Top American Universities In Physics

Physicists seek to understand the nature of the universe.

Finding a top-rated physics program can be a daunting task. U.S. News and World Report ranks schools according to a number of criteria, the most important of which is surveys completed by prominent faculty members and physicists working in the field. Research funding, awards and research facilities are also important criteria. There are a number of universities that can be considered among the best in the nation. These schools were chosen based on U.S. News and World Report rankings for 2008.

California Institute of Technology

The California Institute of Technology (Cal Tech) is one of the most prominent and productive physics programs in the nation. According to a Reed College study, Cal Tech outproduced all other physics programs from 1995 to 2004 in the number of doctoral degrees in physics granted. Cal Tech was also rated the third best physics program in the nation by U.S. News and World Report for 2008. Cal Tech is known for its interdisciplinary approach to research and offers degree concentrations in the areas of plasma research, computational physics, nanostructured materials, biophysics and along with gas and fluid mechanics. Cal Tech offers students a unique opportunity for study because of its collaboration with NASA's Jet Propulsion Lab.

California Institute of Technology

1200 E. California Blvd.

Pasadena, CA 91125

(626) 395-6811

pma.caltech.edu

Stanford University

Founded in 1891, the Stanford University Physics Department was among the first departments at the university. Stanford rated second among all physics programs nationwide for 2008 according to the U.S. News rankings. According to the departmental website, the faculty "includes five Nobel Laureates, fifteen members of the National Academy of Science and nine members of the National Academy of Engineering." Stanford's physics department is known for its interdisciplinary approach to research. At the undergraduate level students can either major or minor in physics, but also have the option of pursuing a B.S. in physical science or a B.A. degree in teaching physical science. Graduate degree programs are what has earned Stanford its fame. Students are allowed to pursue research in nearly any area of interest so long as it is done under the direction of a faculty adviser. Major areas of emphasis include quantum mechanics, low temperature physics, astrophysics and condensed matter physics. Stanford is the home of eight prominent research centers including the Stanford Institute for Theoretical Physics and the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center.

Stanford University Physics Department

Main Office, Varian Physics room 108

382 Via Pueblo Mall

Stanford, CA 94305-4060

(650) 723-4344

stanford.edu

M.I.T.

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is generally one of the first programs to come to mind when listing top physics programs. U.S. News and World Report rated MIT as the top-rated physics program in the United States. MIT continually makes lasting contributions in the fields of plasma physics, nuclear and particle physics, condensed matter, astrophysics and atomic physics. MIT is also known for its interdisciplinary approach to the field of physics that allows students to pursue nearly any area of research they desire. The university is renowned for its faculty members who are leaders in the academic community. The university as a whole is heavily imbued with the study of physics, as seen in the fact that all students, regardless of major, are required to take at least two semesters of physics in order to graduate.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Department of Physics, 4-315

77 Massachusetts Ave.

Cambridge, MA 02139-4307

(617) 253-4841

web.mit.edu/physics

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Geology Phd Programs

Top Schools in Geology

While there are a limited number of schools offering a PhD program in geology, choosing the best one is an important when considering where to apply. While location and costs are important considerations, selecting the strongest programs will help you no matter if you want to go into teaching, field work or research once you graduate.

University of Arizona

According to U.S. News and World Report, The University of Arizona offers the best PhD program in geology in the country. The University's four year, research based program is designed for students who want to work in either industry, academia or for the government. According to the school's Department of Geosciences, most students will get financial help in the form of assistantships or fellowships. PhD students at the University of Arizona are required to complete not only 63 units of study and a comprehensive exam, but also write and defend a dissertation

University of Arizona

Department of Geosciences

1040 E. Fourth Street

Tucson, AZ 85721

520-621-6004

geo.arizona.edu

University of Michigan--Ann Arbor

The University of Michigan--Ann Arbor is also one of the country's best schools for a PhD in geology. According to the school's site, they seek students who are highly motivated, can work independently and come from a strong scientific background. While coursework is required, the University stresses the research component of the degree. Past projects have included research on magma, tectonic plate movement and the history of sedimentary basins. Students at the University of Michigan--Ann Arbor are also required to sit for a comprehensive final exam as well as write and defend a dissertation.

University of Michigan--Ann Arbor

Department of Geological Sciences

1100 N. University Avenue

Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1005

734-764-1435

lsa.umich.edu

Penn State University

Penn State's Department of Geosciences, established in 1913, is another top place to get your PhD in geology, according to U.S. News and World Report. It is home to close to 50 faculty members and enrolls about 100 graduate students at one time. The school has a specialty in the study of ore, as well as numerous other sub specialties in other areas of geology. According to the school's site, the PhD program usually takes four years to complete.

Pennsylvania State University--University Park

Department of Geosciences

507 Deike Building

University Park, PA 16802

814-865-7394

geosc.psu.edu

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What Is A Chevron Rock

Some rocks seen in cliffs display chevrons, as pictured here. Unlike this image, the "Vs" point sideways in such rocks.

Rocks that display a chevron or herringbone pattern are a geological feature called chevron (or herringbone) cross bedding. The name comes from their appearance, which resembles a row of chevrons lying on their side. Such layers are usually several inches thick.

Appearance

Chevron cross bedding typically occurs in a layer several inches thick, and it is not uncommon to see several such layers in a cliff face. The bedding looks like a large number of thin, V-shaped structures all stacked together and then laid sideways. The alternate name, "herringbone cross bedding," describes the resemblance to the ribs of a fish skeleton.

Origin

Chevron cross beds occur when sand and similar-sized grains are transported by a medium that alternates between two opposing directions. The direction of transport is the direction of slope on tiny layers of sand that make the V shapes.

Interpretation

Geologists believe chevron cross beds are most commonly deposited in tidal environments. The regular ebb and flow of tides creates the reversal of flow direction needed to deposit this sedimentary structure. Some larger cross bed deposits are deposited by wind, but these are less common.

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The Disadvantages Of Nonconventional Sources Of Energy

Corn based ethanol has driven up the price of food.

For all their ecofriendliness or usefulness in niche applications, non conventional sources of energy face an uphill battle for success in the marketplace. Established energy sources such as coal and gasoline have their downsides, but they are economical, widely available and simple to use. They enjoy technical advantages over non conventional energy sources. Acceptance of new energy technologies takes decades, even when they have clear cut benefits (Reference 1, Page 3).

Cost

Some unusual devices cannot run on conventional energy and require a specialized power source. For example, a deep space probe may need electricity for several decades. Chemical batteries do not have enough capacity, and the probe travels too far from the sun for solar panels. The spacecraft's designers justify the high cost of a nuclear battery, as it fulfills the needs of the project and they have a multimillion dollar budget. You will likely never see nuclear battery powered TV sets or refrigerators, however, as the cost would be too high.

Low Energy Density

Environmentalists tout solar and wind power as they are renewable energy sources, and they produce no greenhouse gases. A solar or wind plant, however, produces a smaller amount of power per acre than a coal fired or nuclear plant. Full sunlight on a bright day delivers about 1,000 watts per square meter, less than a tenth the energy density of a frying pan. As solar harvesting technologies run 10 to 30 percent efficient, the 1,000 watt figure drops to about 200 watts. To make up for this, the solar plant must occupy a larger area. This means a solar plant must locate to a relatively rural area where land costs are cheap.

Economics

In the U.S., refineries mix gasoline with corn based ethanol to increase the amount of the mixture. Since the ethanol is renewable and the gasoline is not, the mixture conserves gasoline. Because farmers grow the corn locally, this reduces the need to import oil from foreign sources. Unfortunately, diverting some of the farmer's production has the effect of raising the price of corn for food. corn products find their way into many processed foods, so the price increase has been widespread.

Technology

Non conventional sources of energy can be technically immature compared to conventional sources. A hydrogen powered car, for example, must store its fuel as a compressed gas or in a material that releases hydrogen as you drive. Energy companies have not settled on a standard way to package hydrogen, so the design of cars and filling stations depends on the car maker. Although clear standards eventually emerge, early adopters risk losing out if their system does not prevail.

