beginners.

2. Purchase the equipment you will need. Your local caving club will be able to inform you about this in detail. In general, and at the very least, you will need a sturdy helmet with a mounted light. At least two handheld flashlights with spare batteries are also strongly recommended, as are waterproof boots. Many cavers also wear knee and elbow pads as well as gloves, since crawling on the ground is often a part of the experience.

3. Dress warmly in layers. Caves are generally cool (50 to 60 degrees Farenheight) even if the weather outside is very hot. It is easy to become chilled, especially if you get wet. The outer layer of clothing should be waterproof unless the cave you are exploring is known for certain to be a dry cave. Most caves are damp inside, and it is often necessary to traverse underground streams.

4. Bring first aid equipment in case of injury, and extra food in case you get lost, or the expedition takes longer than planned. Be aware that cell phones are unlikely to be able to get a signal in the cave. Be sure that someone outside the cave knows which cave you are exploring and when you expect to return, so that help can be summoned if needed.

5. Explore in groups of four or more people, and do not split up once inside, unless the resulting groups will have four people each and all parties have maps of the cave and have agreed upon their individual routes..

6. Learn the principles of cave preservation. Many cavers are staunch environmentalists, and generally follow the principle that a cave should always be left in the same condition in which it was found. Caves often support delicate ecosystems that can be damaged or destroyed even by relatively subtle human interference. Care should be taken not to damage cave formations or to alter the cave in any way. Never disturb any animal life that you come upon. It is considered particularly important that trash and equipment not be left in the cave.

Tags: Many cavers, cave exploring, will need

Native San Joaquin Valley Plants

The common cattail is native to the San Joaquin Valley.

California's San Joaquin Valley, one of the most productive agricultural regions in the world, extends from Redding in the north to just south of Bakersfield in the south. It is rich in native plants. The California Native Plant Society recommends viewing areas near Lodi, Manteca, Stockton and Thornton as good for appreciating indigenous flora. Native plants often have more than one common name, so the botanical name is always best for accurate identification. Does this Spark an idea?

Annual Plants

The CNPS lists 449 native annual plants in the San Joaquin Valley. The top six annual plants most frequently sighted include Parish's money flower (Mimulus parishii), seep or common yellow monkey flower (Mimulus guttatus), succulent or arroyo lupine (Lupinus succulentus), miniature or bicolored lupine (Lupinus bicolor), common or coastal tidy tips (Layia platyglossa) and baby blue eyes (Nemophila menziesii).

Perennial Plants

The CNPS lists 247 perennial plants in the San Joaquin Valley. The top six perennial plants most frequently sighted include common yarrow (Achillea millefolium), deergrass (Muhlenbergia rigens), common California aster (Aster chilensis), Pacific aster (Symphyotrichum chilense), common or broadleaf cattail (Typhia latifolia) and California goldenrod (Solidago californica).

Shrubs

The CNPS lists 55 shrubs in the San Joaquin Valley. The top six most frequently sighted shrubs include the common island or bush monkey flower (Mimulus aurantiacus), blue elderberry (Sambucus nigra ssp. Caerulea), California wild rose (Rosa californica), golden currant (Ribes aureum) and California buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum) and blue elderberry (Sambuscus mexicana), which can grow as large as a small tree.

Trees

The CNPS lists 22 native trees in the San Joaquin Valley. The top six most frequently sighted trees include the coast or California live oak (Quercus agrifolia), California buckeye or California horse chestnut (Aesculus California), white alder (Alnus rhombifolia), western or California sycamore (Platanus racemosa), Fremont cottonwood (Populus frmontii) and Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia).

Ferns

The CNPS lists 17 ferns in the San Joaquin Valley. The top two most frequently sighted ferns include the common ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina) and the scouring rush horsetail (Equisetum hyemale).

Vine

There is one vine that is native to the San Joaquin Valley: Hasse's vetch (Vicia hassei).

Tags: Joaquin Valley, CNPS lists, frequently sighted, most frequently, most frequently sighted, Joaquin Valley most

Identify Fossils

When most people think of fossils, bones come to mind. Yet, fossils occur in many other forms, such as teeth, horns, eggs--even casts of manure. Paleontologists use a variety of methods to identify fossils, mostly relying upon appearance and certain basic characteristics. Unfortunately for the novice, fossils are often found as fragments, which can make it harder to identify them as fossils at all. However, knowing identify common fossils can make it easier to pluck the worthwhile find from the mud.

