A topographic map is a three-dimensional depiction (but usually in a two-dimensional presentation) of the contours and elevations of a region, such as mountains, hills, valleys and rivers. Topographic maps are typically used by the military, architects, mining companies and even hikers. To read a topographic map, you need to understand the representations of the many circles and lines scrawled all over the terrain.
Instructions
1. Note the contour lines on the map. These lines connect points of equal elevation. Some lines will have the recorded elevation written in the line. The map's legend will indicate the elevation distances between the contour lines. For example, if the elevation distance is 100 feet, then the contour line below a recorded line of 1,500 feet will be 1,400 feet. The spacing of these lines also designates the slope: close lines mean steep slope, lines farther apart mean a gradual slope and merging lines indicates a cliff.
2. Examine the loops formed by the contour lines. Inside the loops typically indicates uphill and outside indicates downhill. If inside the loop indicates a depression rather than an incline, some maps will indicate this with short lines radiating downward from inside the loop.
3. Note the "V" structures on the map. These indicate stream valleys, with the point of the "V" acting as the point of drainage.
4. Check for base elevation in the map legend. Topographic maps of mountain ranges may have a base elevation of 8,000 feet, so a topographic reading of 800 means the point of interest is at 8,800 feet.
5. Check the water tables in the map legend. All elevations are recorded above sea level, so any maps of regions below sea level, such as a topographic map of New Orleans, could be recorded as negative numbers.
Tags: contour lines, base elevation, inside loop, will indicate
An archipelago is a group of islands, congregated in the same geographical area, that share a common origin. Archipelagos are common features in the oceans as well as in many lakes. Many well-known island chains are archipelagos, such as the Hawaiian Islands, the Aleutian Islands and the Philippines. Like mountains and other land formations, archipelagos are formed in part by tectonic activity--the movement of the large plates that make up the Earth's crust--but other factors can also affect the formation of archipelagos.
Volcanic Formation
The most common way archipelagos are formed is through volcanic activity combined with tectonic movement. When underwater volcanoes, or hot spots, allow magma (liquid rock) to seep out in the sea, rock formations are created under the water. As more and more magma is released, the rock formations eventually peak out over the surface of the water, creating an island. Since tectonic plates shift over time, the magma leakage from the hot spots shifts, which can lead to the formation of many islands within a relatively small area. Some of these islands are also likely to have volcanic activity or inactive volcanoes. The Hawaiian Islands are an example of an archipelago with volcanic origin that still has active volcanoes.
Other Causes
While volcanic activity is the cause for the formation of many large island chains in the sea, some archipelagos have other origins. Mountains are formed when tectonic plates collide and push each other up in the air. Tectonic plates under the sea may cause mountains to rise up from the sea and create islands. Sea level is another important factor in the formation of archipelagos. If the sea level were to fall or rise, some islands would be created while others would disappear. For instance, if the ice caps were to melt extensively because of global warming, the rise in sea level might form new archipelagos along the coastal terrain, while existing islands might disappear.
Tags: volcanic activity, archipelagos formed, formation archipelagos, formation many, Hawaiian Islands, island chains, rock formations
Researching the ocean floor requires travel across and under the sea.
Geological oceanographers explore and map out the ocean floor, using the information they discover about its composition to create a history of the Earth. By combining laboratory and field work, they study the interaction between the ocean and the ocean floor, determining the effects the ocean has both on a surface level and on the plates beneath the Earth. To become a geological oceanographer, you typically need an advanced degree, but you also need a set of skills and experiences that will benefit you in the field.
Advanced Degree
Oceanography is a field in which there is still room for new discoveries and advancements, so most people become geologic oceanographers after earning an advanced degree such as a master's or a doctorate. This opens the door for them to become independent researchers or even professors with access to the resources -- financial and otherwise -- of a major academic institution. A bachelor's degree alone is generally only enough for entry-level positions in scientific fields such as this. Your undergraduate degree generally should focus on chemistry, mathematics, geology and physics -- the fundamentals for a career in applied science and research. When you pursue your graduate degree, you focus more specifically on geologic oceanography.
Love of Travel
You don't have to love travel to be a geologic oceanographer, but it helps. Oceanographers who conduct research spend much of their time on research ships out at sea. While you also do work in the laboratory, you must still be prepared to spend time away from home, family and the comforts of life on dry land. Oceanographers may work in climates that are hot and humid or freezing -- no matter what the case, you must be ready for a life at sea.
Scientific Equipment Experience
Geologic oceanographers use sophisticated scientific equipment to conduct research and analyze findings, which is one of the reasons an advanced degree is typically required. Your coursework includes instruction on use scientific equipment. In addition to the more advanced equipment you may use, you also need a working knowledge of computers. PCs are more widely used that Macintosh systems, so if you are not proficient in Windows and its software, consider taking computer classes to get caught up.
