Make Your Own Cufflink Settings

Make Your Own Cufflink Settings

Homemade cufflink settings are made from stone, metal, plastic and clay. The size of the cufflink settings are determined by the size of the bezel, or the surface area for gluing. The bezel is the metal edge extending past the top of the cufflink used to hold the setting in place. A special bezeling tool is used to bend and smooth the bezel against the setting. Epoxy glue is used to glue a setting to the metal surface. It is important to read the epoxy instructions to ensure the glue adheres the setting to the metal.

Instructions

1. Select a group of small stones slightly larger than the top of the cufflink blanks. Separate the stones so similar weights of stones are together. Remove any cracked stones as they will separate in the rock tumbling chamber.

2. Place enough water in the chamber container to cover the bottom of the top layer of stones. Place coarse grit in the container. Wipe the edge of the container to remove any grit. Place the cover on the container. Turn on the tumbler and allow the rocks to tumble seven full days.

3. Remove the lid and rinse off the coarse grit solution. Add enough water to cover the bottom of the top layer of rocks. Add fine grit. Wipe the top edge of the tumbler to remove any spilled grit. Place the lid on the tumbler. Turn on the tumbler and let it run for seven more days.

4. Remove the lid and rinse off the fine grit. Pour the stones onto a soft cloth. Allow the stones to air dry for 30 minutes.

5. Look through the stones and select two like-stones as the settings for the cufflinks. Set the stones on the cufflinks in the desired position. Remove the stones and set them on a flat surface in the same direction as placed on the cufflinks.

6. Squeeze a quarter sized drop of epoxy agents from the tubes. Mix the two agents together with a toothpick to activate the epoxy.

7. Put a drop of mixed epoxy on the center of the cufflink top. Place a stone on the epoxy. Prop the cufflink on a soft cloth for 15 minutes to allow the epoxy to dry. Repeat the process with the second stone.

Tags: Your Cufflink Settings, bottom layer, coarse grit, cover bottom, cover bottom layer

Write A Geological Report

A well-written geological report can create a picture for your reader.

A technical report can provide a description of the geological characteristics of a specific area or region. Geological reports may be very detailed or brief, depending on the project and its level of complexity. Professional geological engineers write reports about observations and investigations. Students can also demonstrate their findings about an experiment or field survey. Geological reports include front matter, a body and end matter. Whether you are a professional or a student, you can write your own geological report and discuss your findings.

Instructions

1. Determine if there is a specific format you should use. You should create a detailed, acceptable and complete description of your project. The Washington State Geologist Licensing Board has posted a document on its website for assisting and improving geological reports: "Guidelines for Preparing Engineering Geology Reports." Most geological reports use American Psychological Association (APA) style, which you can find at the Perdue Online Writing Lab website.

2. Draft your front matter. The front matter is the who, what, where, why and how of your geological report. You will not complete the page numbers in your table of contents or list of figures and tables until you finish your report. Drafting it early will help you organize your report.

Front matter for a geological report generally includes:

A "Title Page," listing the title, author and date.

An "Abstract," approximately 100 words about your key topic, your approach to the topic, results and conclusions.

A "Table of Contents," if your document is 10 pages or longer.

If you have drawings, images, charts or tables, include a "List of Figures and Tables," somewhat like a table of contents for graphics.

3. Compose the body of your report. The body of the report is where you inform and convince your reader by establishing trust and documenting procedures and actions. The body will usually include:

An "Introduction" that describes the purpose of your investigation or experiment, from general to specific; the problem that you are reporting about; and why it is important that you approach the problem in the way that you did.

A "Background" section that explains any theories that you have used and describes the purpose of your study or report.

A "Materials" or "Apparatus" section that describes specific equipment or specific software that you used in your study.

A "Procedure" section, where you describe any experiments or methods of collecting data that you have used.

A "Discussion" section allows you to describe if the data collected were predicted in the theory.

Finally, a "Conclusion" that clearly summarizes your findings.

4. Collect your end matter. Your end matter is supporting material for your geological report. End matter includes:

A "References" section that provides any references or resources that you have cited or used.

An "Appendixes" section, which includes any additional figures, tables or surveys that you have calculated, created or collected.

5. Write your report. Arrange your report in the appropriate format. Number your pages. Designate all of the front matter with Roman numerals. The body of your report should begin your page numbers in consecutive order. Appendixes should be designated in capitalized alphabetical order, beginning with "Appendix A."

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Doe Grants For Carbon Capture & Storage

Carbon capture and storage technology seeks to reduce atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide from coal-burning power plants.

Scientific data correlating concentrated levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere to climate change precipitated the landmark Kyoto Protocol, which defined the framework for industrialized nations to curtail greenhouse gas emissions and provided a scheme of cap-and-trade. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas released in abundance by coal-fired power plants that supply 50 percent of U.S. energy needs. This stark reality has motivated research into technologies aimed at capturing and storing carbon to mitigate its impact on global warming and climate change.

How Carbon Capture and Storage Works

Coal-burning power plants emit carbon dioxide and other pollutants during the combustion cycle. Newer Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle plants can effectively reduce carbon dioxide emissions. In an IGCC plant, coal is first gasified and converted into a synthetic gas to fuel a combustion turbine that drives an electrical generator. Extracting carbon dioxide, mercury and sulfur from the mixture refines the "syn" gas. In the second stage of the combined cycle, waste heat is utilized to power a steam generator to further increase electrical output. It is estimated that IGCC plants can eliminate 85 percent of carbon emissions through this method. Retrofitting existing power plants for carbon capture is more costly than IGCC, but can be achieved using pulverized coal and a chilled ammonia or amine technique to scrub carbon from stack gases. Carbon dioxide extracted by either method is compressed into a liquid under high pressure and injected into geologic repositories deep underground beneath impregnable cap rock, where it is sequestered.

DOE Carbon Capture and Storage Simulaton Initiative

In 2010, U.S. Energy Secretary, Steven Chu, announced $40 million in carbon capture and storage research grants. The target goal is a production-scale deployment of the technology within eight to ten years. Stimulus funds from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act will underwrite the program, officially known as the Carbon Capture and Storage Simulation Initiative. Key to success is research to develop effective simulation models necessary to achieve economic feasibility. The initiative will further leverage the U.S. Department of Energy's National Risk Assessment Partnership program to create safe methods for long-term carbon dioxide storage.

Ameren Power Plant CCS Retrofit

A 200-megawatt power plant in Illinois became the recipient of a $1 billion grant in stimulus funds from the Obama administration in 2010, announced by Energy Secretary, Steven Chu, and Senator Dick Durbin. The grant money is being directed to demonstrate the feasibility of retrofitting the coal-fired Ameren plant with carbon-capture technology. Dubbed, FutureGen 2.0, the project replaces an earlier program to build a brand new clean-coal power plant from scratch and includes the construction of a new series of pipelines to transport captured carbon to a storage depot in Mattoon, Illinois.

ADM Carbon Storage Facility Grant

The Archer Daniels Midland Company was awarded a $99.2 million grant by the U.S. Department of Energy towards the cost of its $163.9 carbon sequestration facility in Decatur, Illinois. The facility is being designed with an annual capacity to capture one million tons of carbon dioxide from its ethanol operations for storage 7,000 feet underground. ADM will rely on research conducted by the Illinois State Geological Survey to determine if the natural geology of the Mount Simon Sandstone region can safely facilitate large-scale storage.

Carbon Storage Risks

The future of carbon capture and storage appears bright, yet assessment of the technology would be incomplete without addressing its potential risks and action plans to manage those risks. Key hazards identified by the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory are accidental leakage of carbon dioxide from pipelines and geological storage in potentially lethal concentrations to humans and animals, contamination of groundwater and underground fuel supplies and stress fractures in rock formations leading to seismic events due to the high injection pressures used.

Tags: carbon dioxide, power plants, Carbon Capture, Carbon Capture Storage, carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide from, dioxide from

What Are Political Maps And Physical Maps

Learning read a map can give you interesting information about geography.

Cartography, or the art of making maps, can be traced as far back as about 2300 B.C. Cartographers make maps to convey geographic information in a manner that's easily understood. Political and physical maps are two kinds of maps that give the reader different kinds specific and important of information about the world.

Political Maps

Political maps give you clear, visual insight on all of the current political divisions and subdivisions of the current world. A world political map shows all the world's major countries and their capitals. Knowledge about political divisions, which can be gathered from political maps, helps to give you a better understanding of the world and/or continents.