Instructions

Learn to Identify Fossils

1. Keep in mind that genuine fossils often take on the appearance of a variety of things, such as webs, insects, scales, a beehive or honeycomb or even a brain. Likewise, certain shapes can help you to identify a potential fossil, such as a segmented tube, an oval with a hole at its center or a star-shaped object.

2. Know that, while it's easy to identify bones like intact skulls or vertebrae, it doesn't necessarily mean that they belong to a creature from the distant past. In addition, pieces of wood, coral or even rock can be mistaken for bone simply because of their shape. True bone will have a fibrous texture with canals running through it.

3. Check a topographical map of the area you're searching to see if it's likely to contain fossils in the first place. For instance, in much of the U.S., fossil bones are usually not found in rock deposits older than the Devonian period.

4. Look for common fossils in places where they are most likely to be found, such as in quarries (with permission), construction sites (ditto) and along riverbeds, cliffs and streams. The latter are particularly good sources for Brachiopods and Cephalopods.

5. Recognize that a fossilized egg is a very rare find, but also one of the most misidentified pseudo-fossils. The key to identifying authentic dinosaur eggs is knowing that they are always found in groups, never singularly.

6. Confirm the validity and identity of the fossils that you find with a professional or organization, such as the science department head of a university or the Geological Society of America (see Resources below).

Tags: common fossils, fossils often, Identify Fossils, that they

Rock Dating Methods

Even rocks age

All rocks were not created equal, or even at the same time. Rock is constantly being created by lava flow and pressure, just as rocks are being destroyed by erosion. Knowing the age of rocks is absolutely essential in order to understand the history of the planet we inhabit. By dating rocks, we are able to date fossils and get an approximate dates for ancient plants and animals.

Geologic Time

The earliest method of dating rocks is also the simplest. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, the Principle of Superposition says that new layers of rock are created on top of old rocks. Erosion deposits new material. Plants and animals die and decompose, leaving their minerals in the soil. This means that the deeper the rock, the older it is. But the problem with this method is that it only tells the relative age within a rock structure, not how old the entire formation would be. In order to give a more specific date, other methods of dating must be used.

Radiometric Dating

Radioactive isotopes decay at a standard rate. Many of these elements decay too quickly to be of any use. But some have much longer half lives. According to the Smithsonian Institute, Uranium 235, for example, decays over 704 million years to become Lead 207. Samarium 147 takes 106 billion years to decay into Neodymium 143. When attempting to date a rock, the geologist looks for any of these trace minerals. They compare the rate of the parent isotope to the daughter and use the ratio to date the creation of the rock. Unfortunately, when it come to sedentary or aggregate rocks, this only tells the age of when the composite stone was created. It doesn't tell when all the parts came together to become the new stone.

Paleomagnetics

According to NASA, the North Pole is currently shifting about one degree per decade. Over the last millions of years, the North Pole has swapped places with the South Pole several times. When the iron is present in liquid magma, the metal lines up with the magnetic field of the earth at that time. They freeze in place when the liquid rock cools, giving geologists a picture of the magnetic fields. By comparing these fields, paleogeologists can date the rock.

Tags: date rock, dating rocks, North Pole, only tells

What Is The Delta

River delta ecosystem

About 2500 years ago, the Greek historian Herodotus noticed that the mouth of the Nile river formed a triangular shape that resembled the Greek letter "delta." It is from this that a delta--the landform created at the point where a river flows into the ocean, sea or lake--gets its name.

History

River delta ecosystem

When the flowing water of a river hits the standing water of an ocean, lake or reservoir, the river water overflows its channel and expands in width. The wider water pathway slows the speed of the river water. This drop in speed allows the sediments that are carried by the river to accumulate at the point where the river meets the standing body of water. The mouth of the river will also expand by breaking up into multiple channels, with the land between the channels consisting of swamp or marshy areas.