Practical Skills
The demands of living at sea and exploring the ocean floor require certain practical skills. Physical stamina and strength are necessary for coping with the strenuous demands of life on a ship, and getting your SCUBA certification makes you a more valuable asset for hands-on field research. You may need to be bilingual, particularly if you conduct research in international waters, and you must be able to adapt to living in close quarters with other people for extended periods.
Tags: ocean floor, conduct research, advanced degree, also need, scientific equipment
The history of the Earth tells the story of one planet. Its development sits within the story of the universe, much of which is unknown. The phases of Earth's development have been studied and reconstructed through the lenses of multiple natural sciences from geography to paleontology via geology. The Earth is approximately a third of the age of the universe and spent much of its existence coming into shape and being. These developmental phases, or stages, are divided into those that brought the planet into its physical shape and place, and those that saw its atmosphere and landscape develop. It is a history that covers 4.6 billion years.
Hadean
The Hadean phase, named after the Greek underworld (Hades), is the Earth's only non-geological era. This means there were no rocks on the Earth with the possible exception of meteorites. The Hadean phase covers the early development of the solar system when a large gaseous disc gathered around the sun. These gasses and other materials slowly gathered into the sun and the planets we know today. The various impacts of gravitational centers such as the Earth released a lot of heat and kept the Earth molten for a long time.
Archean
The Hadean era ended as the Earth's outer reaches began to cool and produce what we live on today, the Earth's crust. Thus, the Archean period began. The name comes from the ancient Greek word for origin. The planet's early atmosphere was completely different from today's. The early atmosphere consisted mostly of methane, ammonia and other toxic gases. During the Archean era the early continental plates formed. Geologists have dated the earliest rocks to around 3.9 billion years ago, and paleontologists date the first fossils to 3.5 billion years. These early fossils show the first rumblings of life and came in the form of bacteria.
Proterozoic
The Proterozoic Era saw the relative stabilization of continental plates and a flourishing of life. It covers the Earth's development from 2.5 billion years ago to around 543 million years ago. Bacteria were joined by eukaryotic cells during this time. Eukaryotic cells are the basic precursors of all animals, plants, fungi and protozoa. Their modern descendents share similar cell organization, biochemistry and molecular biology. During the middle of the period oxygen began to build up in the atmosphere. As a result many bacteria families were killed off, but eukaryotic groups were able to flourish and develop into the first animals.
Paleozoic
The Paleozoic Era lasted from 543 to 245 million years ago and is subdivided into the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous periods. These periods saw an explosion in animal life and included the first cases of animals moving onto land. It was also the time of the super continent called Pangea. Life proved fragile as various Earth events from changes in temperature and atmosphere to volcanic eruptions caused mass flowerings of life as well as mass extinctions. As the era wore on the climate began to stabilize during the Silurian period, and creatures such as centipedes, jawed fishes and vascular plants evolved.
Mesozoic
The Mesozoic can also be called the "Age of the Dinosaurs." The period is divided into three periods: the Triassic, the Jurassic and the Cretaceous. The era runs from approximately 245 million years ago to 65 million years ago. The period saw vast changes in life forms across the world and included some of the most famous beasts of yesteryear from the Tyrannosaurus rex to the stegosaurus to the archaeopteryx. The era was also extremely warm, and the Earth had no ice caps.
Cenozoic
The Cenozoic era is also the modern era and dates from 65 million years ago to the present day. Dinosaurs died out in the Cretaceous period, leading to the dominance of mammals in the world. The Cenozoic is also an era of flowering plants, insects and birds. During this era plate tectonics moved the continents into their modern form. Climatically the Earth saw a period of rapid cooling and a number of ice ages.
Tags: million years, billion years, Cenozoic also, continental plates, divided into, early atmosphere, Earth development
Crescentic gouges occur when glaciers move over a rock surface.
Crescentic gouges are part of a larger geological phenomenon known as glacial erosion. Glacial erosion occurs when a glacier moves across a landform. Through this process of erosion, glaciers can move, scratch or gouge land or rock. Crescentic gouges are breaks that are made when glaciers move across boulders or bedrock.
Glacial Erosion
The two major occurrences of glacial erosion are the movement of large amounts of rock and sediment by the glacier and the abrasive effects that the glacier has on the landforms that it moves across. Glacial abrasion is comprised of scouring and friction cracks. Scouring leaves a number of different types of abrasions known as striations. Striations are scratches that occur from the continuous movement of the glacier across landforms -- especially rocks. Friction cracks are caused by a heavy glacial rock's irregular contact with bedrock.