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Usgs Monuments

Many USGS monuments pay tribute to volcanoes or past volcanic activity.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) observes and researches the geologic activity and history at many U.S. national parks and monuments. Many of these monuments make excellent travel destinations for individuals interested in geology, nature, and U.S. history.

Craters of the Moon National Monument

Volcanic lava flows created Craters of the Moon National Monument in Idaho approximately 2,000 years ago, according to the USGS. The monument encompasses three black lava fields and their surrounding grasslands. According to the USGS, the monument has a 7-mile loop at its north end that visitors can drive along. It also offers lots of hiking. The lava at Craters of the Moon spans 618 square miles and has more than 25 volcanic cones.

Cascade-Siskiyou National Monument

The Cascade-Siskiyou National Monument sits in the middle of the Cascade, Siskiyou, and Klamath mountain ranges in Oregon. According to the USGS, the monument contains lots of ecologic diversity and a very rugged landscape. The monument area also contains Pilot Rock, the interior of a very old volcano whose exterior eroded away. The area around Pilot Rock contains interesting fossils formed when organisms became trapped in volcanic ash millions of years ago.

John Day Fossil Beds National Monument

As the John Day River in Oregon flowed along volcanic deposits, it eroded the deposits and exposed interesting fossils. The monument displays fossils from over 40 million years of the Cenozoic Era. It spans 14,000 acres and has three separate locations along the river. Volcanic ash produced colorful layers of deposits and also created rich soils that support grasses and hardwood forests.

Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument

Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument is a volcanic scoria cone in Arizona. The monument contains one of the youngest of its type of volcanic cones in the continental U.S. An eruption formed the cone sometime around the year 1250 C.E., according to the USGS. The monument got its name because of the sunset-like red and orange colors on the cone's summit.

Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument

Mount St. Helens Volcano erupted for nine hours in May of 1980. According to the U.S. Forest Service, it buried or blew away close to 230 square miles of forest and created a giant cloud of ashes that fell all over Eastern Washington and other surrounding areas. Two years after the eruption, Congress and President Reagan made 110,000 acres of the mountain and its surrounding areas a national monument. The monument allows scientists to observe and research how the environment in the area responds to the eruption naturally over time. Visitors can take in many spectacular views and hiking trails at the monument.

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Georgia Geographical Information

Georgia has many geographical features worth noting.

Georgia is one of the oldest states in the United States, and was the last of the original 13 colonies to be settled. Georgia has a diverse geography that includes mountains, rivers, coastal plains and many other types of landscapes. This is even before looking at cities and other man made structures of note.

Surroundings

Georgia is bordered by five states and one ocean. The southeast part of Georgia borders the Atlantic Ocean, while South Carolina takes up most of the rest of the eastern border. North Carolina borders a small amount of the east and north, while Tennessee takes up the rest of the north. Alabama follows Georgia's entire western border, while Florida makes up the entire southern border.

Regions

There are six Georgia land regions. The Appalachian Plateau is a small strip in the northwestern-most part of the state, and that is surrounded by the Appalachian Ridge & Valley Region. The rest of the north all the way down to about the middle of the state is the Piedmont, which is known for rolling hills. The entire south is considered coastal plain, with the East Gulf Coastal Plain taking up the southwest and the Atlantic Gulf Plain to the southeast. These are the flattest parts of the state.

Climate

The climate in Georgia can vary greatly depending on the area of the state. Most of the state can be classified as a humid sub-tropical climate with mild winters off setting hot and humid summer months. Average yearly precipitation ranges from 40 to 75 inches depending on the area of the state, and the northern areas from the Appalachian Mountains and Blue Ridge Mountains have cool evenings even during the summers.

Mountains

There are two mountain ranges that meet and taper off in northwest Georgia. Both the Appalachian Mountains from the northwest, and the Blue Ridge Mountains from the northeast enter Georgia and taper off into foot hills (Piedmont).

Rivers & Lakes

There are many rivers and lakes that run through the state of Georgia. Most of the large lakes are in the northern part of the state, including Hartwell Lake, Russell Lake, Allatoona Lake, and Lake Sidney Lanier. Some of the major rivers include the Chattanooga River that makes up a good chunk of the western border, and the Chattahoochee River, which runs through Atlanta.

Cities

Atlanta is by far the largest city in Georgia, and sits in the center of the Piedmont Region and slightly towards the west. Going east across the state in the Piedmont leads to the city of Athens, also one of the largest cities in Georgia. Savannah is on the Atlantic Ocean on the southeast coast, while Macon is almost right in the center of the entire state.

Tags: Appalachian Mountains, area state, Atlantic Ocean, Blue Ridge, Blue Ridge Mountains

What Is The Federal Employee Physical Fitness Policy

The federal employee physical fitness policy allows for an on-site facility.

To promote and maintain a healthy employee population, the federal government encourages its agencies to establish and operate physical fitness programs and facilities. The fitness facilities can be on-site, or the agencies can enlist the aid of a private facility.

Government Code

The federal employee physical fitness policy is outlined in the United States Code (5 U.S.C. §7901). The code discusses establishment and/or use of physical fitness programs and facilities to promote an active lifestyle for employees, including supporting flexible work schedules and offices that offer healthy options such as healthy food vending machines.

Funding

Federal agencies can fund their physical fitness programs through their own budget, a combination of employees' fees and agency funding or strictly through employees' fees. The funding source depends on employee needs and the budget of the agency.

Facilities

The code states that the physical fitness program can include an on-site facility or the agency can use a private facility. The code specifies purchase equipment for an on-site facility and states that a private facility must accommodate the needs of all employees, including those with disabilities.

Note

The government does have liability risks associated with using physical fitness programs. Persons sustaining injury can bring claims against the U.S. government under the Federal Employees' Compensation Act (FECA) and the Federal Tort Claims Act.

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School Science Projects

Deciding on the type of science project to create for a school project or science fair can be a very stressful event in a child's life. As parents, guiding children into school science projects that are fun to do as well as educational can encourage a child's love for science. The best method of choosing a school project is to review the various scientific disciplines with your child, such as astronomy, biology, botany, geology, and chemistry, and then find out what area interests them the most.

Astronomy

Astronomy is the study of outer space, and the people who study astronomy are called astronomers. An example of a science project in astronomy would be a study of how the sun revolves around the earth. The project could be called "What Causes Night and Day?" The study of gravity, how stars work, or anything dealing with the planets in our galaxy are other excellent projects to consider.

Biology

Biology is the study of living things. People who study living things are called biologists. Zoology, which is the study of animals, is a branch of biology. Human anatomy, genetics, and wild life studies all make excellent science projects. A very simple biology project is to set up a bird feeder and research the animals that come to feed from it.

Botany

A botanist is a person who studies of plant life. Some excellent projects ideas in botany can include the identification and the growth of plants. A simple science project is to take a stalk of celery, a teaspoon of red food dye, and a glass of water to show how plants take water from their roots to their leaves.

Geology

Geologist study the earth. Popular science projects in geology include rock identification, studying earthquakes, and building volcanoes. Here is an example of a quick geology science project that shows how acid rain effects erosion. Kids will need to mix a glass of water, a piece of chalk and ½ cup white vinegar together. Chalk is made from limestone rock, so this project offers a very graphic example of how acidic water breaks down rock over time.

Chemistry

The most basic definition of chemistry is the study of materials. Chemists study different materials to see how they react to other materials, or they combine materials to created new items. Some examples of what chemists can create are ice cream flavors, medicines, and plastics. An easy project for kids is to use lemon juice to make a penny shiny again. Drop the penny into a small glass of lemon juice for 5 minutes and see what happens.

Age Appropriate

Once a child chooses the discipline focus of their project, then it is just a matter of searching for the most age-appropriate science project. Parent will find that many museums, internet sites, books, and stores offer ideas, science kits, and supplies for just about any science project idea.

Tags: science project, excellent projects, glass water, lemon juice, living things, materials they

Fossil Facts

Most of the Earth's surface is covered by a thin veneer of sediment, which preserves the vestiges of past life. Under special geologic conditions, with minimal decomposition and rapid burial, the bodies of dead organisms can be preserved and withstand the rigors of time.