Types of Deltas

Deltas are often categorized based whether sediment deposition was created by rivers, waves or tides. These differences affect the shape of the delta. River-dominated deltas frequently take the shape of a bird's foot, since its main channel branches off into many smaller channels. This occurs when the slope of the river channel is lower than other available courses. The water breaks off from the main channel and forges, new quicker routes to the ocean. Wave erosion creates wave-dominated deltas which take the classic triangular shape. Deltas created by tide erosion tend to take a "dentritic" shape.

Famous Deltas

River deltas have attracted human settlements for centuries. Rich soil and close proximity to fresh water allowed early communities near the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates deltas to thrive. The Ganges river in India culminates in world's largest delta. The delta of the Volga, which cuts through western Russia, is Europe's largest, while the Danube delta is Europe's best preserved. The Mississippi delta, which empties into the Gulf of Mexico, served as the setting for several novels by southern author William Faulkner.

Ecological Threats

Human interference is often detrimental to sensitive delta ecosystems. Dams and reservoirs built to generate hydroelectric power restrict the flow of fresh water to the delta and cause it to erode. For example, when the Hoover Dam was erected in 1930 on the Colorado River, the delta wetlands, deprived of a steady stream of fresh water dwindled to about five percent of its original area. With a weakened ecosystem, invasive, non-native plants over-took indigenous ones to further devastate the area. Heavy flooding in the 1980s and 1990s, however, helped to reinvigorate the delta.

Deltas on Mars

In July of 2008, NASA released findings gathered from their Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, which indicated the presence of large, numerous bodies of water on the Red Planet. These wetlands, scientists speculate, could have supported life. Scientist Bethany Ehlmann, who composed a study on an ancient lake in the northern Martian region called "Jezero Crater" stated that the clay sediments in the delta that empties into the ancient lake are "wonderful at trapping and preserving organic matter, so if life ever existed in this region, there's a chance of its chemistry being preserved in the delta."

Tags: fresh water, River delta, ancient lake, delta ecosystem, empties into

Landforms Of Connecticut

Rocky shorelines are part of Connecticut's topography.

The third smallest state in the United States, Connecticut has a total surface area of 5,018 square miles. It is bordered by New York to its west, Massachusetts to its north, Rhode Island to its east and Long Island Sound to its south. Various landforms in Connecticut include mountains, a large river valley, a coastal plain and islands.

Mountains

All of the hills and mountains in Connecticut are part of the larger Appalachian chain, which stretches across the entire eastern portion of North America, from Alabama to Newfoundland. Connecticut gradually rises from south to north, and the highest peaks are found in the northwestern portion of the state in the Berkshire and Taconic Mountains. The Berkshires, though mainly in Massachusetts, stretch into northern Connecticut. The narrow Taconic Range, located in extreme western Connecticut, reaches from New York through Massachusetts and into Vermont. Connecticut's highest point is the 2,380-foot Mt. Frissell near the Massachusetts border.

Central Valley

The longest river in New England, the 407-mile Connecticut River and its surrounding valley bisect the state. The Connecticut River flows from north to south, entering the state from Massachusetts near Sherwood Manor, flowing through Hartford and then dumping its contents into the Long Island Sound near Fenwick. The plains surrounding the river, known as the Central Lowlands, are sometimes called the Connecticut Valley Lowland. This valley is about 30 miles wide on average.

Coastal Lowlands

Running for 100 miles from west to east, the Coastal Lowlands comprise the entire southern portion of Connecticut along the Long Island Sound. These lowlands are characterized by rocky peninsulas, sand and gravel beaches, shallow bays and salt meadows. The harbors of New London, New Haven and Greenwich are located in the Coastal Lowlands.

Islands

Over 300 tiny islands dot the bays and estuaries along Long Island Sound. The Norwalk Islands and Thimble Islands are the only sizeable archipelagos. The Norwalk Islands lie one to two miles offshore near the coastal city of Norwalk. Not quite as far from land, the Thimble Islands hug the coastline near Stony Creek.

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Geotechnical Tools

Geological engineering and mining is safer due to the use of geotechnical tools

Geotechnical tools combine hard on-site tooling with state of the art technologies for use in the geological engineering, mining and oil exploration industries. Their use improves the predictive nature of exploration and production processes, making them more cost-effective. The principle technologies used to collect data are "wireline", gamma ray, measurement while drilling and X-ray diffraction. Back in the office, results are analyzed and plotted as 3-dimensional models using sophisticated computer software.