Friction Cracks
Friction cracks are a variety of cracks, gouges, marks and breaks in bedrock and large boulders. They are caused by rocks that are carried along by the force of a glacier. Crescent fractures, crescent gouges and chatter marks are three major types of friction cracks. Using the direction of the concave shape of the crescent gouge, these marks can reveal the direction that the glacier was moving.
Crescentic Gouges and Fractures
Crescentic gouges are conical-shaped fractures in rocks that have been otherwise smoothed by the passing of a glacier. These gouges occur when large rocks are pressed down by the weight of the glacier with a force great enough to break the bedrock. These rocks are compressed into the surface of the landmass. When the force is sufficient, this pressure causes small pieces of the bedrock to break -- often in a crescent moon shape. Crescent fractures occur when there is not enough force to break pieces off the bedrock, but enough only to crack it.
Chatter Marks
Chatter marks are small, curved, irregular pressure fractures that -- contrary to crescent fractures -- have no distinct shape and do not readily show the direction of a glacier's movement. They often occur in groups and are usually 1 to 5 cm in length, although they can be even smaller. Chatter marks are seen on granite or other hard, brittle bedrock. Like other friction cracks, they are caused by the impact and pressure of glacial rocks.
Over time, chemical weathering can dramatically change the Earth's landscape. It transforms rock chemically by changing its mineral makeup. The results can be visually stunning and sometimes lead to dangerous conditions. Here are five examples of chemical weathering.
Caves
Cave formed by weathering
Most caves are formed through chemical weathering. When minerals are dissolved and washed away, cracks are left behind, and, over extended periods of time, the cracks can expand to form caves and cave systems.
Stalactites
Stalactites meet stalagmites to form columns
When mineral-rich water comes through the roof of a cave and drips, it leaves a mineral deposit behind. Over time, the deposits build up and form a narrow, hollow tube called a stalactite.
Stalagmites
Stalactites drip to form stalagmites
When mineral-rich water drips from stalactites and then falls to the cave floor, it leaves a mineral deposit. As the water continues to drip, a round or cone-shaped mineral mound will form on the floor. This mound is called a stalagmite.
Sinkholes
When underground rock decays as a result of chemical weathering, it can cause the ground to collapse, creating a sinkhole.
Rusting
Rusting metal
Oxidation is an effect of chemical weathering. When iron and other metallic elements are exposed to moisture, they oxidize, or rust.
Tags: chemical weathering, chemical weathering, chemical weathering When, leaves mineral, leaves mineral deposit, mineral deposit, mineral-rich water
If you are interested in getting a Ph.D. in geology, there are some things that you should know. First, getting a Ph.D. is never easy. There are many requirements and many people you have to please along the way. Here are some guidelines and suggestions for earning your Ph.D.
Instructions
1. Apply for admission to a Ph.D. program in geology. Each graduate school will have different requirements for admission. These requirements will likely include letters of recommendation, transcripts, essays and GRE scores. Some Ph.D. programs will also require or recommend an interview as part of the admission process.
2. Complete any required coursework. The number of courses and course hours will vary depending on the graduate program. Make sure that you are aware of these requirements and any specific courses you're required to have.
3. Take your qualifying examination or examinations. You may be required to take a written exam, an oral exam or both. These exams cover a variety of geologic topics, focusing on your specialty of interest. Your advisor will tell you when these exams have to be taken and what the focus will be.
4. Select your dissertation committee. Your committee will consist of your advisor, other professors in the geology department and usually at least one professor from another university. Check with your advisor about select your committee and about how many members need to be included.
5. Choose your dissertation topic and write a dissertation or research proposal. Your dissertation topic will be chosen in conjunction with your advisor and your committee members. This dissertation proposal will have to be approved by your entire committee, the geology department graduate advisor and anyone else that your school deems appropriate. This process is often called an "Admission to Candidacy."
6. Complete your dissertation. Set deadlines for your research and writing in conjunction with your advisor and committee members. Keep everyone abreast of your progress and have regular meetings with your advisor and those on your committee. Submit drafts as necessary and rewrite as needed.
7. Have your dissertation proposal or defense. This is an oral presentation of your dissertation and your research. These presentations are often given to those in your department, your advisor, your committee members and the graduate department chair. In many cases, these presentations are also public meaning that anyone can attend. After the presentation, be prepared to answer questions from those in attendance, including your advisor and committee members.
8. Revise your thesis as needed. In many cases, after a dissertation presentation, your advisor and committee members will require some revision of your written thesis. Take care of these revisions and rewrites as soon as possible so your advisor and committee can approve your thesis.