Political Map Characteristics

Political maps, world political maps in particular, have detailed representation of the seven oceans and the seven continents marked with latitude and longitude coordinates. Complex aerial routes around the world are also present in order to easily understand global air transportation. The distance key is also present so you can measure the actual distance between items on the map. World political maps of the individual continents show political boundaries and, depending on the continent, the names and capitals of countries, boundaries of states or neighboring countries.

Physical Maps

Physical maps are mostly used to depict the physical, identifiable and significant features of the earth's surface, such as various landforms like plains, mountains and deserts, and bodies of water like rivers, lakes and oceans. Like political maps, lines of longitude and latitude and country borders and major cities can be depicted, but not necessarily.

Physical Map Characteristics

Different colors, lines, tints, shading and spot elevations are used in physical maps so you can easily differentiate between formations and elevations of the earth's surface. An elevation key on the map tells you, for example, that a green area is land that is at sea level and an area in orange has an elevation of above 10,000 feet. The color blue helps you to identify large bodies of water. Physical maps also have a distance key.

Tags: political maps, also present, bodies water, earth surface, information about, Maps Physical, Physical maps

Become A Mining Engineer

Mining engineers evaluate, plan, and oversee the building of mines. They also manage mining projects and monitor mines for their safety, environmental impact and efficiency. Here are some steps you can follow to help you become a mining engineer.

Instructions

1. Receive education. Mining engineers need to have knowledge of the environment that they are working in and the technical aspects of mining. Pursue a bachelor's degree in earth science, geology, geochemistry, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering or a related field.

2. Get in shape. As a mining engineer you will be working with outdoor and underground elements. The work can be physically demanding. By having your body in good shape you will decrease the stress that is put on your body by working in all types of weather conditions.

3. Acquire experience. While you are in school get a part-time or summer job at a mine. On the job training is the best work experience that you can have. Working in a mine will help you to fully understand the process of mining and the role that a mining engineer plays.

4. Learn to solve work site problems. As a mining engineer you will have to solve problems that will arise on the work site. While gaining on the job training it's important to watch more experienced mining engineers to see how they resolve conflicts and problems while on and off the work site.

5. Submit your resume to mining companies. Once you have graduated from college apply to a company that you want to work for. Choose the company that you want to work for carefully. Getting along with your bosses and coworkers is important. Therefore, choose the company that you are most comfortable with.

Tags: mining engineer, company that, work site, company that want, engineer will, mining engineer will

The Natural Disaster Associated With Tectonic Activity

Mount Vesuvius claimed the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum in 79 A.D.

The shape of the world has been changing for all of history due to the shifting of tectonic plates. As the plates move along the surface of the planet, they bump into each other, causing massive impacts along fault lines. Sometimes plates slide over each other, while other times they crumple together to form mountain ranges.

Earthquakes

Many residents of the Pacific Rim, a huge area that includes the western United States, eastern Asia and Oceania, have firsthand experience with the devastating power of earthquakes. Earthquakes occur when pressure builds up along a fault line until one edge finally gives in. These events are measured on the Richter magnitude scale, which measures how much energy is released in an earthquake. The energy of an earthquake is released underground, but the shock waves are still felt on the surface, especially in buildings that were not built to withstand crustal movement. The largest earthquake ever measured was a 1960 quake off the coast of Chile in 1960 that measured a 9.5 on the Richter scale.

Tsunamis

Tsunamis are caused by significant displacement of the ocean floor, or large landslides into the sea. Their effects can be much longer lasting than the landfall of a set of waves; they can wipe out entire civilizations and reduce living conditions to the worst-case scenario. In recent history, tsunamis have affected Indonesia and northeast Japan, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration estimates that tsunamis have claimed more than 420,000 lives since 1850. The worst tsunamis occur when a major earthquake greater than 7.0 on the Richter scale strike in shallow waters close to shore. Forecasting tsunamis is a difficult task since each earthquake is unique, and the variety of shorelines is so great.

Volcanoes

Volcanoes loom over communities below as a constant reminder of nature's destructive force. They seem to congregate around tectonic fault lines, as 60 percent of the world's active volcanoes are situated at tectonic boundaries. Like earthquakes, volcanoes near the shoreline can produce massive landslides that can, in turn, cause tsunamis. Additional dangers of volcanoes include lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and sun-erasing clouds of ash which can significantly alter the world's climate. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were covered in 7 meters of ash in the 79 A.D. eruption of Mount Vesivius, and Mount Krakatoa's 1883 eruption dropped the global temperature by 1.2 degrees Celsius in the following year.

Mitigating Disaster

Tectonic shifting cannot be stopped nor can it be prevented. Studying these events is very difficult, and they are nearly impossible to predict with any reasonable amount of time to warn the populations of surrounding communities. A worldwide tsunami warning system was put in place in 1946, but it has given more false positives than accurate forecasts. You should run through an emergency preparedness exercise on occasion in case disaster strikes your area.

Tags: along fault, each other, fault lines, measured Richter, occur when, Pompeii Herculaneum, Richter scale

What Is The Difference In Flood Zones For Insurance

Flood damage can be costly.

Floods are one of the most common disasters in the United States. To protect homeowners from the cost of flood damage, the US government developed the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). The NFIP works with insurance companies to provide affordable flood insurance to all homeowners who live in communities that participate in the NFIP.

Maps

The Federal Emergency Management Agency prepares flood risk insurance maps (FIRM) for all communities that participate in the National Flood Insurance Program. In order to make the maps, FEMA analyzes various hydrologic data to determine the flood risk of a given area. All land is classified into one of three risk zones: high-risk, low-moderate risk and undetermined risk.

Risk Areas

High-risk areas have a one percent annual risk of flooding; over the course of a 30-year mortgage, this translates to a 26 percent chance of flooding. Homeowners in the high risk zone are required to have flood insurance if they purchase their home with a federally insured mortgage. Homes in the low to moderate risk have less than a one percent chance of flooding in a given year. If your home is in the moderate-low risk zone you are not legally required to carry insurance, although it is recommended. In the undetermined zone, no flood risk analysis has been conducted. Insurance rates reflect the uncertainty in risk.

Insurance Rates

Homeowners can purchase different amounts of insurance, up to $250,000 of building coverage, and $100,000 for contents. Homeowners can chose whether to insure just the building, just the buildings contents, or both the building and contents. Premiums depend on the amount of insurance and the risk zone of the building. For example, as of May 2010, a joint building and contents coverage plant of $250,000/$100,000 for the high risk zone has an annual cost of $2633. Premiums are higher in a high risk coastal zone, for the same coverage annual premiums will be $5,700. In the moderate-low risk area the same policy will cost $1,489 per year.

Preferred Risk Policy

The National Flood Insurance Program's Preferred Risk Policy protects commercial property in areas of low-to moderate-flood risk. Most businesses, farm buildings, churches and schools in these areas are eligible for the lower PRP rates, as long as the building does not have a significant history of flooding. Preferred Risk Policy rates depend on whether or not the insured building has a basement. For a buildings and contents policy with $250,000/$100,000 of coverage, annual premiums are $355 per year for buildings without a basement, and $395 per year for buildings with basements.

Excess Coverage

The amount of insurance offered by the NFIP is not enough to protect all homes. Homeowners looking to increase the amount of insurance on their property can buy an excess coverage policy from the insurance agent of their choice, provided they offer such coverage.

Undetermined Risk Zone

If your property is located in the undetermined risk zone, there is a good chance it is because your community does not participate in the NFIP. If you want your community to participate, you can petition your local government. In order to be a member of the program, a community must agree to practice sound floodplain management.

Tags: risk zone, amount insurance, Flood Insurance, Flood Insurance Program, flood risk

Types Of Divergent Plate Boundaries

The Galapagos Islands are close to three divergent plate boundaries.

Divergent plate boundaries are zones where two or more of the Earth's tectonic plates move away from each other. The movement extends and fractures the Earth's crust. The driving forces for the motion are convection currents that rise from the Earth's hot core and carry molten magma towards the base of the plates. At this position, lateral motion from the convection currents pushes the plates apart. Molten magma from the Earth's mantle fills in the spaces between the plates and creates a new crust.