Wireline Tools

Advanced wireline technology has been used for many years in the oil exploration industry. Acoustic wireline tools measure compression and shear velocities to derive the porosity, permeability, and mechanical properties of rock layers. Ultrasonic borehole imagers and seismic tools combine to construct high resolution images around a borehole. Nuclear magnetic resonance technology measures reservoir fluid and hydrocarbon characteristics. Elemental capture spectroscopy measures pressure and temperature in real time, and resistivity m

easurements determine true formation resistivity. These logging tools combine to give an accurate account of extreme down hole environments.

Gamma Ray

Gamma ray measurements give a visual identification of the formations as they are drilled. By measuring gamma counts and plotting them over depth, it is possible to identify underground rock layers. By studying the cross sections of formations, the well path can be adjusted to allow drilling with greater precision.

Measurement While Drilling Tools

Geotechnical tools are widely used in the oil exploration industry.

MWD tools combine mechanical and electronic engineering with software design for a complete systems approach to down hole drilling. Components from one system may be re-used to convert to another type of tool. To convert from mud pulse telemetry to electromagnetic (EM) transmission, the user need only to unscrew the top tool section and attach the alternative transmitter section. Vertical drilling tools can be interchanged to sophisticated logging while drilling tools by adding extra sensor sections.

XRD Analysis

Analytical X-ray solutions cover a wide range of exploration and exploitation in mineral processing. X-ray analysis of polycrystalline mineral samples for the mining industry provides information to increase yield during processing and reduce operating costs. X-ray diffraction (XRD) is used to analyze crystalline composition, and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is the key technique for characterizing the element composition of all geological materials.

Software-Based Geotechnical Tools

Data computerized to create a 3D landscape

Typical software-based geotechnical tools allow users to set up and input data to build a structural database. Structures can be digitized onto the screen and dragged or rotated to match features by using image registration tools. Data can be viewed in 3D on the screen, or in the form of a plotted graph. Geotechnical analysis tools also help to improve mine safety by computing slope movement or predicting zones of weakness or other potential points of failure. Engineering applications include slope aspect analysis, display vector maps and drainage maps.

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Apply & Take Training For Natural Disaster Management

The Federal Emergency Management Agency offers free distance learning courses in natural disaster management through its Emergency Management Institute. It also offers on-campus courses at its Maryland campus, but these require tuition and housing payments. The EMI accepts both U.S. citizens and foreign applicants.

Instructions

1. Visit the EMI website (see Resources) to determine if FEMA offers the courses you want to take online or on the EMI's Maryland campus. FEMA does not offer all courses through both venues. The course catalog identifies the location of each course. For instance, FEMA offers "Emergency Management Operations for Tribal Governments" only on campus, and "Introduction to the Interagency Security Committee" only online. Generally, FEMA holds courses requiring interpersonal interaction or specialized computer software on campus.

2. Complete the online application, FEMA Form 75-5, for any on campus course work you want to complete. The application deadline varies by course. Proceed directly to the course using the link provided in the course catalog for any online course you want to complete. Your enrollment in the course begins when you complete the course's final exam after reviewing the materials.

3. Print and sign FEMA Form 75-5, if applying for an on-campus course. Provide the completed application to the head of your organization for review and approval.

4. Ask your organization to forward the approved application to your state's emergency management agency for approval. If approved, the state office will forward the application to the National Emergency Training Center admissions office for approval.

5. Travel to Emmitsburg, Maryland to complete the on campus course, if accepted. You may stay in the EMI housing or an off-campus hotel.

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The Training Of A Geologist

Geology is a broad field in earth sciences. Geologists can specialize in a particular area of earth science, such as geophysics and petrology. Broader areas of study such as geo-environmental studies and marine geology combine several science disciplines, with a strong geology base. Geologists work in many industries, including in the oil and gas industry, analyzing natural resources such as minerals and oil, studying the interaction of earth systems and providing an understanding of how the earth works.

Undergraduate

A geologist's training begins in a college program for earth science, geoscience or geology. Undergraduate courses cover many areas of geology, such as mineralogy, groundwater resources, meteorology and seismology. Geology students also need to study statistics, calculus, chemistry and physics, as these maths and sciences are used extensively throughout geology studies. As a geology undergrad, it's advisable to apply for an internship. You would ideally want to work in a geology department or job that is geared towards a specialty that you're interested in. Geologists with an undergraduate degree can find jobs as mudloggers -- who work with natural resource companies to test soil samples -- or as technicians and geological trainees, who work hands-on under experienced geologists.