Tags: your advisor, committee members, advisor committee, with your, with your advisor, your advisor committee
We all know what an island is: a piece of land, surrounded by water, that's smaller than a continent. The United Nation's Law of the Sea also adds that, to be considered an island, the given piece of land must also be capable of supporting a living economy---so a mere rock does not count. What may be less obvious is what a "continental island" is, because the term sounds like a contradiction in terms. It's not; it's merely a subset of islands.
Continental Shelves
To understand a continental island, you need to understand what the continental shelf is. Anyone who's been to the beach knows that the end of land isn't a sudden cliff---around the edges of continents there is a stretch of gradually declining land, as pictured here. This area is called the continental shelf.
Continental Island
A continental island is simply an island that rests on the continental shelf. Because of this, these islands are always quite close to a given continent. Also, the water level around a continental island is very shallow, typically less than 600 feet.
Examples
The Canadian island of Newfoundland is a continental island, as is Greenland. Sicily, the ball being kicked by the foot that is Italy, is also a continental island. So is the African Republic of Madagascar, known for its distinct wildlife. Great Britain is the largest continental island in Europe.
Formation
Its believed most continental islands were, at one point, connected to their respective continents. Rising water levels are said to have created them, typically by cutting off a former peninsula or simply rising high enough to cover most of the coastal regions, leaving only the high ground as islands. A drop in sea level could reconnect these islands to the mainland.
Micro-continental Islands
A subset of the continental islands is the micro-continental island, formed by continents rifting---that is to say, when the Earth's crust shifts to actually move a chunk of land away from a given continent. Madagascar is perhaps the best known example of this sort of continental island.
Tags: continental island, continental shelf, continental islands, given continent, piece land
Ancient animal and plant remains that turned to stone record the past.
Fossils are the remains of living organisms or the evidence of their activity that have been buried in sediment and preserved, says Webster's New World Collegiate Dictionary. Paleontologists study fossils to learn when various types of life forms appeared and what their development, existence and extinctions tell us about the effects of changing conditions on Earth. Using isotope pairs with long half-lives, radiometric dating provides a means to accurately determine the age of individual fossils, says Action Bioscience.
Environmental Information
Fossils reveal information about the climate and other environmental characteristics of the time and location in which they were formed. Comparing early fossils to later ones and against the present provides evidence of environmental and climate change over millions of years. As an example, the Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona stands as evidence that this desert once received enough rain to support the growth of large trees, says the National Park Service. This long scientific record is vital to studies about the source of current global warming trends. Fossil records also express the impact of catastrophic events on living organisms, such as the sudden extinction of dinosaurs 65 million years ago after a large meteor landed in the Gulf of Mexico.
Geological Information
Fossils provide valuable clues to geologists searching for natural resources. The presence of specific types and amounts of plant pollen and spore fossils helps geologists date deposits of coal and confirm their connection, indicating the type of coal likely to be present, says the U.S. Geological Survey.
Fossils also play a vital role in developing and supporting theories of continental drift and plate tectonics. Mesosaurus fossils, for example, are found in both Africa and South America. This animal existed only in shallow, fresh-water environments, indicating the two land areas were joined when it existed during the late Paleozoic Era. Marine-life fossils, such as those of ammonites, are found in abundance at an elevation of 12,000 feet in the vicinity of the Himalayan Mountains; such findings influence the understanding of geologic processes too slow to be observed.
Evolutionary Information
Younger rocks lie atop older rocks, and any fossils they contain occur in a similar, universal and predictable order. The earliest known fossils, dated to 3.5 billion years ago, consist of bacteria, then algae and microscopic plankton. Scientific data gathered from the 1800s to the present indicate that living organisms have become more complex as time has passed. Paleontologists who study the structures of past living organisms note similarities, mutations and gradual changes, for example, from the earliest version of the equine species to modern horses. They find evidence that dolphin, whale and porpoise families descended from a land animal. However, a strictly linear evolutionary theory does not explain many fossils from the Vendian Period 560 million years ago, which scientists have been unable to categorize at even the most basic level.
Tags: living organisms, evidence that, have been, Information Fossils, million years, National Park
America is home to some of the world's top engineering schools.
America's universities are consistently at or near the top of all world rankings, particularly in the field of engineering. As well as the US News and World Report's Best University Rankings, which is based on the QS World University Rankings, the excellence of specific schools can be determined through looking at other lists such as the World University Rankings from Times Higher Education and the US-based Academic Ranking of World Universities.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is ranked as the number one school for engineering and technology in both the 2010 QS World University Rankings and the US News list, while also standing at number two in the Times' World University chart. The Cambridge, Massachusetts institution is home to five schools, of which the School of Engineering is the most popular, accounting for around 45 percent of all graduate admissions. As of the start of 2011, MIT can boast the fact that 76 Nobel Laureates, 35 MacArthur Fellows and 50 National Medal of Science winners either currently reside or have previously been affiliated with the university.