Fossil Family Tree

Fossils of extinct organisms are classified by the same system used for classifying living organisms. The first classification scheme was developed by the 18th-century Swedish botanist Carl von Linné, better known by his Latinized name Carolus Linnaeus. He gave Latin names to organisms because Latin was the universal language of science during his time. His naming was based on the number of characteristics organisms had in common.

Linnaeus realized that some organisms had a greater similarity than others because they were more closely related. Later, as evolution was recognized as the process by which organisms develop into new species, and by examination of fossils, classification schemes were developed to describe these evolutionary patterns, demonstrating how groups of organisms were related in both space and time.

In the classification scheme used by biologists and paleontologists, each organism is assigned an italicized two-part species name. The first word, which is capitalized, is the generic name and is shared with other very closely related species. The second word, written in lowercase, is the species name and is unique to a particular genus: for example, Homo sapiens, which is who we are, as distinct from Homo habilis, our extinct relative known only from the fossil record.

Sedimentary Conditions

Sedimentary rocks are encountered more frequently than any other rock type. The sedimentary environment provides the conditions necessary for the preservation of fossils. The constant shifting of sediments on the surface and the accumulation of deposits on the ocean floor assure that the face of the Earth will continue to change with time, while preserving ancient sedimentary layers.

Fossils of extinct organisms can be found in most sedimentary rocks, especially limestones and shales. Outcrops of marine sediments are generally the best sites for prospecting for fossils. In most parts of the world, the central portions of the continents were inundated during various times in the geologic past, and thick deposits of marine sediments accumulated in the basins of inland seas. When the seas departed and the land was uplifted, erosion exposed many of these marine sediments.

Fossil Preservation

Plants and animals must be buried under certain specific conditions to become fossilized. Given enough time, the remains of an organism are modified, often becoming petrified, literally turned to stone.

The story of ancient life is written in the fossil record of extinct organisms, which leave their epitaphs inscribed on stone. The term fossil comes from the Latin fossilis, meaning "to dig," as paleontologists and amateur fossil hunters often have to do to find them. The rarest as well as the most interesting fossils are the actual remains of organisms, which include bones, shells, and other well-preserved body parts.

Fossils are formed in a variety of ways under different environmental conditions. In rare circumstances, the complete animal is preserved. More frequently, the durable parts of the organism are preserved in a relatively unaltered condition. But mostly, fossils are extensively altered so that little of the original material remains, although the shapes and textures are recognizable. The greatest number of fossils comprise not the remains of organisms themselves but indirect evidence of their existence in preserved tracks, trails, burrows and imprints.

Tracks and Trails

The bones of extinct animals are much rarer than their footprints, and many animals are known only by their tracks. The formation of clear foot impressions requires a moist, fine-grained and cohesive sediment bed for the animal to walk on. If the animal walks slowly, it will leave a detailed impression of its feet. Even clear outlines of claws or nails, the shape of the footpad, and the pattern of scales can be discerned.

Unfortunately, few such high-quality fossil footprints are found, and most are partially destroyed during the sedimentary process that buries and preserves them. The most favorable conditions for the preservation of footprints exist after high tide waters have receded, when the tracks are allowed to dry and harden and eventually fill with a different type of sediment. The weight of the animal is also important; large animals, such as dinosaurs, leave deeper tracks that are less readily destroyed and more likely to be preserved.

Plants

In the plant kingdom, the thallophytes include algae, fungi and lichens. They have a soft, nonwoody structure that lacks a vascular circulatory system and grow in or near water or in moist places. Only algae possess chlorophyll, which enables them to manufacture their own energy from water, carbon dioxide and sunlight. The thallophytes generally reproduce by the fusion of male and female single-celled gametes. The earliest fossils are one-celled bacteria and blue-green algae in Precambrian rocks.

Fungi and lichens comprise as many as 100,000 living species. The bryophytes, including mosses and liverworts, were the first plant phylum to become well established on land. They have stems and simple leaves but lack true roots or vascular tissues to conduct water to the higher extremities and therefore are required to live in moist environments. They reproduce by spores that are carried by the wind for wide distribution. The earliest species occupied freshwater lakes in the late Precambrian. Because of their dominance over vast periods of time, many fossil imprints of these early plants have survived.

Tags: extinct organisms, marine sediments, classification scheme, closely related, fossil record, Fossils extinct

Interesting Facts About Sapphires

Sapphires are available in a variety of colors.

Sapphires, a form of the corundum stone, are rare gemstones. Traditionally, we associate the blue variety of the stone with September birthdays. But sapphires in their many color variations have held significance for centuries.

Color

The color most associated with sapphires is a deep blue. While blue remains the most common color, sapphires are available in almost every color, including purple, white or colorless, pink, yellow, orange, green and brown. The exception is the red variety of corundum, which, according to the American Gem Trade Association, are actually rubies.

Rare Star

Some sapphires, known as star sapphires, feature a property known as asterism, allowing them to produce the optical effect of a 6- or 12-pointed star if they are specially cut, according to "The Mineral and Gemstone Kingdom."

Blue Rush

The United States' Geological Survey (USGS) reports that the first American sapphires were located in 1865 in Montana. One variety of these sapphires, known as Yogos because they were found in Yogo Gulch, has uniform clarity and a corn-flower blue color that occurs naturally, without the heating process used to deepen the blue color of other commercial sapphires.

Ancient History

For centuries, sapphires have been associated with wisdom, fidelity and purity, making them popular in engagement, anniversary, and spiritual jewelry. According to "Valuable Stones," sapphires have historically been worn by royalty and priests because they were believed to protect the wearer from physical harm and envy. Ancient civilizations, including the Persians, believed that the Earth was upheld by a sapphire whose reflection made the sky blue.

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Uses Of Landforms

Landforms have many uses.

A landform is a broad term referring to a geological feature on the earth's surface, such as mountains, tors (vertical crags of rock), plains, hills and valleys. Landforms are usually formed over thousands of years, by movement of the earth's plates and/or by erosion . Landforms can be found throughout the world and can be used for a variety of practical and recreational purposes. As landforms are natural features their use is often restricted by heritage or Government organizations. Check with the relevant authorities before harnessing a landform for personal or business use.

Mapping

Landform, or topographic, maps are an important tool for geographers and cartographers (map makers). These maps use elevations and physical features as cartographic tools to distinguish locations, particularly in rural settings with few towns or villages. Typically, contour lines are used to distinguish the height and location of landforms which then form the basis for navigation. These maps can be two or three dimensional and are drawn at a variety of scales, typically 1:24,000. They can be used by backpackers and hikers to navigate across the countryside as well as by property developers to avoid natural hazards and determine the appropriate location for new settlements and dwellings. They can also be used by fisherman and hunters to locate remote drainage areas.

Adventure Tourism

The size and geological formation of landforms, such as volcanoes and tors, make them a popular adventure tourist destination. Hiking trips and adventure challenges are often based around landforms, such as the Three Peaks Challenge in the United Kingdom, where you have to trek to the top of three landforms. Rock climbing up, or abseiling down landforms is another popular activity and, for the more adventurous, some tour companies offer potholing and caving trips. For all of these activities it is best to start with beginner level programs, before progressing to more complex and dangerous landforms.

Renewable Energy

Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source obtained from hot rocks deep underground. Landforms, particularly volcanoes, are key sources of geothermal energy and so landforms, and the areas surrounding them, are often harnessed for electricity and hot water production. Another renewable energy source, wind power, can be harnessed using farms built in elevated areas. Landforms are often in the ideal location for these wind farms as they are in remote, windswept locations at high altitude. Renewable energy, unlike coal, oil and gas, is made from resources that occur naturally and so will not run out or pollute the atmosphere.

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Elementary Science Activities And Demonstrations

Science activities can put geologic time scales in perspective.

Science activities and demonstrations engage students in ways that textbooks just can't match. Elementary students are enthusiastic participants in science activities, whether they are performing the experiment or watching it as a member of the audience. The most important role of the science teacher is to get them involved and thinking about science.