Graduate

Graduate geology programs, whether at the master's or PhD level, focus more on specialization than an undergraduate degree. Geology specializations include marine geology, mineralogy, petrology, climatology and paleontology. Graduate student geologists may go through internships for experience or assist professors with teaching and research duties in their chosen specialty. Graduate student geologists spend time in the field, learning sampling and analytical techniques on different types of natural resources.

Jobs and Salaries

Geologist jobs in the oil, mining and gas industries rise and fall based on the natural commodities market. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, geologist jobs are expected to grow 18 percent between 2008 and 2018. Job openings may outstrip the number of qualified geologists in this time frame. The median salary for a geologist, as of 2008, was $79,160. The highest salaries are found in the oil and gas industry, while the lowest are in state government.

Licensing

A geologist can become a licensed geologist after several years of experience. Geologists are licensed by a state board, and specific requirements vary from state to state. For example, in Washington a geologist must graduate from a geology or related degree program, have five years of geology work experience and receive a passing grade in the National Association of State Boards of Geology examination. Some job positions require a geologist to be licensed, and many jobs pay a higher salary for a licensed geologist over an unlicensed geologist.

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Rough Garnet Tumbling Instructions

Tumbling will smooth the rough garnets.

Tumbling your rough garnets is a simple but time consuming task that will turn the rough rocks into polished gems. The unpolished raw garnet stones are called "tumbling rough." (See Reference 1) Before you begin, check the quality of your tumbling rough. (See Reference 1) Make sure all the rocks are the same material. It is acceptable to tumble rocks of various sizes together, but remove any stones that have big cracks or voids, or odd protrusions. (See Reference 2)

Instructions

Tumbling Garnet

1. Tumbled garnet can be used for jewelry.

Coarse grind your garnet. The coarse grind step is meant for rocks with jagged edges. (See Reference 1) If your garnet has been pre-tumbled or is slightly rounded or smooth from water erosion, you can skip this step. Put the tumbling rough into the rock tumbler barrel. Remember that the tumbler barrel must be more than half full (of water, grit and rough) to work correctly. Don't overload your barrel. It should not be more than about 75 percent full, because this can be too heavy for the tumbler motor to move. Follow your specific rock tumbler instructions regarding the coarseness of the grit used. Tumble the garnet for seven days, 24 hours a day. (See Reference 1)

2. Stop the tumbler and remove the "mud" and rocks. Don't put the mud down your household drain, as this can block your plumbing. (See Reference 1) Rinse the garnet outside using a strainer and a hose. If you don't like the shape of your stones, you can repeat this coarse grinding step at least one more time (See Reference 3) to continue to shape the rocks. Remember to use fresh grit every time you tumble.

3. Proceed to the fine grinding. Clean your tumbler thoroughly, put the pre-tumbled rock into the barrel, and use a finer grit than before. Again, check your specific rock tumbling machine's instructions to select which grit to use. Let the tumbler run continuously for another seven straight days. (See Reference 1) Process several loads of garnet before moving on to the pre-polish step, or you will not have enough material for your tumbler.

4. Proceed to extra fine grinding (also known as pre-polishing). (See Reference 1) Clean the tumbler barrel very thoroughly before starting this phase, or you will scratch your garnet. Use extra-fine grit for this step. You can also add plastic tumbling pellets, which help cushion the gemstones. (See Reference 1) Once again run your tumbler for a week straight.

5. Run the polishing load. Clean the tumbling machine as before and use rock polish this time instead of grit. (See Reference 1) Most people use plastic pellets for cushioning during this step as well. This time run your machine for ten days.

6. Finally, burnish your newly polished garnet. (See Reference 1) Clean the tumbling machine well and add a little bit of soap to the barrel. According to Geology.com, grated or thinly sliced Classic Ivory Soap is ideal. (See Reference 1) Do not use liquid soaps, as they may contain oils that can damage your machine and make your rocks look dull. Run your machine for a day or two to burnish the garnet. When done, you'll find a mess of sudsy water and a load of sparkling, polished gemstones.

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