Stanford University
One of three California institutions to make the top five of the 2010-2011 Top 50 Engineering and Technology Universities section of the Times World University Rankings, Stanford also ranks second in the US News World's Best Universities list for the same category. Stanford's School of Engineering is split into 10 distinct schools, including Aeronautics, Bioengineering, Chemical Engineering, Computer Science and Materials Science and Engineering. These are home to some of America's leading experts in their fields, with staff members holding awards such as the Alexander Graham Bell Medal, the Enrico Fermi Award and the John von Neumann Theory Prize.
California Institute of Technology (Caltech)
Fifth in the US News list of the world's best universities for Engineering and IT and top of the list in the Times rankings is the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). The Pasadena-based private university is home to six academic schools, with a strong focus on engineering and science. Though smaller than many of its West Coast rivals, it has an excellent global reputation, with 31 alumni having won a Nobel Prize and 110 former students or faculty members having been elected to the National Academies. The university's School of Engineering and Applied Science has as its goal "nothing less than to change the world with new theoretical concepts, innovative ideas [and] experimental discoveries."
University of California Berkeley
The University of California Berkeley is ranked third in the US News list of the world's top schools for engineering and IT and fifth in the Times World University Rankings. The public research university has 14 schools and colleges, including the College of Engineering, within which are several departments focusing on areas such as electrical, nuclear, industrial and civil engineering. Notable contemporary projects carried out by engineering staff and students at Berkeley include the Digital Library Project, the Pacific Earthquake Engineering Center and the Nokia Research Center.
Tags: University Rankings, World University, World University Rankings, Institute Technology, News list, School Engineering
Basic geology and mineralogy is helpful when opening a rock shop.
Starting a rock shop is a natural business progression for the serious rock hound whose interest has reached beyond a hobbyist level. As a small business that takes a lot of expertise and knowledge to run, but also tends to flourish in a tourist area or town built around geologic natural recreational draws, owning a rock shop can turn into a successful business for the collector enthusiast who follows a few important steps after gathering capital and registering the new rock shop business name.
Instructions
1. Designate your storefront location and structure once all funding needs are met and the venture is green-lighted. Make sure the structure has enough space for both display of inventory and its storage as well as enough outside area for both parking and the larger rock specimens that the rock shop inventory might include, especially if specializing in a landscaping department. Draft a 2 year business plan specific to the intended business and local market, decide on intended operating hours, necessary employees and whether the store will be open year round or seasonally and make sure to get full approval for and purchase any necessary business permits required.
2. Research and purchase equipment, both business related and rock collecting related, that is needed depending on what the rock shop's specialty is. Purchase lapidary equipment for any stone and mineral jewelry making needs. Buy a rock tumbler and assorted mining/sorting equipment if intending to hunt for and collect rock and mineral specimen for the rock shop or if a self mining gem property or attraction is part of the business where folks come to dig for precious stones for a fee.
3. Establish a vendor list that will be used for purchasing business supplies, advertising and inventory from. Check local laws if intending to personally hunt for and collect rock and mineral specimens to ensure that collection is legal in the local area as well as to verify what is legal to collect and then sell. The rock shop's local county conservation board will have the information necessary pertaining to personal collection for inventory.
4. Vary the rock shop's inventory and stock as much as possible. Keep 65 to 70 percent committed to the local tourist traffic indigenous product (such as the geode trade along the Mississippi shore or diamond or amethyst mining in Arkansas) and the specific needs of the local collector and enthusiast community (who will be repeat and constant business). Aim to offer 30 to 35 percent of non indigenous items within the rock shop's inventory for catering to the general purchaser, online customers (if applicable) and limit expansion of possible inventory.
5. Take into account if the local market will sustain a year round business with simply store front traffic purchases. Tourism hot spots such as Estes Park, CO or Yellowstone, WY have location driven traffic. If the location does not have a specific natural geologic draw enabling it such as gemstone mines or national park proximity, set up an online storefront to expand the rock shop's local market area into cyberspace and offer informational blog tutorials designed to expose and sell your product to rock collectors of all locations.
6. Consider combining the rock shop storefront with another business entity since it is such a specialized offering. Customers, especially local enthusiasts and collectors, will come in and spend time looking for both rock and gem product as well as information about that product. So an added coffee shop/bakery or specialized gift store would be a successful addition as would jointly running a mining or national park tour guide service office. This brings in the customers who would not have come specifically for purchases from the rock shop's inventory but who will now make that purchase when something catches their buying eye over a cup of hot coffee.