Rift Valley

As magma rises from the Earth's mantle, it elevates and stretches the crust. When the stretching forces exceed the strength of the crust, the crust breaks along two dominant fracture zones. The crust between these zones falls down producing a rift valley. Molten magma intrudes along the fracture zones and flows into the new valley. The East African Rift Valley, which extends from southern Africa and northwards to Egypt, and the Rio Grande Rift between Colorado and Mexico, are examples of crustal divergence.

Linear Sea

As crustal separation continues, the crust breaks apart completely and the rift valley deepens and lengthens. The sea enters the new space and creates a narrow, linear sea. Examples of these are the Gulf of California between Baja California and mainland Mexico, and the Red Sea that separates Africa from the Arabian Peninsula.

Mid-Oceanic Ridge

Further spreading enlarges the linear seas into greater expanses of water and oceans. The boundary between the divergent plates becomes a mid-oceanic ridge. The mid-Atlantic Ridge that separates Africa and Europe from North and South America is the longest such feature. Similar features occur in the Indian, Pacific and Arctic Oceans as well as the Antarctic Sea.

Triple Junction

The zone from which three tectonic plates diverge is a triple junction. The Galapagos Triple Junction in the eastern Pacific Ocean is one example. Here, the Cocos, Nazca and Pacific plates spread away from each other while at the same time rotating around two other microplates.

Tags: from Earth, away from, away from each, convection currents, crust breaks, each other

Geotechnical Engineer Salary

Geotechnical engineers combine their engineering skills with knowledge of geology and geography to understand work with the Earth's natural resources. A geotechnical engineer examines the natural resources and natural structure of a particular work site, determines whether the earth can be safely worked for his employer's purposes, runs tests on soil, rock and other elements at the work site and develops a plan so construction can begin. Geotechnical engineers can find work in the oil, gas, construction and government sectors.

Job Duties

A geotechnical engineer splits his time between field work and desk work. The field work consists of implementing plans for earthwork construction, inspecting work sites, determining construction risk factors such as whether the rock at a job site can support construction and working with the rocks, soil, natural structures and substrate at a work site. The desk portion of the job has the geotechnical engineer designing systems and structures which will safely work in the particular area that his employer wishes to begin construction. A geotechnical engineer may further specialize in coastal engineering, developing plans to build structures along the coast and in the oceans.

Education

The minimum education required to become a geotechnical engineer, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, is a bachelor's degree in this area of engineering. All entry-level jobs in the field require at least a four-year degree. Graduate school is primarily useful for those engineers who wish to enter academia and research. Most other jobs in the engineering discipline do not require a master's degree. Licensing is required for a geotechnical engineer who works with the public. The licensing requirements are the same in every state.

Salary

A geotechnical engineer can expect to make a median salary of $75,960, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. High-end salaries average $122,750, earned by the top 10% of geotechnical engineers currently in the job market. Your salary can range quite a bit depending on your experience. The more hands-on and specialized your knowledge, the better your chances for making more money.

Prospects

Job prospects for this specialty are expected to rise by 15 percent, which is higher than average for most jobs. While this job market has been lukewarm in the past, mineral exploration is beginning to ramp up, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Turnover is also expected, with older geotechnical engineers leaving the work force at a steady rate from 2008 to 2018.

Tags: geotechnical engineer, according Bureau, according Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor Statistics

Describe How Gravity Is Mechanical Weathering

Describing a geological process like mechanical weathering can be a challenge, particularly when your audience has seen the effects of mechanical weathering and has "some idea" of how it works. This challenge lies in asking them to move past the obvious, to understand the "why" behind the "why" and grasp the physical processes and elemental forces involved in each step of the process. A simple analogy might help them understand the basics and may lead them to a wider understanding of nature through critical and analytical thinking.

Instructions

1. Define mechanical weathering for the audience. Mechanical weathering is the breakdown of rock into smaller bits and pieces without a change in its chemical makeup. A process of the rock cycle--the geologic cycle by which rocks can change form over millennia--mechanical weathering results from erosion by water or wind; expansion and contraction from changes in temperature; frost action, where water enters or condenses within cracks in the rock and, upon freezing, enlarges the cracks; exfoliation, where curved sheets of surface material break off of larger rocks; and main force, where plant roots or animals--including man--crush or break the rock by their action.

2. Pour a handful of cat litter onto the table top. Pour a small quantity of water on the litter, so that a bit of it begins to wash away, then state the obvious: erosion, by definition, is the result of gravity, acting in concert with water. The water is merely the medium that wears away and carries off particles of the rock.

3. Use an analogy: although sandpaper is the agent by which a board is smoothed, the human using the sandpaper is the primary agent in the act of sanding down the board. Likewise, although water or wind is the agent by which mechanical weathering in the form of erosion occurs, gravity is the primary agent.

Tags: mechanical weathering, agent which, primary agent, water wind

Materials Needed For Elementary School Science Labs

Microscopes are an essential and basic supply of a science lab.

As science and math scores are often in the forefront of the media as areas American students need to make headway on, starting earlier with science experiments is essential. To do this, basic science labs will be widely beneficial in elementary schools. Though these will not be as high-tech and in-depth as the laboratories in high schools or colleges, students can begin to get acquainted with the basics of laboratory science with a few essential materials and supplies.

Furniture

For students to gain an appreciation as well as a respect for a laboratory, the space will need to look and work like a science lab. The room should consist of flat-top tables that sit two to four students. The tables can have drawers, but the table top should be flat and wide so the students have enough space to work. Stools are typical for seating in a science lab as they are tall enough to give the students a good view overlooking their experiments.

Safety Gear

Although an elementary level science lab will not typically deal with the potentially hazardous materials and chemicals that a high school or college lab would, the students will need to become accustomed to wearing all the necessary protective gear for a science lab. This could include safety goggles, aprons, ear plugs and even protective gloves. Post signs and posters around the room regarding proper lab procedures, such as no eating or running in the lab and that safety gear must be worn at all times. By establishing the good lab habits early, the students are more likely to uphold them in the future.

Tools

Provide the students with the tools and equipment necessary for performing simple lab experiments. An important basic tool that also will be used in future years for more complex labs is the microscope. Learning properly use a science lab microscope will prove to be a crucial skill for the students. To properly and effectively use the microscope, the student will need slides as well. The students can look at a variety of items on the slides under the microscope for practice, such as grains of salt, seeds or parts of a flower.

Supplies

Fill the labs with beakers and liquids for performing basic experiments. For example, a basic experiment performed in elementary school is the combining of baking soda with vinegar. The reaction is often featured as an eruption coming out of a craft volcano. These two substances, as well as the beakers and containers to hold the reactions, will be crucial for an elementary school lab. Another common experiment, the observation of plant growth by elementary students, entails the use of containers to hold the specimens, ideally clear glass jars. These enable the students to observe all phases of the growth process.

Tags: will need, containers hold, elementary school

Fossil Formation Lesson Plan

Fossil

Fossils form in ways that either alter the original object or leave it intact. Unaltered remains of living plants and animals occur when they become trapped and preserved in ice, amber, desert sand or tar. Altered remains occur when forces of nature break down the original plant or animal then partially or fully replace it with mineral deposits or leave an imprint of it in the rock that eventually forms. You can teach children about this process using a number of resources.

Explanation

Explain the process of fossilization to children. A plant or animal must die in a location favorable for fossil formation in order for it to occur. In the case of unaltered fossil formation, the plant or animal must die in just the right location to find itself encased in material that preserves it. Altered fossils, those that minerals eventually replace or that leave an imprint of themselves in minerals, must die near a place where they come to rest in water. They must then remain long enough for sediment to cover and preserve them so that over many years, the weight of the sediment and seepage of minerals turns them into fossils.

Visuals

Use real fossils or resources, such as Yale University's Peabody Museum of Natural History website, educational posters and the Eyewitness series of books, to reinforce your lesson on fossils and fossil formation with visuals. The Peabody Museum and Eyewitness books offer quality photographic images of fossils. Emphasize that the formation of fossils takes millions of years, unlike the quickly formed models in the classroom project. The National Parks Service fossil department has online information and graphics showing fossil rich geology formations in several United States locations.