Geologic Time Activity

The large numbers used when talking about geologic time often means that students really don't quite comprehend the extent of billions of years. Teachers can aid comprehension by using a model that is familiar to most students. A football field works well because of its familiarity and the 100-yard length is easy to work with. Divide 4.6 billion years (Earth's age) by 100. Each yard on the football field is equal to 46 million years, and a 10-yard section of the field is equal to 460 million years. Draw a football field on a large piece of paper, or even make a bulletin board into a football field. Begin the time scale at 4.6 billion on the left of the paper, and mark off 10-yard sections with vertical lines. Draw horizontal lines to show geologic eras on the field, starting on the left with the Hadean Era (4,600 to 3,800 million years ago), followed by the Archaean Era (3,800 to 2,500 million years ago), the Proterozoic Era (2,500 to 543 million years ago), the Paleozoic Era (543 to 248 million years ago), the Mesozoic Era (248 to 65 million years ago), and the Cenozoic Era (65 million years ago to present). Students now have a better idea of the geologic time scale. The eras can be split into periods in order to be more detailed. Students finish the activity by placing events on the time line. Students can research each era and find important events to add to the time line. Two examples are first microscopic life (3,600 million years ago) and the disappearance of the dinosaurs (65 million years ago). Students place these events on the time line with a paragraph explaining the event.

Collapsing Can Demonstration

This demonstration is designed for students to learn the importance of observational techniques and air pressure. Materials include an empty, undented can; a bowl of cold water; a heat source; a dark cardboard background; and tongs. The dark background allows students to see the steam from the boiling water. Tell students to carefully watch and document everything that happens in the demonstration. Place one tablespoon of water in the can, and heat it until it boils and steam appears. Take the can off the heat with the tongs, and carefully (so as not to burn youself) invert it into the bowl of cold water. The can will immediately collapse. Instruct students to write their key question and offer a hypothesis as to why the can collapsed. Test several of these. If the students do not realize that the can collapsed because of pressure differences inside and outside the can, they can research this demonstration and find the answer.

Dancing Raisins

Students learn about the fizz in soda and why objects heavier than water can float. Materials include fresh raisins; a tall, clear glass; and a can of colorless soda. Pour the soda into the glass. Bubbles rise to the surface. These come from the carbon dioxide gas released from the soda. Drop six raisins into the glass. They will sink to the bottom. After a few minutes, they should begin to rise. This is because the soda is carbonated and releases carbon dioxide bubbles. The bubbles will stick to the rough surface of the raisin and lift it because of an increase in buoyancy. When the raisin reaches the top, the bubble will burst, and the raisin will sink back down. It should rise again as a carbon dioxide bubble attaches to it. This will continue until the carbon dioxide is expended or the raisin becomes saturated with liquid and thus too heavy to rise. Have students try this activity with several other substances; some with rough surfaces and some with smooth surfaces. Have them record their activities. After they finish, ask them to explain why the raisins rise to the surface. Provide research material so that they can find the answer to this question.

Tags: million years, carbon dioxide, football field, events time, events time line

What Types Of Rocks Come From Quarries

Quarried marble is a popular material choice for kitchen countertops.

Natural quarried stone is any stone which is extracted from non-tunneling underground or surface quarries which gradually causes the pit-shape of the quarry to widen and deepen with each stone resource extraction. Quarries often fill with water, from either rain collection or from the passing of the groundwater table during extraction, which then must be pumped out. The three main types of rocks which are commonly extracted by a quarrying method are igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary types of stone. These stones are quarried for various purposes including to be used as building materials or to gather and separate out any valuable constituent minerals.

The Quarry Industry in the United States

Natural stone quarries can be found throughout the United States, especially in the New England, Midwest, Gulf Coastal South and Far West regions. Limestone gravel and decorative marble for building is extracted from quarries in Northern California, Alabama and Louisiana. Pink granite resources abound in the New England states of Vermont and Maine while gray and blue granite is quarried in the southern states of Georgia and Kentucky. Midwestern states, such as Iowa and Missouri, are known for limestone deposits and Ozark sandstone quarries.

Quarried Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks form through Earth's geological sedimentary processes which layer and compact its surface materials of dead vegetation, mud, sand and decomposed organic organisms into hardened rock form. These rocks include limestone, which is often used for gravel and construction, and the chalk used in classrooms and by athletes. Coal is quarried in open pits instead of traditional tunnel mining in some areas of West Virginia. Sandstone and iron ore are quarried for industrial usage. Sodium chloride, known as rock salt, is extracted from quarries for water softening, aquarium use, and food preservation, while chemically treated rock salt is prepared for winter road treatments.

Quarried Metamorphic Rock

Metamorphic rock varieties providing industrial resources valuable enough to be quarried are sedimentary rocks transformed by extensive depth and heat located further into the Earth's crust. Newly created minerals are caused by the extra pressure and heat change effect upon sedimentary ingredients. Marble is a metamorphosed limestone commonly quarried for use in construction and home building. Quartzite, a transformed sandstone, is another popular building material for counter tops and for outdoor decorative fixtures because of its ability to weather well. Slate is quarried for road building material and gneiss was a popular quarry stone used by upper Midwestern settlers and ancient Egyptian dynastic builders.

Quarried Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks extracted through open pit quarries are the oldest and deepest stone resources which erosion and time have uncovered. They form by the fiery volcanic processes of heating and cooling lava or deep magma. Granite is a quarried igneous rock in the United States demanded for its extremely hard and long-lasting building qualities. Many Eastern European castles and large eastern American colonial estate houses were built from quarried basalt. Pegmatite is a valuable igneous rock found in Sierra Mountain areas with a high density of created mineral components, such as mica, silica and rare metals.

Tags: extracted from, United States, building material, extracted from quarries, from quarries

Why Do We Study Fossils

Why Do We Study Fossils?

Paleontology, or the study of fossils, is an important part of your child's education. Fossils can create interest in science and the skills needed to succeed in the sciences, while providing an interesting subject for math and literacy instruction.

Scientific Knowledge

The fossil record, a kind of catalog of existing fossils, gives us a picture of evolution by showing the incremental changes in species throughout time, and helps students understand the immensity of geological time.

Scientific Skills

Students learn to find patterns in the fossil record, and use these observations to create theories or hypotheses about where fossils came from, and what we can learn from them. This can start them on the road to using the scientific method to test theories and can possibly create an interest that will lead to a career in science.

Links to Literacy and Math

Students are often interested in fossils, and this interest can help nudge reluctant readers into extracurricular reading on the subject, as well as encourage them to participate in classroom reading assignments more fully because they are about fossils. Similarly, the interest may be used to incite enthusiasm for story problems in math that are built around fossils and related subjects.

National Science Standards

The study of fossils helps fulfill the National Science Standards study of Earth science, which includes an understanding of Earth's history and changes in Earth through time, as well as evolution. It allows for content with which to practice the scientific method of inquiry, also required in the National Science Standards.

Possible Activities

Even very young children can begin to explore fossils, especially enjoying dinosaur fossils. They can also learn more about how fossils are made be creating plaster or clay fossils.

Tags: National Science, National Science Standards, Science Standards, about fossils, create interest, fossil record

Make A Clay Landform For A Project

Creating models of landforms helps kids understand geography.

Creating a clay landform helps kids learn about the earth's landscapes in a hands-on way. This project allows them to learn geography visually in three-dimensional form and gain knowledge about the shapes and purposes of each landform that they may otherwise be unable to grasp from reading in a textbook. No artistic experience is needed to create this display that will help children learn about and appreciate the physical features of the earth.

Instructions

1. Provide each child with at least three colors of clay, a jelly roll tray with at least a 1-inch lip along each edge and a printed picture of the different types of landforms. Ask the children to soften the clay by working it with their hands to make it more pliable.

2. Ask each child to choose which three landforms they'd like to sculpt. Examples include mountains, volcanoes, plateaus and islands. A volcano can be created by the child pushing the clay upwards in the tray into the shape of a triangle and then using her finger to push down a hole in the middle. To make a mountain or plateau, have them press a long clay strip into the tray and then form peaks, pointy for mountains or flat on top for plateaus.

For an island, kids can press a small ball of clay to create an oblong shape.