Tags: rock shop, rock shop inventory, shop inventory, local market, collect rock
Craters on the moon, and on Earth, are created by meteor impacts.
The terms aerolite and siderite describe types of meteorites. Meteorites are the remnants of meteoroids, or rocks from outer space, that have fallen to Earth. They are classified by their mineral composition and can be identified by a few key characteristics not found in terrestrial rocks. Meteorites are rare geological finds and the information they provide about the universe is invaluable.
Origins of Meteorites
This impact crater shows the impression a meteorite can make on Earth's crust.
Although many people associate meteorites with "meteor showers" and "shooting stars," they usually have a different origin and mineralogical composition. Shooting stars and annual meteor showers are ice and rock debris from comets which burn up when they enter our atmosphere. They rarely make it to the Earth in a large enough piece to be found. Meteorites are the remains of asteroids, pieces of the moon and planetary debris which are much larger and can survive entry into Earth's atmosphere.
Meteorites can be any size and there is evidence of enormous meteors colliding with the Earth throughout geologic history. Examples are Meteor Crater in Arizona, and the Chixulub Crater in Mexico on the Yucatan Peninsula.
Types of Meteorites
Meteorites are classified by their mineral content. There are three major types: iron, stoney and iron-stoney mixed. Siderite is an example of an iron meteorite because its chemical composition consists of high concentrations of iron and nickel.
Stoney meteorites such as aerolites are mainly composed of silicate minerals. These can typically resemble terrestrial rocks.
Stoney-iron, or mixed meteorites, as their name implies, incorporate both silicate and metallic minerals.
Common Characteristics of Meteorites
All meteorites display some similar characteristics. Many of these are diagnostic and can be used to determine if a rock sample is truly a meteorite.
Because of their high iron content, meteorites are dense and heavy, and they are also attracted to magnets. It is rare to find a non-magnetic meteorite. Meteorites will also have a fusion crust, a thin black layer that is created when the materials burn as they enter the atmosphere. Flowlines created by melting at this time may also be apparent on the surface.
Stoney meteorites may contain metallic flakes of iron and are also magnetic. One particular class of stoney meteorites, the chondrites, have chondrules in them. Chondrules are small, grain-like spheres that are never found in terrestrial rocks.
Common Misidentifications
Many of the rocks on Earth look so strange that it's hard to believe they didn't come from outer space. A few key characteristics cause amateurs to commonly mistake natural Earth rocks for something extraterrestrial.
Holes or openings in a rock, called vesicles, give people the impression of a meteorite or moon rock. Rather, these vesicles are created by escaping gas bubbles and usually form in a volcanic environment. Hematite is also commonly misidentified because of its metallic luster and smooth matrix. However, hematite is not attracted to a magnet. A granular texture will also identify a rock as terrestrial in origin.
Tags: terrestrial rocks, classified their, classified their mineral, enter atmosphere, found terrestrial
Laboratory analysts or laboratory technicians work in labs and analyze various substances. Here in the U.S. about two-thirds of laboratory personnel work in hospitals or doctor's offices, and about one-third work in industrial settings (factory and plant labs and testing centers). Over 600,000 lab analysts and technicians were employed in the U.S. in 2008, over 325,000 in the health-care field.
Education and Training for Lab Analysts
Lab analyst positions require a minimum of an associate's degree in scientific or technical field, and many require a bachelor's degree in a field related to the employment. Working in a lab can be dangerous, and most most hospitals, companies, and agencies have an extensive training program in place to familiarize their employees with the specific equipment and processes.
The Work of a Lab Analyst
Lab analysts perform a wide variety of technical tasks in laboratories, testing centers, and other clinical settings. Depending on the lab and the individual's background and experience, the lab analyst may be mainly involved in hands-on lab work or be responsible for preparing and maintaining the lab equipment, or be on the data analysis end of the process.
Lab Analysts in the Health-care Field
More lab analysts work in the health-care field than in any other industry. There were more than 325,000 people employed as lab analysts in hospitals and doctor's offices in the U.S. in 2008. The work mostly involves testing and analyzing various bodily fluids, and does require a minimum of an associates degrees in biology/life science and at least some laboratory experience.
Lab Analysts in Industrial Settings
Lab analysts are also employed in a broad range of industrial settings. Chemical lab analysts work with chemists and chemical engineers in labs and production environments to test for purity, types of contamination, etc. Lab analysts are also commonly employed in agriculture/food science, geology and the petrochemical industry, as well as in environmental science and forensic science (think CSI).