Create

Have children participate in gathering fossil models, such as plastic toy insects and reptiles, bones or bone models, plant material and shells. Several ways to create fossil models provide a realistic result. Remember to stress that in reality, this process takes unique conditions and millions of years. To model the formation of altered fossils, press a fossil model object covered with a thin layer of petroleum jelly into clay at the bottom of a small container. Pour plaster mixed to manufacturer's directions over it and let dry overnight. Once removed, children have a mold of their fossil in the plaster. A cast, or three-dimensional fossil, can then be made by pouring additional plaster into the mold and letting it dry. Mix sand, clay and water together, then place fossil model objects into it. Allow it to dry. Children can chisel the fossil objects out carefully with small jewelry screwdrivers. Create an unaltered model by placing a small, flat fossil model object, such as a plastic toy bug, on a piece of cardboard. Pour white glue over it and allow it to dry. Repeat as necessary to build up the layers until you cover the model. This mimics a fossil preserved in amber. Creating fossils with these methods allows children to experience the process of formation, although at a greatly enhanced speed, so that they likely understand the process better.

Tags: fossil formation, fossil model, plant animal, animal must, fossil model object, fossil models, leave imprint

A Fun Way To Remember Geological Periods

It helps to know geological periods when working with fossils.

Though often dull, memorization is often required for school and learning. Sir Isaac Newton said: "If I have seen further it is by standing upon the shoulders of giants." In other words, before you can contribute to the human race, you must understand and memorize the work of those who came before you.

Instructions

1. Write down the first letter of the different geological periods, in order. It can be from the most recent to the first, or from the first to the most recent.

2. Create a word for each letter. The goal is to create a coherent sentence, using the letters in order. You can then recite your sentence to help you remember any geological periods you have missed. This memorization technique, called a mnemonic, is a popular way to memorize long lists.

3. Make the sentence fun, unusual and strange. The odder the sentence, the less trouble you may have remembering it later.

4. Write the names of the various geological periods on flash cards if you don't already know them. A mnemonic is ideal for remembering long lists of items, but only if you already know the names of the items in the list.

5. Put the flash cards in order, and say the name of the periods as you go through the words of your mnemonic sentence. Check the name on the flash card to ensure you got it right.

Tags: geological periods, already know, flash cards, long lists, most recent

Commission Training For A Petroleum Engineer

Training as a petroleum engineer delivers a number of career options.

Petroleum engineers design and supervise the process of getting oil and natural gas out of the ground and into storage tanks. Although most petroleum engineers work for oil companies, many others work for other industry organizations, such as technology companies or equipment suppliers. Still others teach at the undergraduate or graduate level, or serve as consultants. The median salary is $88,500, according to the State University online education directory. The more training a young engineer has, the more he will earn. There are numerous resources available beyond the college classroom.

Instructions

1. Get a degree. A bachelor's degree is the minimum standard for entry into the profession. Your degree can be in geology, geophysics, mining, civil engineering or mechanical engineering -- as long as you have course work in petroleum engineering. Some colleges and universities offer full degrees in petroleum engineering. If you want to teach or rise to the top of a major oil company, you'll need a doctorate or at least a master's degree.

To boast the most powerful resume, seek an engineering program that is accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET).

2. Participate in formal training programs. Recent graduates generally start as assistants to experienced engineers. Internships allow students to get real-world experience while still in school. Ask your guidance counselor for referrals to oil companies and other industry organizations that offer training programs for current students getting ready to enter the field.

3. Tap industry resources. The Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) offers a range of educational and training options throughout the year, usually in conjunction with one of its conferences or seminars. Its programs feature training courses, whether they're conducted at an SPE conference or at one of its on-site training centers in Houston and Calgary, Alberta. "SPE on Demand" allows access to important seminars from previous conferences. An online training curriculum includes a wide range of educational topics. Other top educational resources include PetroSkills, which offers a comprehensive training course on basic petroleum engineering practices.

4. Find a mentor. SPE offers an eMentoring program for college students and professionals in the field. Experienced petroleum engineers help students and newcomers with practical career advice and general educational guidance. An SPE mentor can also help a young engineer make the transition from the classroom to a job.

Tags: petroleum engineering, industry organizations, other industry, other industry organizations, petroleum engineers, range educational, training programs

Types Of Black Diamonds

Types of Black Diamonds

Although a natural piece of carbonado, or black diamond, looks unremarkable, its presumed extraterrestrial origin makes it an object of curiosity and distinction. This mineral's extraordinary beginnings could cause it to become a coveted keepsake in its raw, untreated form, despite the holes and indentations on its permeable surface. Does this Spark an idea?

History

In 1840, the Portuguese discovered black diamonds in Brazil and named them "carbonado." According to a study conducted by geology professor Stephen Haggerty of the Florida International University in Miami, carbon and cosmic dust that came from the extreme heat and pressure of exploding stars billions of years ago produced black diamonds. The diamonds might have been the size of asteroids, each measuring nearly one half mile in diameter.

Significance

Black diamonds exist primarily in two places on earth, Brazil and the Central African Republic between Sudan and Chad; they lie along stream beds in these countries. Black diamonds became particular objects of curiosity and interest after scientists theorized that they originated in space from the debris of a "supernova" or exploding star event.

Identification

A piece of a black diamond could be round or asymmetrical and contains clusters of crystals. It possesses a porous texture and could appear cloudy to black because of its natural inclusions and the graphite and iron content in the stone. Although a black diamond might resemble ordinary charcoal, the mineral shares the distinction of regular diamonds; both types of diamonds rate a 10 on the Mohs hardness scale, a system that measures the durability of minerals and gemstones.

Natural Black Diamond

The types of black diamonds include the natural black diamond, which appears in assorted size fragments. This stone is used in jewelry; however, its many inclusions cause it to fracture easily, and its natural durability makes it difficult to cut and polish. Because of the black diamond's extreme hardness, the mineral is often used in industrial settings to cut or bore through other objects.

Treated Black Diamonds

Most black diamonds in jewelry have been treated to enhance the stone's natural appearance. Natural black diamonds can be irradiated through a process called neutron bombardment to produce a dark green to black appearance. Another option uses a process called high pressure heat treatment, which simulates conditions deep within the earth's surface, providing a safer treatment alternative than irradiation. In either method, the diamond undergoes a process to bring about uniform color. Enhanced black diamonds can be used with other types of stones to create impressive jewelry.

Tags: black diamond, black diamond, black diamonds, Black Diamonds, black diamonds, have been, process called

Jobs For A Bachelor'S In Physics

Model of an atom

Physics revolves around the study of matter and its interactions. The typical curriculum for a bachelor’s in physics includes courses in electricity and magnetism, optics, mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, statistical physics, and relativity. The program emphasizes critical thinking, logic, and problem solving. A BS in physics is a versatile degree, and graduates may find jobs in areas directly or indirectly related to it.

Education and Research

Physics graduates with at bachelor's degree are qualified to teach physics and math in elementary and high schools. They may also teach other courses such as chemistry, geology, biology, and earth science. Tutoring agencies hire graduates to teach subjects such as regular and advanced placement calculus and physics to middle and high schoolers. They may also hire them to prep students for college admission tests such as the SAT or GRE.

Physics graduates also work in scientific research. A bachelor’s degree is sufficient for a job as a lab technician in research at private, government, and educational institutions. Technicians perform tasks such as setting up labs, purchasing and maintaining equipment, performing measurements, and running experiments. A physics graduate may also find a job as an analyst or engineer. He can work on planning, data analysis, data collection, modeling and simulation, and testing.

Computer Programming

Physics graduates may also pursue careers in computer programming. For example, computer games and CGI (computer generated image) films use physics equations for animation. Some of the concepts used deal with velocity, acceleration, gravity, wind, and friction.

Journalism and Technical Writing

A person with a bachelor’s in physics can forge a career as a writer, writing science articles for magazines, newspapers, and blogs. Another position is that of technical writer, where the graduate writes documentation, specifications, reports, and presentations. Patent law is yet another area where a physics degree is very useful. Graduates can work as patent searchers, where they search for patents relevant to applications filed by inventors. They can also work as patent examiners, where they read the applications the inventors submit, and then decide if the device or process described is patentable or not. United States patent examiners normally undergo a specialized period of training at the agency before they can begin work.

Tags: Physics graduates, They also, also work, bachelor’s physics, graduates also, patent examiners

Get Paid To Go To Graduate School

You can find money for grad school!