3. Set aside each of the kid's landform projects overnight so the clay can harden. Then allow each child to use the soil, sand or grass he brought from home to decorate his landform using craft glue. Let the glue dry completely, then add water to the tray to create ponds or rivers.

Tags: each child, each landform, helps kids, learn about, with least

Colleges For Paleontology In Ohio

Evolution, ecology and systematics are a few of the disciplines paleontologists must be trained in.

Paleontology at the collegiate level in Ohio is offered through geology and Earth science departments of top schools. Students of the discipline incorporate courses from a number of fields in order to develop the ability to read the history of the earth in fossils as diverse as a Tyrannosaurus rex skull and a petrified tree trunk. Paleontologists also study energy resources like coal and oil, which are derived from fossils, hence the name fossil fuels.

Ohio State University

The School of Earth Science at Ohio State University is consistently ranked as one of the top places to study paleontology in the United States. Though the school doesn't have a division specifically for the discipline, classes in paleontology are offered through the division of Earth history at both the graduate and undergraduate level. Research opportunities in paleontology at Ohio State University include paleontologic preparation and other forms of geochemical analysis.

OSU School of Earth Sciences

275 Mendenhall Laboratory

125 South Oval Mall

Columbus, OH 43210

614-292-2721

geology.ohio-state.edu

University of Cincinnati

The Department of Geology at the University of Cincinnati offers studies in paleontology at the bachelor, master, and doctorate levels. Paleontology studies at the school focus on paleobiology and evolutionary paleoecology. Like subjects offered by the interdisciplinary department include quaternary geology, geomorphology and tectonics. Faculty at the department published more than 100 research papers between 2008 and 2010. The University of Cincinnati graduate program in geology prepares students to enter doctorate programs, teach geosciences, or work in the field, as per individual preference.

Department of Geology

102 McMicken Hall, PO Box 210037

Cincinnati, OH 45221

513-556-3732

artsci.uc.edu/geology

Ohio University

Ohio University offers studies in paleontology at the graduate and undergraduate levels. The paleontology program at the school is spread through three disciplines, and as such a specific paleontology degree does not exist. Rather, Ohio University awards graduate and undergraduate degrees in environmental and plant biology, biological sciences and geological sciences with an emphasis in paleontology. Paleontology courses available at Ohio University include paleobiogeography, ichthyology and plant biology. Research opportunities are available in paleoecology and paleoclimatology, taphonomy and systematics and phylogenetics.

Ohio University

1 Park Place Drive

Athens, OH 45701-2979

740-593-1000

ohio.edu

Tags: Ohio University, graduate undergraduate, Ohio State, Ohio State University, State University, University Cincinnati

What Are The Landforms That The Mayans Lived On Or Nearby

Mayan territory included many different types of landforms.

Between 200 and 900 A.D., Mayan civilization spread throughout Mesoamerica and included parts of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize and El Salvador. Because of this wide spread, Mayan territory spanned a range of climates, topography and landforms. From the tropical rainforests of Honduras to the highlands of Guatemala, Mayans developed their own dialects, culture and agriculture that reflected the landforms and lifestyle of their area.

Lowlands and Jungles

The most significant development of Mayan civilization occurred in the lowlands and jungles of Guatemala and Honduras. In the drainage basin of the central region, cities such as Tikal and Copan arose. This seems counterintuitive, given that while a tropical rainforest appears lush and dense, the soil beneath it harbors few nutrients. The Mayans practiced agriculture over vast sections of the rainforest, using "slash and burn" techniques that further depleted the soil and ravaged the topography. Despite the intensive labor, area farms probably supported no more than 30 people per square mile.

Highlands and Plains

The northern Yucatan peninsula consists of dry scrubland and little water. When the Mayans abandoned lowland cities such as Tikal and Copan, some of them migrated to the Yucatan. Cities such as Chichen Itza and Uxmal saw populations increase, as the immigrants adapted to the new environment. In the Guatamalan highlands, volcanoes grace the landscape and provide rich soil for farming. Atitlan, a volcano that gives its name to a lake, stands at 11,600 feet while its volcanic neighbor, Toliman, stands at 10,282 feet. During the Spanish conquest, conquistadors defeated the Tzutujils, a Mayan offshoot, in the shadow of these volcanoes.

Important Waterways

About an hour's drive from the ruins of Tikal, near the modern-day town of Flores, stands Lago De Peten Itza, or Lake Peten Itza. It earned its name from the Itzas, a Mayan group who populated the area. The lake measures a little over 3 miles wide by about 20 miles long and has a depth of 541 feet. As the deepest lake in the Central American lowlands, it is the subject of scientific study.

Other important waterways include Lake Atitlan, in the Guatemalan highlands, Rio Panuco, which flows into the Gulf of Mexico, and Rio Usumacinta, which crosses both Mexico and Guatemala.

Mountain Ranges

The Sierra Madre Mountains run north and south along the borders of Mexico. The Sierra Madre Oriental range spans the eastern edge of the Mexican plateau, an area of dry scrubland. Notable mountains in this range include Cerro San Raphael and Sierra de la Marta.

The Sierra Madre Occidental range runs along the Pacific coast of Mexico and harbors steep canyons and sheer rock faces. Copper Canyon, which is deeper than the Grand Canyon of Arizona, comprises a series of canyons lying in the Mexican state of Chihuahua. The Sierra Madre del Sur mountain range, lying in southern Mexico at the western edge of Mayan territory, boasts high-elevation pine forests.

Tags: Sierra Madre, Mayan territory, cities such, cities such Tikal, Guatemala Honduras

About Moonstones

Moonstone is also known as selenite ("selene" means "moon" in Greek). It is one of the birthstones for June. Moonstones' variety of colors, pearly sheen and mystical properties make them versatile and desirable, especially as jewelry. Moonstones are found on most continents, making them abundant enough to meet demands.

Types

Moonstones belong to the feldspar group, the largest group in the earth's crust. Moonstones are either of the orthoclase feldspar (adularia) subgroup or the plagioclase feldspar (peristerite) subgroup. Moonstones come in a variety of colors, such as grey, brown, yellow, pale orange, peach, red, pink, green and blue. The rarest and most valuable moonstones are clear and colorless, with a hint of blue shine.

Features

Moonstones are named because their sheen is similar to moonlight. In 100 A.D., Romans thought the rock was actually made with moonlight. Moonstones' three-dimensional depth of color is called either adularescence (if the moonstone is from the orthoclase feldspar group) or peristerescence (if the moonstone is from the plagioclase feldspar group). The layering of all moonstones causes the light to refract repeatedly inside the stone and gives the stone its iridescent quality.

Geography

Moonstones can be found all over the world, but for higher-quality moonstones, many go to Sri Lanka. Mined from the earth where orthoclase and plagioclase layers are most abundant, moonstones can be found in irregular shapes among other gems, gravel and clay debris. Other countries where they can be found include India, Madagascar, Australia, Brazil, Mexico, Switzerland, Tanzania, Myanmar, Russia and even parts of the United States.

Mystical Properties

Moonstones have been used for many metaphysical and healing purposes for a long time. One use is for protection. Sailors would carry moonstones to be safe at sea, and travelers would carry them to be safe on land. A second use is for increasing psychic abilities and inducing lucid dreaming. Third, moonstones are said to contain feminine energy, helping people to get in touch with their emotions and intuition. Healing is the fourth use, especially for issues related to female fertility, menstrual irregularities and body imbalances. Moonstones are said to be at their peak power during the full and waxing periods of the moon.

Refining

Unpolished moonstones look ordinary and have little of the captivating qualities of those found at the jewelry store. Once moonstones are cut and polished into shapes such as cabachon, where the bottom is flat and the top of the stone is dome-shaped, their quality and shine come through. Moonstones have a hardness of 6 on the Mohs scale, which is considered slightly hard but not as hard as a steel file, so they should be handled with care to avoid possible damage. Because of this relative softness, minor surface scratches can be easily polished out, restoring the stone back to its pearly luster.