Entry-level and Senior Lab Analyst Positions
Entry-level lab analysts positions are commonly available and growth prospects are good, especially in the biological sciences and health care fields (but slight negative growth is forecast for chemical lab analysts due to automation and consolidation in the industry). Entry-level lab analyst positions require a minimum of an associate degree in a technical field, and start at around $25,000 to $30,000 annually.
Senior lab analysts do more advanced scientific work, and often are responsible for one or more teams with specific technical functions. Senior lab analyst almost always have bachelor's or graduate degrees in the field, and can command salaries of $60,000 to $100,000.
Pumping water from aquifers for use in irrigation can lower the water table.
The groundwater table is the underground division line between the groundwater, or saturated or phreatic, zone below and the unsaturated, or vadose or aeration, zone above. In the groundwater zone, every pore in the sediment or rock of which it is composed is saturated with water. In the vadose zone, the sediment or rock is only partially water filled; water has room to move downward, pulled by the force of gravity toward the water table.
Natural Water Table Variations
The distance from the surface of the ground to the water table is variable from place to place. It tends to be deeper under hills and less deep under valleys. Water table depth is not static; change in its level can depend on a variety of factors. Some water tables are subject to frequent changes by a number of feet, while others tend to fluctuate occasionally and by only inches.
Climate Considerations
When rainfall is frequent and heavy, water percolates down, formerly unsaturated ground becomes saturated and the water table rises. During seasonally dry periods or drought, water is drawn towards the surface and the water table falls. In locations where the water table is hundreds of feet below the surface however, it may take a long time for water to travel through the vadose zone to the saturated zone; seasonal variation in the water table may be minimal to nonexistent.
Porosity
The geologic makeup of the saturated zone in different geographic areas varies considerably, and different types of sediment and rock have different levels of porosity, or ability to hold water. This water-holding ability is expressed as a ratio: pore space to solid material per unit volume. For example, sand that is saturated may have 30 percent pore space to 70 percent solids. Fractured rock, by comparison, may have as little as 1 percent pore space to 99 percent solids. Sand is much more porous than rock and can hold more water. Thus, the water table above a sand groundwater zone will rise or fall more slowly than the water table above a rock groundwater zone.
Aquifers
A groundwater zone sufficiently porous to allow water to move through easily is called an aquifer. People drill wells into aquifers to withdraw water for use. Rainfall naturally recharges, or refills, aquifers, but at different replenishment rates. If water is pumped out faster than the natural recharge rate from surface infiltration or streams, it may draw down the level of the water table so far that wells tapping into the aquifer go dry.
Vegetation Cover
Groundwater recharges less quickly and the water table therefore fluctuates less in areas that are covered with thick vegetation than in areas of the same type of soil that are bare of vegetation. Vegetation retains moisture and returns it to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration, thereby allowing less water to infiltrate the soil and percolate down to groundwater level.
Irrigation
Wells that tap aquifers to withdraw water for irrigation purposes are one of the biggest challenges to maintaining a stable water table. Irrigation typically requires high withdrawal rates for the growing season. Municipal and industrial wells also withdraw large volumes of water but do so more intermittently or uniformly throughout the year. When a water table has been lowered more than is considered healthy, surface water is purposefully injected into the groundwater, which is known as artificial recharge.
Other Factors that Affect the Water Table
Stormwater retention or recharge ponds and wastewater treatment systems, such as cesspools and septic tank drain fields, hold water that would otherwise flow down to the groundwater and raise the water table. An increase in the construction of impervious surfaces, such as concrete, also hinders the penetration of water into the ground. In a poor neighborhood of Cairo, a leaking sewage system actually caused the water table to rise, which was not a desirable outcome, and threatened to decompose the limestone ruins of ancient Heliopolis, the 6,000-year-old first great priestly city of Egypt. In places like Florida, which is underlain by porous limestone, the water table is sensitive to ground movement caused by earthquakes. The South Florida Water Management District reported that there was a rise of up to 3 inches in the water table about 30 minutes after the Japanese earthquake of March 11, 2011, even though it occurred over 7,000 miles away.
Tags: water table, water table, groundwater zone, water table, pore space
Drilling companies obtain the most accurate data and graphic representation of the geologic structure beneath the earth's surface through seismic "imaging," which is used for conducting on and offshore oil and gas explorations. Seismic imaging helps to determine the most promising "targets" for oil and gas extraction. In addition to conducting land and sea explorations, through ongoing research and development, drilling companies develop sophisticated and innovative technology to improve oil and gas extraction techniques.
Transocean
Based in Switzerland, Transocean is the world's largest offshore drilling company, and specializes in "ultra-deep water" and "harsh-environment" drilling. It was founded in 1954, and its technologically advanced fleet and equipment made it the first company to conduct year-round drilling and exploration.