If you think that you can't afford to go to graduate school, think again. Not only can you find money for grad school - you can even get paid to go to school. You probably know that you can apply for various grants and scholarships on a competitive basis, but you might not know that graduate schools often pay salaries (or stipends) to graduate students. If you want to study sciences, engineering or humanities and choose a graduate program wisely, you can get paid enough to survive without having to borrow a penny.

Instructions

1. Begin by finding graduate schools that have programs in the field of study you are interested in. To do that check the graduate school rankings: (grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/grad).

2. Visit the websites of the graduate programs you might be interested in and check whether they offer teaching or research assistantships. In most schools (especially big public schools) graduate students are hired to teach classes or to work with faculty assisting on research projects. In return, some schools pay only the tuition, while others even pay a salary, provide health insurance and cheap graduate housing.

This really is the best way to get money for grad school. In addition to getting paid to go to graduate school, you also get some work experience in your field.

3. Beware that it is a lot easier to get graduate assistanships in the fields of hard sciences, engineering, and to some extent, humanities. In some programs, every single graduate student gets tuition remission and a monthly salary with a ballpark figure of twelve hundred dollars or so. It is not exactly a lot of money, but it is possible to survive if renting a cheap room and cooking your own food.

While not completely impossible, it is definitely a lot more difficult, however, to get paid by school to do your MBA or get your law or medical degree. Those types of schools might give a partial assistanship, but it's unlikely that they will cover all of your expenses. You can find some scholarship or grant money though, so never give up.

4. If you are interested in a particular graduate program, contact them. They are usually very responsive. In addition to teaching or research assistantships, they can often tell you more about specific grants, scholarships or fellowships you may qualify for. Moreover, there are often grants and scholarships available to women and minorities in a given field of study (sciences and engineering, especially) specific to those particular schools. Be sure to ask!

5. Ask the graduate program to put you in touch with some current graduate students in that program. They might be able give you a better idea of what the graduate program is like, what the financial support is like, info on housing, health insurance, and so on.

6. Familiarize yourself with the faculty in the graduate program that you are interested in applying to. If there is a professor whose research interests you, contact them directly and tell them that you would like to work with them. Such personal contacts might facilitate your admission process and land you a research assistantship on top of that. For more details on this check the resource section below for the article about getting into grad school by making personal contacts.

7. Do a lot of research to determine how the graduate programs compare so that you can find the best deal. Make a decision based on both the quality of the graduate program and the financial benefits that come with it.

The more research you do, the less your graduate education is likely to cost you. Best of luck!

Tags: graduate program, grad school, graduate school, graduate students, grants scholarships, money grad

Top Petroleum Engineering Schools In The Us

Petroleum refinery

Petroleum engineers specialize in the withdrawal, storage and transportation of fossil fuels. They also take part in explorations, oversee the efficient extraction of natural resources, and head the design and construction of drilling sites around the globe. Petroleum engineers rely on sophisticated seismic technology, which uses sound waves to detect potential natural resources that lie below the earth's surface. Degrees in petroleum engineering are offered at the bachelor's, master's and doctorate levels.

University of Texas Austin

Based at the University of Texas at Austin, the Cockrell School of Engineering was ranked by "U.S. News & World Report" 9th overall in undergraduate education this year and 2nd in petroleum engineering programs in 2003. The engineering program is offered at the undergraduate and graduate levels. Specialized undergraduate areas of study in petroleum engineering comprise geosystems engineering, and hydrogeology. The engineering department encourages students to engage in research projects at the undergraduate level. Depending on the quality of their research, students are eligible to receive scholarships and special programs. The five main interdisciplinary initiatives in engineering are sustainable energy, engineering human health care, manufacturing and design innovation, sustainable and secure infrastructure, and space and earth engineering.

University of Texas Austin

Cockrell School of Engineering

1 University Station C2200

Austin TX 78712

512-475-7440

www.utexas.edu/

Stanford University

The students and faculty at Stanford University's Department of Energy Resources Engineering have received numerous awards and recognitions from various institutions, such as the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Geological Society of America. Prospective students can enroll in the master of sciences or doctoral programs in energy resources engineering. Incoming students should have a strong background in physical science, engineering and mathematics. Course offerings include the basics of petroleum engineering, petroleum geology, reservoir engineering and well testing. Students are expected to enroll in at least 15 units per quarter.

Stanford University

450 Serra Mall

Stanford, CA 94305

650-723-2300

pangea.stanford.edu

Colorado School of Mines

Colorado School of Mines is world-renowned for its engineering program and was rated among the best graduate programs by "U.S. News & World Report" in 2010. Ninety-six percent of the program's graduates are guaranteed employment in the industry or at government institutions. The engineering department specializes in the discovery and recovery of the natural resources, and seeks innovative approaches that help to improve the preservation and sustainability of the earth's resources. Areas of specialization within the field of geoscience are environmental science and engineering, hydrology, geophysics, and petroleum reservoir systems.

Colorado School of Mines

1500 Illinois St.

Golden, CO 80401

303-273-3000

mines.edu

Tags: petroleum engineering, Colorado School, Colorado School Mines, natural resources, School Mines, Stanford University, Texas Austin

See The San Andreas Fault At Point Reyes National Seashore

If you look at it on a map, Point Reyes Peninsula, on the seashore north of San Francisco, looks like it is breaking off the continent. It looks that way because it is doing just that. Both Point Reyes and the part of California it is attached to are in motion, as is every other part of the Earth; they are on different plates in the earth's crust and are headed in different directions, Point Reyes slowly moving northwest along the coast. Between them is the famous San Andreas Fault, the fault line that slipped in 1906 and destroyed San Francisco. A visit to Point Reyes is also a visit to the San Andreas Fault, and if you know where to go, you can see it up close.

Instructions

1. Go to the Point Reyes Peninsula; as you get close to the peninsula, look for the small town of Olema. Quite close to Olema is the Bear Valley visitor center, beside the headquarters for Point Reyes National Seashore. The visitor center is off Bear Valley Road, which intersects with California State Route 1 at Olema.

2. Go to the Bear Valley visitor center. Rangers there can answer any questions you have. You can also pick up a map of Point Reyes National Seashore here. On the other side of the entrance road to the visitor center, you will find the trailhead for the Earthquake Trail.

3. Walk or drive to the Earthquake Trail trailhead, then hike the Earthquake Trail. This loop trail is 0.6 miles long, or one kilometer. The trail is paved and accessible for the disabled. It takes you directly through the San Andreas Fault zone. The National Park Service has put in an extra effort on interpretation here. The fault itself is marked with light blue posts, so you can follow the exact fault line as you walk over it. At short intervals, the park service has also put up signs explaining what you are seeing.

4. Look at the offset fence. The trail goes past a wooden fence that was here during the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. When the fault line moved, it broke the fence in two and moved the two halves 18 feet apart. This is one of a number of points on the trail where you can see and understand the motion of the two plates that slide past each other.

5. Look for the San Andreas Fault throughout the rest of your visit to Point Reyes. It is a constant presence: it runs under Tomales Bay, under the town of Olema, up the valley in which Olema sits, and under Bolinas Lagoon. It gives the region its distinctive shape, and you can see it clearly even on a map that does not label the fault.

Tags: Point Reyes, Andreas Fault, visitor center, Bear Valley, Earthquake Trail, fault line

Things To Do In Cape Hatteras North Carolina

Nature's stunning wonders provide opportunities for activities at Cape Hatteras.

According to the National Park Service, Cape Hatteras National Seashore is a small, narrow strip of barrier islands off the eastern coast of North Carolina. N.C. Highway 12 runs down this fragile strip of islands. Mother Nature provides the most stunning attractions in Cape Hatteras; however, the area offers well-known sites and activities that will please both locals and visitors.

Major Attractions

The black-and-white, spiral-striped Cape Hatteras Lighthouse has long served as an icon of Hatteras Island. From mid-April to Columbus Day, visitors can climb 248 metal spiral stair steps to the top of the lighthouse. Spectacular views of the Atlantic Ocean, Cape Hatteras and the town of Buxton reward visitors at the top. The Cape Hatteras National Seashore Visitor Center includes a bookstore, gift shop and educational exhibits.

The restored 1874 Chicamacomico Life-Saving Station, located in Rodanthe, is the nation's most complete example of 19th-century lifesaving stations built to aid in shipwreck and rescue operations.

The Graveyard of the Atlantic Museum lies at the end of Highway 12 at the Hatteras ferry terminal. Exhibits include shipwreck artifacts, pirate exhibits and the original 1854 Cape Hatteras Lighthouse Fresnel lens.