Past Uses

The Moonstone Temple of Anuradhapura, a former capitol city of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), built around 100 B.C., featured elaborate steps with inlaid moonstones. These steps were of significance to Buddhism in its relationship to enlightenment. But the moonstones once there were said to have been looted throughout the centuries after India invaded in 933 A.D. Moonstones were very popular during the Art Nouveau period at the turn of the 20th century, when they were used widely in jewelry. One piece in particular was the tiara of turquoise, moonstone and diamond that the last Grand Duke of Hesse gave to his second wife. The tiara is now displayed at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.

Tags: feldspar group, have been, moonstone from, Moonstones have, orthoclase feldspar, plagioclase feldspar, variety colors

The History Of Irrigation Systems

The invention of agriculture led to the development of irrigation

The growth of irrigation historically accompanies the development of agriculture. As formerly nomadic people coalesced to form communities, they discovered that plants could be sown, cultivated and harvested seasonally. Thus did farming develop. And fields grew in size when the farmers realized they could divert water from streams and rivers to irrigate their crops.

Early Irrigation

The first attempts at irrigation occurred at the same time agriculture was being developed, about 5,000 years ago. This was typically a simple form of flood irrigation, where channels or furrows were dug in fields and water flooded into them either by hand or with a bucket. This was a labor-intensive, inefficient form of irrigation.

Egypt & Mesopotamia

Egyptians used passive irrigation methods 4,000 years. Irrigation was dependent on a source of water which could vary in availability. Egypt's entire agricultural system was based on exploiting the annual flooding of the Nile River. Water was diverted directly into fields to water crops and to deposit nutrient-rich silt. This is also known as "surface" irrigation. Both the Mesopotamians and Egyptians divided fields into individual basins, allowing irrigation water to flood them. They also used buckets to irrigate if water levels from rivers were too low to flow into fields.

Asia

Traditional methods in China 2,000 years ago involved surface irrigation, with water diverted from rivers. The Chinese also built canals to funnel larger volumes of water to fields at some distance away. As the main cereal crop was rice, field flooding was important for rice germination. During the 9th and 14th Centuries the city of Angkor Wat, in what is now Cambodia, made use of an intricate, large-scale system of canals, ponds and reservoirs for irrigation and water storage.

Europe

The first incidence of large-scale irrigation in Western Europe dates to the Romans 2,000 years ago. The Romans built aqueducts to channel water from the mountains. Gravity brought water down to fields, reservoirs and cities. However, with the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 4th Century, Europe reverted back to traditional, more localized irrigation by tapping river water for fields.

Modern Irrigation Methods

The development of steam and electricity-powered pumps made it possible to marry modern innovations with traditional irrigation methods. Pumps powered by steam or electricity could draw water from deep underground aquifers or rivers and reservoirs far away from farms. Irrigation also became more efficient. Drip irrigation was invented, where fruit and vegetables in a field were irrigated by water droplets, reducing the amount of water wasted as runoff. Spray irrigation was more economical and wasted less water. These innovations were coupled with reusing irrigation runoff, economizing water use.

Tags: water from, fields water, from rivers, into fields, irrigation methods, irrigation water, surface irrigation

Understanding Mineral Rights

According to the information group Geology, mineral resources in most parts of the world belong to the government of the country in which they are found. In the U.S., the owner of the land where the minerals are found has ownership and mining rights.

Definitions

The Kansas Geological Survey describes minerals as organic substances such as oil and gas as well as inorganic substances such as bentonite and potash. The organization describes mineral rights as the rights of ownership of the mineral resources that lie beneath an area of land.

Fee Simple Rights

The simplest form of ownership is known as fee simple rights. According to Geology, fee simple ownership describes a situation in which one owner owns every part of the land, from the air above to the underground areas beneath the land that contains mineral resources.

Leasing

In some instances, the owner of land where mineral resources are discovered does not have the capital or the ability to extract the resources. In such cases, the owner can enter into a mineral rights lease, most likely with a large mining organization. A lease gives the organization the right to extract the mineral resources from underground and the right of access to the surface area.

Ownership

Before mineral rights are sold or leased, the parties involved generally investigate the land's legal history to see whether the land and subsurface rights have been severed at any time, which could pass ownership of the mineral resources out of the hands of the landowner.

Investment

Mineral rights are often used as an investment, with organizations purchasing the right to mine for mineral resources with no intention of mining the area themselves. The resale of rights is common, according to Geology, with many companies and individuals holding mineral rights to areas for many years before reselling them.

Time Limits

The landowner can place time limits on the lease of mineral rights, according to Geology. When the lease expires, the rights revert to the landowner. Large mining organizations often plan years in advance, meaning a deal signed for mineral rights may not result in any mining until years later.

Tags: mineral resources, mineral rights, according Geology, land where, owner land, owner land where

What Is The General Direction Of Plate Movement

What Is the General Direction of Plate Movement?

Since the 19th Century, it has been theorized that the surface of the Earth was made up of plates that moved slowly. Many geological features visible on the Earth's (and the ocean floor's) surface were thought to be due to this movement. With modern GPS research on the movement of the surface of the Earth, the broad strokes of the theory of plate tectonics are proven, with questions remaining only over the details. Among other things, where the individual plates are actually going is now known.

The Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

The outer parts of the Earth can be divided into two layers. On the top is the lithosphere, which includes the visible crust of the Earth's surface. It also includes the solid, uppermost part of the mantle. Beneath this is the asthenosphere. This material is solid and not at all like the liquid rock and metal found in the Earth's core. However, it does have lower viscosity and sheer strength than the lithosphere. From the point of view of geological time (tens or hundreds of thousands of years), the best way to describe the relationship of the lithosphere to the asthenosphere is that the top floats on the bottom. As the lithosphere is made up of several distinct plates, this is the origin of plate tectonics.

Plates Move

A variety of physical forces explain the movements of plate tectonics. The first is convection or the movement and exchange of hot and cold substances. Underneath the lithosphere, a slow process of churning is present, raising hot material and sucking down cooler material. Another explanation is gravity. The cooler, thicker, denser material that is far from the ocean ridges causes gravity to pull material into the hotter mantle to balance the greater load. It is also believed that the gravitation of the moon has some impact on plate tectonics.

Plate Direction

The general direction of most plate movement is toward the Pacific Ocean. Most of Asia, Africa, Europe and Australia are drifting eastward. North America and Greenland are drifting westward. Central and South America, and most of the Caribbean are drifting north, contrary to general trends. Different parts of Antarctica are drifting in different directions.

Continental Drift

Plate tectonics explain a number of large-scale geological effects visible on the Earth's surface. For example, it goes a long way to explain the formation of certain mountain ranges and the rise and fall of land masses over time. It is known that much of the land, including mountains, that are now dry and on the surface, were once underwater because of sea creature fossil evidence. Continental drift also explains the coastal "fit" between South America and Africa.

Sea Floor Spreading

This theory also explains the spreading of the sea floor. The plates include the entire surface of the Earth, dry and wet, and many plates embrace a lot of sea floor territory. When plates are pushed apart, the result is material from beneath the crust being pushed to the surface, creating wholly new stretches of sea floor.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes are also a result of plate movement. Fault lines are common at or around plate boundaries, and plate movement results in a great deal of tension being built up in these areas. It is widely believed that earthquakes are a result of this plate tension snapping and suddenly being released.

Tags: plate tectonics, surface Earth, also explains, believed that, Direction Plate

What Type Of Rock Forms When A Large Body Of Magma Cools Inside The Crust

Half Dome California, hard igneous rock exposed by erosion

The outer crust of the Earth floats on top of a semi-liquid part of the mantle called the asenthosphere and when it heats up, through reduction in pressure or mantle convection currents, liquid magma can be forced up into the upper continental rock. If the magma breaks out to the surface, volcanoes and lava flows result. If it remains within the earth and cools slowly, allowing the minerals to crystallize then it is termed a pluton or batholith.

Igneous Rocks

Rocks that form from such hot liquid mantle intrusions are called igneous (meaning fire) rocks and tend to form the underlying core of most large mountain ranges. When the upper sedimentary rocks are eroded away, the underlying rocks, usually some form of granite are exposed. Because they are trapped underground and under pressure they cool slowly and the individual mineral grains or crystals can be seen with the naked eye.

Batholiths and Plutons

Huge mantle intrusions can extend hundreds of miles and resist weathering and glacial action better than sedimentary rocks. A batholith will often form at plate tectonic borders and subduction zones where there is already fracturing and active mountain building. As pressure is released by the tectonic and earthquake activities more and more magma flows and melts upward. Offshoots from the main batholith about 10 to 15 miles across are called plutons and generally form where there is a weakness in the crust where they can flow up.

Dykes and Sills

Dykes and sills are plutons, smaller magma intrusions that have exploited specific weaknesses in the overlying rocks. Many large dykes are the remnants of interior channels that fed active volcanoes. When the pressure is finally released the remaining channel is still full of the magma and being underground it cools slowly forming the granite cores of overlying basalt and lava volcano. Smaller dykes frequently can be seen where magma has forced its way along fractures and then cooled. A sill may never reach the surface but in particular exploits the fracture zone between layers of sedimentary rock and both melts in-between the beds of sedimentary rock and pushes them further apart.

Laccoliths

A laccolith is a pluton formed in a sedimentary formation where an underlying layer, perhaps of earlier igneous material, is strong enough to form a flat bed. The magma being forced in from below rather than pushing the two apart to form a large sill instead bulges up in a dome shape forcing the weaker upper sedimentary rock to bend and crack. Later when erosion wears away the covering sedimentary rock a classic dome shape is revealed as the core of the formation.

Tags: sedimentary rock, cools slowly, dome shape, magma being, magma forced, mantle intrusions

Soil Types In The Georgia Piedmont

The Georgia Piedmont is an elevated area that runs in a northeast to southwest direction in the northern part of the state. It is a part of the larger Southern Piedmont area, which extends from Virginia to Alabama. The Piedmont is the remnant of an ancient weathered mountain chain. In Georgia, the region is characterized by rolling hills, stony outcrops and predominantly red clay soils.

Soil History

Originally the Georgia Piedmont was covered with forests and a sandy surface soil that was sandy-beige or brownish in color. This soil type remains in areas that have never been cleared for agricultural use. This soil overlaid a clay loam and clay subsoil. These are called the Cecil soils and they covered two-thirds of the Georgia Piedmont before farming began. A drastic change in soil type resulted from erosion when forests were cleared and cotton and other row crops were planted.

Effects of Erosion

From 1770 through the 1920s, more and more of the Piedmont was converted to agriculture. R. Daniels, in "Land Transformation in Agriculture," which chronicles the amount of erosion taking place in the Georgia Piedmont from 1700 to 1967. The steep slopes of formerly wooded hillsides were exposed and no longer held in place by vegetation, and the sandy topsoils began washing away, revealing the underlying red clay layers. The washed-away soils clogged rivers and streams, silting them up and filling in millponds.

Red Clay Soils

Since the mid-1800s, the red soils revealed by erosion have been the predominant soil type in the Georgia Piedmont. They consist of kaolinite and halloysite, which are 1:1 aluminosilicate clay minerals and iron oxides. The clays came from the weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks that are rich in feldspar. The red color is due to the iron oxides. P. W. Mayne and D. A. Brown characterized Georgia Piedmont soil in 2003 as being hard to categorize by the Unified Soil Classification System. They regarded the Piedmont residuum as a dual soil type that shows characteristics of both fine-grained and coarse-grained soils.

Other Soil Types

The U.S. Bureau of Soils in its 1913 bulletin listed the Cecil series as the most important soil, followed by the Louisa series of red and gray soils with underlying red clay. Present in lesser quantities are Iredell soils, which are derived from diorite and have yellow-brown to gray-yellow heavy clay subsoils, and Appling series soils derived from schist and gneiss. They are gray to pale yellow with subsoils mottled or streaked red and yellow. The related less frequently occurring Durham soils have yellow, sandy clay subsoils. Still rarer are the Edgemont series, found on high ridges and hills, which are derived from quartz-schist and quartzite. Molena sand soils are gray to reddish brown with red subsoils. Small areas of the Georgia Piedmont contain Worsham coarse sandy loam of light gray surface soil and yellowish or mottled clay subsoils.

Tags: Georgia Piedmont, soil type, clay subsoils, derived from, iron oxides, Soil Types

Requirements For The Archaeology Merit Badge

Study man's past lifestyle and culture to earn the archaeology merit badge.

The Boy Scouts of American requires you to complete 11 requirements to earn the archaeology merit badge. Archaeology is an exciting field that combines the study of history, sociology and anthropology. Reference the official BSA merit badge booklet on your path to earning an archaeology merit badge.

Define Archaeology

Describe archaeology and explain how it differs from other fields of natural science such as anthropology, geology, paleontology and history.

Understand the Steps of Archaeology

The archaeological process involves many steps or phases. Describe each of these: locating a site, excavating a site, identifying and examining artifacts, interpreting the findings, preserving artifacts and sharing the information.

Determine Dates and Ages

Explain two or more ways professional archaeologists determine the date of archaeological sites, structures and artifacts. Explain relative dating.

Research and Report on Archaeological Sites

Study archaeological sites from around the world to complete the merit badge.

Select and complete two of three projects: Research three archaeological sites inside the United States, study three sites outside the U.S. or visit one site in person. Your report must explain site discovery, location on a map, types of information uncovered, how the information addresses archaeological questions and how the information may be useful today. Also, compare the relatives ages of the locations.

Present Your Findings to a Group

Using one of the sites you have studied, give a presentation to a group of peers such as a Cub Scout pack, Scout troop, school class or other forum.

Protect the Past

Learn why it is important to protect archaeological artifacts like an arrowhead.

Describe the importance of preserving archaeological sites and artifacts. Explain what to do if you discover an artifact. Tell how you personally can protect the past.

Forecast the Future

Either make a list of items you would include in a time capsule or a list of trash your family discards in one week. Discuss with your merit badge counselor what archaeologists would learn about you and your culture if they discovered your time capsule or trash 1,000 years from now.

Work Alongside an Archaeologist

Work alongside a professional archaeologist at a real excavation site.

Work at least eight hours helping excavate an archaeological site under the supervision of professional archaeologists. Or, work in an archaeological lab helping sort and prepare artifacts for analysis, storage and display. If neither of these is possible, prepare a mock dig. To do this, get help from an archaeologist, archaeological society, science teacher or similar expert. Your dig should represent two different time periods in history.

Create a Display or Reenact a Past Skill

Help create a museum exhibit as part of your merit badge requirements.

Study the history and archaeology of the area where you live. Then, help create an archaeological exhibit for a local museum, visitor center, school or other public area. Or, recreate an item from the past or reenact a skill. Ask a professional archaeologist or teacher to supervise your work. Write a report explaining your project and the results.

Research Native Americans, Settlers or Soldiers of the Past

If American Indians once lived in your area (or still do), study their traditions, culture, dwellings, clothing, art, handicrafts and food. Or, research settlers and soldiers who lived in your town more than 100 years ago. Write a report that discusses what you might find at their archaeological site.

Careers in Archaeology

Name three possible archaeology careers. Discuss prepare for one of them including education and training.

Tags: merit badge, archaeological sites, archaeology merit, archaeological site, archaeology merit badge, artifacts Explain, earn archaeology

Master'S Programs In International Affairs

A master's degree in international affairs can prepare students for careers in international policy or economics.

A master's degree in international affairs provides students with the education to pursue a career in the public or private sector. Graduates may work with the U.S. Department of State, the Red Cross or the United Nations Development Programme, among many others. They may work as policy analysts, diplomats or consultants. There are many master's degree programs in international affairs with different specialty areas such as security, economics or development.

University of Denver

The University of Denver, Josef Korbel School of International Studies, offers many different master's degree programs, such as, global finance, trade and economic integration; international administration; international development; international human rights; international security; international studies; and development practice. These programs can be completed in two to five years. There are no prerequisite courses for admissions to the program, but is is recommended that the student have previous experience or coursework in international affairs or a foreign language.

University of Denver

Josef Korbel School of International Studies

2201 South Gaylord Street,

Denver, CO 80208

303-871-2324

du.edu

Columbia University

The Columbia University, School of International and Public Affairs, offers a master's of international affairs degree. It is a two-year program and students can choose from one of the following concentrations: economic and political development; energy and environment; human rights; international finance and economic policy; international security policy; or urban and social policy. In addition to the required coursework, the student is required to show proficiency in a foreign language and complete an internship. There are no required prerequisite courses; however, the student should have some foreign language experience.