Recreation

Cape Hatteras is a magnet for people who love ocean-related sports activities. Surfing, windsurfing, kiteboarding, stand-up and paddle-boarding enthusiasts find the area a mecca for their sports. Rental venues are available for these activities. Kitty Hawk Sports in Waves Village offers gear for surfing, stand-up paddle boarding and kayaking. Lessons can be arranged. Rodanthe Surf Shop and OceanAir Sports provide access to personal watercraft, sailboats, body boards and skim boards, as does Hatteras Sailing Company in Hatteras Village. Various venues for boating, canoeing, parasailing, swimming, bicycling and simply roaming the miles of scenic beaches lie along the length of commercialized sections of Hatteras Island. Other activities include mini-golf, shopping, dining and watching movies.

Shipwrecks

Scuba divers can charter tours with expert guides to explore shipwrecks off the coast. Shipwrecks include Word War II vessels in the 70- to 110- foot-deep range. Scuba-diving and certification courses are offered by area businesses such as Outer Banks Diving and Dive Hatteras. Gear for snorkeling, diving and wetsuits for similar sports are available for rental.

Activities for Nature Lovers

Pea Island National Wildlife Refuge is a 13-mile stretch of pristine barrier island within Cape Hatteras National Seashore. The visitor's center provides an introduction to the ecosystem and wildlife of the refuge and permissible activities, including shell-hunting, surf-fishing, photography, birding and other eco-friendly activities. A four-mile loop or smaller hiking trails are available.

Buxton Woods Coastal Reserve in Buxton is the largest remaining maritime forest in the Southeast. It allows horseback riding on some of its trails.

Fishing

Cape Hatteras is a mecca for serious anglers. North Carolina fishermen have called it North Carolina's "sport-fishing capital." Charter boats head into the Gulf Stream from Hatteras docks in search of blue and white marlin, sailfish and giant bluefin tuna. Six Hatteras Village marinas welcome boats large and small. Near-shore shipwrecks provide excellent fishing destinations. Surf fishing and pier fishing reward anglers with red drum, sea mullet, flounder, trout, striped bass and pompano. Fishing guides are available to share the area's best fishing locations.

Tags: Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, Cape Hatteras National, Hatteras National, Hatteras National Seashore, National Seashore

Become A Paleobotanist

When you think of fossils, you might think of dinosaurs. A paleobotanist thinks of ancient plants. These scientists work in a branch of geology. They find fossils of plants and try to decide how different plants fit into the evolutionary record. The job involves research, computer skills, report writing and field work. Does it sound like your ideal career? If so, here's how you can become a paleobotanist.

Instructions

1. Decide what kind of job you'd like in paleobotany. If you want to work as an intern or in an educational center, you may only need a bachelor's degree. If you want to hunt for fossils you will need at least a master's degree. If you want to conduct your own research, you will need a PhD.

2. Get a bachelor's degree in geology or in palaeontology. Geology is the study of Earth's rocks, and palaeontology is the study of fossils. As a paleobotanist, you will need knowledge of geology, as well as botany, which is the study of plants. If you get a degree in geology or palaeontology, you can become more qualified for paleobotanist jobs by taking extra courses in botany or do additional research projects.

3. Continue into a master's degree. Undergraduate degrees are usually general. Master's degrees are more specific. So although you might still be working in the geology department, you should make sure you are working with a professor that specializes in paleobotany. This will give you contacts for jobs as well as specific skills you will need as a paleobotanist.

4. Obtain a PhD. You will need a PhD to do more in depth research or to direct your own research. Choose a school based on the professors that work there. The majority of your PhD education will be based on these professors, the projects they are working on and their ability to have you help them with their research.

5. Get a post-doctoral fellowship. After completing a PhD, you will need more research experience before you can get your own grant money. You can get additional research experience by working as a post-doctorate researcher at a government agency or university.

Tags: will need, additional research, bachelor degree, degree geology, degree geology palaeontology, degree want

Make A Distribution Map

Distribution maps illustrate distribution of people or animals, weather statistics or geological features.

Distribution maps demonstrate specific data (e. g., endangered species, population, precipitation) by dividing a state, country or continent into zones. Each zone represents a portion of that state, country or continent's data. An endangered species map might illustrate how the species' habitats are distributed; a population map might show America's population by state. A climagraph, or weather map, might divide the country into desert, plains and mountainous regions, and display the temperature range or the amount of precipitation that each region normally gets each year.

Instructions

Map Coverage

1. Choose a land mass and an element to plot: its plant life or biodiversity, its climate, its population, its dispersal of mines, its geographical features or its imports/exports.

2. Research the data for the map area you've chosen.

3. Develop a color scheme for filling in the distribution map, matching it to the data. Green might represent vegetation; blue and red, cold and hot temperatures; orange, the location of copper mines.

4. List additional information to be added to the map, such as geographic identifiers (names of major cities, rivers or mountains).

Creating the Map

5. Plot your locations on a map template. Lightly sketch them, outlining their boundaries with a #2 pencil.

6. Shade the map with map pens or pencils to illustrate your data at hand. Add texture like waves in oceans and rivers, and raindrops or snowflakes to indicate precipitation.

7. Add your additional data, marking the location of cities, rivers and mountains and other features to give your map perspective.

8. Create a map key to identify the map characteristics and explain the distribution data. Include a scale as a key to sizes and distances.

9. Give the distribution map a descriptive title: "The Population of Poland," "Heron Habitats," "The Rain in Spain."

Tags: cities rivers, cities rivers mountains, country continent, data endangered, data endangered species

Water & Electrolyte Imbalance

The human body needs water.

The human body is composed of up to 60 percent water. Our bodies need adequate fluid and electrolyte levels to regulate body functions. Physical activity, medications, illnesses and environmental factors can cause dehydration or hyper hydration and corresponding electrolyte imbalances. It is important to recognize the symptoms and causes of electrolyte imbalance, and try to avoid them.

Water

The human body needs water to produce blood and digestive fluids, transport and absorb nutrients and eliminate waste. The average healthy adult uses approximately 10 cups (2.5 liters) of water performing basic bodily functions. The foods and liquids you consume replenish the water and electrolytes in your body.

Electrolytes

Electrolytes--particularly calcium, potassium and sodium--help fluid levels in the body. Each electrolyte performs a specific function and must stay at the right levels. The body typically regulates the amounts of fluid and electrolytes in the body, utilizing what it needs and excreting excess fluids and electrolytes. Dehydration, insufficient fluid levels and hyper hydration--excessively high fluid levels--can cause imbalances of specific electrolytes and result in potentially dangerous health conditions.

Dehydration

When your body uses more water and electrolytes than you replace, you can become dehydrated. Common causes of dehydration include vomiting, diarrhea, fever, excess sweating and intense physical activity. Young children, seniors and people with chronic illnesses are at higher risk for dehydration. In some cases, dehydration can result in high levels of calcium (hypercalcemia), potassium (hyperkalemia) and sodium (hypernatremia). Increasing fluid intake can treat most cases of dehydration and high electrolyte levels. Severe cases may require medical treatment.

Hyper Hydration

Drinking excessive amounts of water, known as hyper hydration, can flush the body of necessary electrolytes, resulting in low levels of calcium (hypocalcaemia), potassium (hypokalemia) and sodium (hyponatremia). Hyper hydration is usually associated with athletes who overestimate their need for fluids and consume water faster than their body can process it. Individuals taking medications or suffering from medical conditions that cause them to retain fluids can also suffer from low electrolyte levels. Low electrolyte levels are usually treated by taking supplements or eating foods rich in the missing electrolyte. Severe cases may require medical treatment.

Avoiding Electrolyte Imbalance

Healthy adults can maintain healthy water and electrolyte levels by drinking adequate amounts of water and eating a balanced diet. Individuals with chronic medical conditions and those taking medications that affect fluid and electrolyte levels should regularly consult a physician to monitor their conditions. Athletes may be able to avoid dehydration and hyper hydration by choosing sports drinks fortified with electrolytes over plain water.

Tags: electrolyte levels, human body, amounts water, body needs, body needs water, cases dehydration

The Effects Of Physical Weathering

Cracks from physical weathering render rock vulnerable to further degradation.

Physical weathering is the decomposition of mineral and rock material by either internal or external mechanical means. Frequently, the physical weathering exposes rocks and minerals to other forces, such as chemical weathering processes like oxidation and dissolution. The effects of physical weathering may differ in detail and process slightly, but they all lead to the eventual disintegration of the material on which they act.

Cracking and Fissuring

The most common effect of physical weathering is the formation of cracks, fissures and joints. Joints are uniform, patterned fractures that exhibit no deviation across the fissure. When cracks and fissures occur in the surface of a rock, the weathering and erosion process speeds up due to the previously protected inner structure of the rock now being exposed to the elements. This causes the rock to further crack and degrade over time.

Another effect of the cracking of physically weathered rock is the introduction of plant and small animal life into the fissures of the rock. Plant roots and animal activity within physically weathered rock crevices can further undermine the structural integrity of an already weakening rock.

Crystal Growth

Water that filters through cracks and pore spaces in physically weathered rock sometimes contains ions, which are atoms or molecules with a positive or negative electrical charge. These ions can cause crystals to form inside of the cracks and fissures of physically weathered rock. As the crystals expand, they can force the cracks in which they're growing to become larger, further breaking apart the weathered rock.

Frost Wedging

As with crystal formation, frost wedging exerts a destructive force on the structural integrity of a rock through outward expansion. When water enters cracks and fissures caused by physical weathering, and then freezes, the volume of the water increases. The increase in volume causes the freezing water to further split open existing cracks and fissures in the rock. Frost wedging is particularly common in the numerous freeze-and-thaw cycles of higher altitudes.

Tags: cracks fissures, weathered rock, physically weathered, physically weathered rock, fissures rock

About Active Volcanoes In The United States

About Active Volcanoes in the United States

Most people have heard of Mount St. Helens, but how many people know that Mississippi once hosted an active volcano? The volcanic history of the United States is rich and varied, with eruptions arising from the global phenomenon of plate tectonics as well as more localized geologic events. Even today's active volcanoes are unpredictable and exciting. The summer of 2008 saw hot action in the country's coldest state: Alaska. On the Aleutian Islands, three eruptions went off in a single month.

Time Frame

Fifty volcanoes in the United States have erupted since the beginning of the 19th century, which is the time frame usually used to categorize active volcanoes. Most of them are in the Aleutian Islands, an island chain off the Alaska's southwest coast. Other recent volcanic activity has visited Hawaii, California, Washington and Oregon. Mount St. Helens, in Washington, erupted destructively and famously in 1980 and is sleeping, according to geologists--but is still considered to be active. The summer of 2008 was a fiery time in the Aleutian Islands, with three volcanoes--Kasatochi, Okmok and Cleveland--exploding within a month spanning July and August.

Misconceptions

For every volcano that has erupted in the last 200 years, at least four more are ghosts of eruptions past. Wide swaths of New Mexico, Arizona and California were once as volcanically active as Alaska is today. Fewer eruptions occurred in the past in Idaho, Wyoming, Utah and Nevada. Many of those eruptions were thousands to millions of years ago, along short-lived volcanic fields unrelated to plate tectonics. In Utah and Idaho, these volcanic fields may have resulted from historic stretching of the Earth's crust in the Basin and Range Province, characterized by parallel mountain ranges.

History

Three states--Colorado, Mississippi and South Dakota--each host a single historic volcano. Colorado's, called Dotsero, is the namesake of its host town near where the Colorado and Eagle rivers join in the northwest portion of the state. The Dotsero Volcano last erupted in 2200 BC. Mississippi's Jackson Volcano is believed to have erupted 65 million years ago, and so far there is no published estimate of the last eruption of Bear Butte in South Dakota.

Identification

The most active volcanism happens where tectonic plates are in the long, slow process of colliding. The volcanism at the Aleutian Islands is part of the so-called Pacific Ring of Fire, where activity at the margins of the Pacific and smaller, adjacent tectonic plates yields earthquakes and volcanoes alike. Eighty percent of active volcanoes in the United States are in the Aleutian Islands, and almost that percentage--about 75 percent--of the world's volcanoes occur along the Pacific Ring of Fire. The Cascade Volcanoes in northern California, Oregon and Washington--Mount St. Helens is one of them--are also part of the Pacific Ring of Fire.

Potential

The U.S. Geological Survey recognizes 18 volcanoes with the potential to erupt again, all of them in Alaska and the West Coast except for two--the Kilauea and Mauna Loa volcanoes in Hawaii. Most of these volcanoes have erupted within the past 200 years. And all of them, if they do erupt, would have the ability to wreak havoc on their immediate surroundings by emitting ash and toxic gases and causing mudslides.

Tags: Aleutian Islands, United States, have erupted, Pacific Ring, Pacific Ring Fire

Make A 3d Model Of A Carbon Atom

3D models of carbon atoms can help students learn atomic structure.

Most students learn about atoms and characteristics of the elements on the periodic table in middle and high school science classes. Consider choosing a simple atom, such as carbon, to represent through a hanging mobile 3D model. Although simple in structure, carbon and compounds containing carbon form the basis of all life. Making a 3D model of a carbon atom can help students demonstrate their understanding of protons, neutrons and electrons that form atomic structure.

Instructions

1. Spray paint six of the twelve medium-sized Styrofoam balls all one color to represent the protons of the carbon atom. Larger than electrons, proton particles have a positive electrical charge and are located in the nucleus of the atom. Use a marker to write a plus sign on each Styrofoam proton ball when the paint has dried.

2. Spray paint the remaining six medium-sized Styrofoam balls a second color to represent the neutrons of the carbon atom. Neutrons are about the same size as protons and are located in the nucleus of the atom, but they have no electrical charge.

3. Spray paint the six small Styrofoam balls a third color to represent the electrons of the carbon atom. Carbon contains six electrons, which are tiny particles with a negative charge that orbit the atom's nucleus. Use the marker to write a minus symbol to show the charge on each Styrofoam electron ball.

4. Cut a piece of construction paper into a circular shape large enough to hold all twelve proton and neutron balls. Use craft glue to randomly attach the protons and neutrons to both sides of the construction paper, forming a nucleus for the carbon atom.

5. Thread clear fishing line through a needle and tie a large knot at the end. Run the needle through the top of the construction paper of the carbon atom's nucleus. Tie the other end of the fishing line to the bottom of a wire clothes hanger to suspend the nucleus in the air and begin forming the 3D model.

6. Bend the floral wire into a circular shape wider than the nucleus. Pierce all six Styrofoam electron balls onto one end of the wire and spread them out evenly to model orbiting electrons. Twist the two ends of the wire together to close the electron orbit circle.

7. Use the clear fishing line to attach the electrons on floral wire to the hanger holding the nucleus. The electrons should hang around the nucleus (not below or above it) to accurately represent a carbon atom.

Tags: carbon atom, color represent, construction paper, fishing line, Spray paint

Identify Fossil Preservation

Fossil preservation takes many different forms.

Identifying the preservation of fossilized remains means considering the route a dead ancient organism took to fossilization--how a carcass, say, instead of decomposing without visible trace, leaves some tangible evidence of its existence. An entire branch of scientific inquiry, called "taphonomy," concerns itself with the mysterious and prolonged interval between a living thing's expiration and the discovery of its fossil--if it manages to become fossilized at all, it is a comparatively rare occurrence. The fossilization itself involves different forms of preservation.

Instructions

1. Tree resin that entraps small creatures may transform into amber over time, preserving an interior fossil.

Identify amber-encased fossils by the obvious "mummies" of insects, arachnids, leaves and other biological remnants preserved in slabs of hardened tree resin. These fossils are some of the most intricate and complete, with the added benefit of being clearly visible within the fossilizing substance because of amber's transparency.

2. Look for fossils preserving "hard" portions of an organism in some reconstituted manner. This might include a recrystallized skeleton, wherein bone transforms into a more durable, long-lasting element through geologic warping of high pressure and temperature.

3. Skeletal remains can be reconstituted as fossils through chemical transformations.

Identify another kind of skeletal fossil that develops from dissolved substances in water through a process called permineralization. Water infiltrating sediments bedding a skeleton deposits precipitates that harden the bone or cartilage and mimic its structure. Similar processes with technical variations include petrifaction and replacement.

4. Fossil molds show a negative impression of an organism's remains.

Key out the hollow impressions of organic remains called molds, where the actual bones have decomposed but their outline has imprinted into sediments. A mold may generate a cast--a positive impression of the remains versus the mold's negative one--if other substances infiltrate its space and solidify as a replica of the original skeletal material.