Columbia University

School of International and Public Affairs

420 West 118th Street

New York, NY 10027

212-854-6216

columbia.edu

California State University, Sacramento

The California State University, Sacramento, Department of Government, offers a master of arts degree in international affairs. This is a two-year program and students can choose from several elective tracks including American foreign and domestic policy and international affairs and public management track. There is no foreign language requirement. Statistics, micro- and macro-economics are prerequisite courses for admissions into the program.

California State University, Sacramento

International Affairs Graduate Program

6000 J Street

Sacramento, CA 95819-6089

916-278-6202

csus.edu

Texas A&M University

The Texas A&M University, Bush School of Government and Pubic Service, offers a master's program in international affairs. The program offers two tracks of study: international economics and development or national security and diplomacy along with a choice of several concentrations. This is a two-year program and there are no prerequisite courses for admission.

Texas A&M University

Bush School of Government and Pubic Service

4220 TAMU

College Station, TX 77843-4220

979-862-3469

tamu.edu

George Washington University

The George Washington University, Elliott School of International Affairs, offers a master of arts degree in international affairs with either a global affairs or regional focus major field. This is a two-year program. In addition to the coursework, the student must be proficient in a foreign language. There are not any specific prerequisite courses for admission into the program.

George Washington University

The Elliott School of International Affairs

1957 E Street, NW

Washington, DC 20052

202-994-6240

gwu.edu

Tags: international affairs, School International, foreign language, prerequisite courses, degree international

Types Of Uranium Deposits

Uranium is radioactive and often used to produce nuclear energy.

Uranium is a dense metallic naturally-occurring element that is radioactive. Uranium is mined for many different purposes, including the production of nuclear energy. Usually deposited by volcanic activity, uranium is found in most stones and soil worldwide and is found in other mineral compounds like pitchblende. It often collects in the earth's crust in large deposits, which can be categorized into major types. Does this Spark an idea?

Unconformity-Related

About 33 percent of the world's uranium deposits are unconformity-related. These deposits arise from major geological "unconformities," such as fault lines. The largest unconformity-related deposits occur in Canada and Australia. Unconformity-related deposit sources tend to boast extremely high-concentration yields, with the richest deposits located at the unconformity itself or somewhat above it. Uranium deposits found below the unconformity tend to be of much lower grade.

Sandstone

Occurring in medium or coarse sandstone, near marginal marine or river surroundings, sandstone uranium deposits make up about 18 percent of the worldwide supply. Sandstone deposits are especially fruitful in Kazakhstan. The United States has important deposits in its Cordillera region, and Africa also has significant deposits. Sandstone deposits can be further categorized into three main subtypes: rollfront deposits, which cut across sandstone beds; tabular deposits, which are irregular and cut into underlying base rocks; and tectonic or lithologic deposits, which lie adjacent to permeable fault lines.

Surficial

Surficial uranium deposits lie in sediments and soils, and are generally far younger than many other types of deposits. These deposits are often cemented in other minerals such as calcite and gypsum, though they are most often located in calcrete. Providing about 4 percent of the world's uranium supply, surficial deposits are found primarily in Australia. The Yeelirrie deposit in the western part of Australia is by far the world's largest surficial deposit.

Quartz-Pebble Conglomerate

Often found near unconformities, quartz-pebble uranium deposits are typically found over granite and metamorphic base rocks. Some of the oldest uranium deposits, the quartz-pebble conglomerates, were deposited hundreds of millions of years ago and often transported by river before coming to rest. These deposits are important sources of uranium in both the United States and Africa, comprising about 13 percent of the world's total yield, and the uranium gleaned is often recovered as a by-product of gold mining.

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Schools For Geological Engineering

A number of institutions across America offer courses in geological engineering

Geological engineers work to make the best use of the Earth's resources for practical purposes while also protecting the environment. While the field is broad, encompassing aspects such as mineral extraction, hydrology and mining, professionals usually have a solid grounding in the fundamentals of both geology and engineering, with this provided by a number of colleges and universities across America.

Michigan Technological University

Michigan Technological University offers a Bachelor of Science degree course in geological engineering at its Houghton facility. The course is geared towards giving students a thorough grounding in geology as well as in the humanities, social sciences and economics, to ensure that graduates are able to embark upon a career within the field. Alongside the standard modules, Michigan Tech provides training in energy and mineral resource management, geomechanics and groundwater engineering. The Department of Geological and Mining Engineering and Science gives students the chance to take advantage of a range of summer internships as well as access to study or work abroad opportunities.

University of Wisconsin

The University of Wisconsin runs a graduate degree in geological engineering, with prospective students required to have undergraduate-level expertise in either geology or engineering science, as well as proven knowledge of mathematics. While there is no set path that Master's students must take, they are required to earn at least 24 credits and achieve a grade point average of 3.0 or higher in all of their work. Courses include those focusing on rock mechanics, tectonophysics, soil mechanics and hydrology. Additionally, students are also welcome to apply for PhD study in the field of geological engineering, though applicants will be asked to undertake a minor as well as earning at least 72 graduate credits.

University of Nevada, Reno

The University of Nevada, Reno's Department of Geological Sciences and Engineering offers both undergraduate and postgraduate courses focused on geological engineering. The self-contained Bachelor degree is particularly geared towards training students in potential geological hazards and the mitigation of such risks, with modules also focusing on geomechanics, geotechnical engineering and environmental remediation. The department also offers two graduate school options. Students can either take the thesis route and undertake an original piece of research in a field related to geological engineering, or those with professional experience are able to attend evening classes and write a professional paper in order to obtain their Master's.

University of Alaska, Fairbanks

The University of Alaska in Fairbanks offers both undergraduate and postgraduate programs in geological engineering, including the option of pursuing a PhD in the field. Bachelor students are required to earn 134 credit hours to graduate, with modules covering the basics of satellite imagery, groundwater hydrology and geological exploration. Undergraduates are also invited to engage in interdisciplinary studies, both within and outside of the university's College of Engineering and Mines. The Master of Science program, meanwhile, requires students to obtain between 30 and 33 credit hours. Postgrads are able to focus their studies on subjects including advanced mineral economics, geostatical engineering or geological hazards and can choose whether they want to write a thesis for the course.

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Types Of Timelines

Timelines are an effective way of graphically organizing happenings of any type. They are usually used to represent events in human history or prehistoric times. Among many purposes, they can be used to keep records of a specific country or town's histories or by any individual to track occurrences in his own life. Four major types of timelines can be used.

Chronology Timeline

A chronology timeline is a horizontal timeline that represents the progression of time. The beginning of the line has the earliest date, with the end the most recent. A chronology timeline can cover any amount of time, from intervals of a few minutes to a billion years or more.

Living Graph

A living graph is similar to a chronology timeline in that it shows the progression of time. However, its design is not solely horizontal. Living graphs illustrate the impact of each event by heightening the positive events and lowering the negative events, so the line is rather jagged in appearance.

Logarithmic Timeline

Logarithmic timelines were the results of trying to fit a lot of information into a chronological timeline. Logarithmic timelines were invented by Heinz von Foerster, who was trying to organize world history but realized that with this type of graphic the closer he got to the present, the more events he could add. This style timeline allows for the creator to show the sparse beginning of history to the detailed recent events.

Detailed Logarithmic Timeline

A detailed logarithmic timeline is arranged as a vertical table in which the earliest event is at the top and the most recent at the bottom. This kind of timeline works well in displays of the history of the universe, the development of life on Earth and the accomplishments and wars of mankind until the present.

Synchronoptic View

A synchronoptic view is a graphic display of entities as they progress through time. It is best used for historical events. With this type of display, a number of timelines can be drawn on one page to show events of lives or cultures that are not connected. Multiple life timelines or event timelines of different cultures can be displayed at once to show events that happened at the same time in different places.

Tags: chronology timeline, Logarithmic timelines, Logarithmic timelines were, most recent, progression time, show events