5. Classify trace fossils as indirect evidence of a once-living organism's former presence. Some of the most widely known are so-called "fossil footprints," which can be identified as tracks preserved in some durable substrate for thousands or millions of years. (Some notable fossil footprints are those of early hominids or dinosaurs.) Other examples include fossil burrows, scratches and bite-marks.

Tags: different forms, fossil footprints

The History Of Nalanda University

A renowned institution that flourished for several centuries in South Asia---long before Oxford and Cambridge, Harvard and Yale---Nalanda University was one of the world's first great universities.

Origins

Buddhist monks, under the patronage of the Gupta emperor Kumaragupta I (r. c. 415--455 B.C.), founded Nalanda in about 427. The location of the center of learning in this part of ancient India was of special significance, since it was a place the founder of the monks' religion, Gautama Buddha (c. 563--483 B.C.), had made his "capital" to teach his students. The name "Nalanda" in Sanskrit means "giver of knowledge": a combination of "nalam" (lotus, representing knowledge) and "da" ("to give").

Curriculum and Description

Nalanda University was not only devoted to teachings of Buddhism; the instructors taught subjects such as fine arts, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, war tactics, and politics. Nalanda was also known for its architectural beauty and splendid visual setting. It was a complex, massive campus of several-story buildings containing several classrooms and meditation halls, with eight separate compounds dotted with lotus-adorned lakes and parks decorated with mango trees.

Extent of Fame and Power

At its zenith, Nalanda University housed more than 2,000 professors, providing free education to more than 10,000 students of varying religious backgrounds from South Asia through southeastern Europe to the Middle East. It also enjoyed patronage from regional rulers, thus securing its finances and even being endowed with additional buildings.

Decline and Destruction

Nalanda University was destroyed thrice: in the mid-5th (when it was only a few years old), early 7th, and late 12th centuries. The first two times, Nalanda was rebuilt by the rulers of the day. But by the time Turkish Muslim invaders destroyed it for a third time in 1197, the enthusiasm for Buddhist learning had long declined and there was no ruler in the region with enough clout to restore the institution to its former glory. As a result, Nalanda has languished in its ruins ever since.

Hopes for Revival

Today, what is left of Nalanda University is in the modern-day Indian state of Bihat, and there have been plans to revive it as a postgraduate research university called Nalanda International University. In 2008, representatives from India and several other Asian countries convened in New York to discuss founding six faculties that will constitute such a project: a School of Buddhist Studies, Philosophy, and Comparative Religion; School of Historical Studies; School of International Relations and Peace; School of Business Management and Development; School of Languages and Literature; and School of Ecology and Environmental Studies.

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Rock Cycle Information For Grade 7

Rocks go through quite a process.

Geology is a common field of study for seventh graders. Rocks are a core element of the study of geology, so learning where they come from is important for seventh graders who are just being introduced to the topic. The rock cycle can be explained in simple, yet scientific, terms for seventh-grade students.

Beginnings

Rocks begin as liquid magma beneath the Earth's surface. As they cool, either on the Earth's surface or beneath it, they crystallize and become what is known as igneous rock.

On Earth's Surface

Once igneous rock reaches the Earth's surface, it is subject to the conditions that everything else on the surface experiences. Wind and water break down igneous rock into much smaller particles of sand or dirt. The term for this sand or dirt is sediment. Sediment gathers together in layers on the Earth's surface and over time is compacted together. This compacted sediment is called sedimentary rock.

Metamorphic Rock

The motion of the Earth's tectonic plates heats some sedimentary rock and hardens it. This hardening is called a metamorphosis. Rocks that have undergone this process are called metamorphic rocks. The tectonic movement pushes these rocks to the surface, and under extreme conditions creates mountains. Metamorphic rock from mountains is broken down by rivers or rain and becomes sediment, which starts the cycle over again.

Back to Igneous

Some metamorphic rocks are pushed back beneath the Earth's surface where they melt at extreme temperatures and become igneous rock, thus feeding the cycle. (see References 2).

Tags: igneous rock, Earth surface, beneath Earth, beneath Earth surface, Earth surface, metamorphic rocks

What Happens At A Fault Zone

The study of seismology, or earthquakes, is a broad topic that includes the movement of the earth's plates. Plate tectonics, fault lines and fault zones are all related to the cause of earthquakes.

Definition

A fault zone is an area where there is a large concentration of closely placed fractures in the earth, called faults. Faults are breaks in rock where the earth's crust has been disturbed by the movement of the earth's tectonic plates.

Fault Zones and Earthquakes

The movement of plates along fault lines causes what is called "slippage," which means that there is movement in the earth in an upward, downward or side-to-side motion. When a lot of slippage along a fault line or in a fault zone occurs simultaneously, the outcome is often a major earthquake.

Famous Fault Zones

Some of the most well-known fault lines include the San Andreas fault in California, which caused 6.0 magnitude earthquakes as recently as 1989 and 2004, and the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden Fault in the Caribbean, which set off the 7.0 magnitude Haiti earthquake in 2010.

Tags: fault lines, movement earth, along fault, fault zone, Fault Zones

The Climate & Geography Of The Aleutian Islands

An eruption of Cleveland Volcano in the Aleutians as seen from the International Space Station

The Aleutian Islands off Alaska's southwest coast represent a true bridge over troubled water, albeit a broken one. Early North American inhabitants are thought to have crossed the land bridge over the Bering Sea from Europe thousands of years ago. Today, the land mass has been splintered into some 300 islands, spaced irregularly as if a careless giant had lifted and dropped it. The area attracts few tourists because of its geographic isolation and wild weather, but enthralls the initiated with its volcanoes, thick vegetation and vast and varied native wildlife.

A Broken Chain

The Aleutians are an archipelago of hundreds of volcanic islands thrusting some 1,300 miles into the Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea from Alaska's southwest tip, a length almost equal to that of the West Coast of the United States. Most of the islands fall within the boundaries of the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge. Geologists view them as separated into island groups. The Fox island group contains the largest land masses: the islands of Attu, Unalaska, Umnak and Akun. The total area of the Aleutian Islands includes 6,821 square miles.

Geography

The Aleutian Islands were birthed in fire. Straddling the boundary between the Pacific and North American tectonic plates, the land was built by volcanic activity that continues to this day. Steep volcanoes rising to heights of over 6,000 feet crown the sedimentary islands, and volcanic cones abound in the northern islands. The archipelago curves southwest as it first leaves Alaska's mainland, but curves back up at the tip as is typical of volcanic island chains. The Aleutian coastline is craggy and eroded; sea cliffs rise sharply into mountains. Landings can be perilous, the stuff of adventure novels.

Climate

If you have never traveled Alaska's expanse, it is difficult to fathom the enormity of the state; were it divided into two pieces, each would be larger than Texas. The state's 586,000 square miles span several climate zones. Travelers to the Aleutians do not experience the intense cold known in central Alaska where temperatures regularly dip below minus 50 degrees Fahrenheit. The entire area is in the maritime climate zone, with about 2 feet of rain every year. Temperatures average 45 to 65 degrees Fahrenheit in summer, 10 to 35 degrees in winter. Wind and fog reign unfettered, however, especially in the regions that face the Bering Sea, where winter storms may rage to 100 mph.

Wildlife and Flora

Although the Aleutians landmass once was home to giant sequoias, that was 11 million to 25 million years ago. In modern times, wind and harsh conditions keep the tree population small and stunted. The only trees present on the islands are shrubby willows and a few dozen conifers that remain from the thousands planted on the island by Russians in the 1800s and later by the United States. The sole forest in the Aleutians, the Adak National Forest, consists of 33 trees, none over 17 feet tall. Instead, visitors find lush, herbaceous meadows and thick peat near the coast. The wildlife supported by the ecosystem is astonishing in range and diversity. The Aleutians are the nation's premier seabird nesting refuge, with seabird colonies of global importance. Some 3 million seabirds breed in the islands, including the puffin. Mammals like sea otters, sea lions and harbor seals frequent the island waters that are also home to fish like salmon, halibut, cod, herring, perch, sand lance, sablefish, yellow fin sole and pollock.

Tags: Aleutian Islands, Alaska southwest, Bering from, bridge over, degrees Fahrenheit