Chemin de Blandonnet 2
CH-1214 Vernier
Switzerland
+41-22-930-9000
Deepwater.com
Diamond Offshore
Diamond Offshore provides drilling services to global energy industries, particularly oil companies. The Texas-based company was founded in New Orleans in 1953, and specializes in offshore drilling in regions like the North Sea and Gulf of Alaska. The company employs around 5000 employees worldwide, and has three regional offices in Australia, Brazil and Scotland.
Houston Office
15415 Katy Freeway, Suite 100
Houston, Texas 77094-1810
281-492-5300
Diamondoffshore.com
Noble Drilling
Noble Drilling is one of the largest offshore drilling companies in the world, and has been leading the industry in deep-water projects since 1921. The company celebrated its 88th anniversary in 2009. Noble's ultra-deep-water project in the Gulf of Mexico, the "Noble Danny Adkins," operates in water depths of up to 35,000 feet.
13135 South Dairy Ashford, Suite 800
Sugar Land, TX 77478
281-276-6100
Noblecorp.com
Seadrill
Based in Norway, Seadrill acquired Smedvic drilling in 1915, and is a global drilling contractor that is growing rapidly. The company has 40 offshore drilling sites, and has had over 30 years of experience in harsh-environment drilling in Northern Europe. Seadrill operates in West Africa, Southeast Asia, and in North and South America.
Lokkeveien 111
P.O. Box 110
4001 Stavanger
Norway
+47-51-30-90-00
Seadrill.com
Nabors Industries
Since 1987, Nabors has been specializing in oil, gas and geothermal well development, and is the world's largest land-drilling contractor. Nabors has acquired sophisticated technology to conduct "ultra-deep" capacity drilling. In North America, the company owns roughly 528 drilling locations, and drills in 30 countries internationally.
Mintflower Place
8 Par-La-Ville Road
Hamilton HM08
Bermuda
+441-292-1510
Nabors.com
Ensco
Based in Texas, Ensco has been a leading ultra-deep-water drilling contractor to the petroleum industry since 1987. The company owns and operates 51 drilling rigs worldwide in places like Asia, the Middle East, Australia and New Zealand. In 2008, Ensco was recognized by Forbes Magazine as being one of the "world's fastest growing companies."
500 North Akard Street
Suite 4300
Dallas, TX 75201-3331
214-397-3000
enscointernational.com
Pride International
Pride International's specialty in deep-water "high specification drilling solutions" makes it one of the world's leading companies that is rapidly expanding its global presence. The company is based in Houston, Texas, and is a worldwide contractor to the oil and gas industry.
5847 San Felipe Street
Suite 3300
Houston, TX 77057
713-789-1430
Prideinternational.com
Fugro
Founded in 1962, Furgo is based in the Netherlands, and specializes in land and sea seismic imaging. The company provides technical support and contracts to its clients in the areas of exploration, production, and the transportation of oil and gas.
Veurse Achterweg 10
2264 SG
Leidschendam
Netherlands
+31-070-311-1422
fugro.com
Helmerich & Payne
Since 1920, Helmerich and Payne has been engaged in land and offshore drilling contracts in oil and natural gas explorations worldwide. The company's headquarters is located in Tulsa, Oklahoma. One of its main international offshore rigs is in the Gulf of Mexico.
1437 South Boulder Ave.
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74119
918-742-5531
Hpinc.com
CGG Veritas
CGG Veritas has been providing geophysical (or seismic) explorations since the 1930s. Based in France, the company uses a highly advanced seismic imaging technique called 4D to explore oil and gas reserves on land and in deep and shallow water.
Tour Maine-Montparnasse
33, Avenue du Maine
B.P. 191
75755 Paris Cedex 15
FRANCE
+33-1-64-47-45-00
Cggveritas.com
Tags: offshore drilling, been leading, company owns, Diamond Offshore, drilling contractor, Gulf Mexico
Weathering alters the earth's surface by breaking down rocks into fragments, allowing particles to drift away. There are two main types of weathering: mechanical and chemical. Mechanical weathering happens by purely physical means, while chemical weathering occurs through chemical reactions. Both mechanical and chemical weathering can be further divided into subgroups based on cause.
Ice
The most common form of mechanical weathering, ice expands in cracks of rocks, making the cracks larger and eventually breaking the rocks to pieces.
Salt Wedging
After rain water fills rocks, it sometimes evaporates rather than freezes. This leaves salt behind, which grows into larger crystals. These crystals form wedges that snap the rock apart as a process of mechanical weathering.
Carbonation
When dissolved carbon dioxide in moisture creates carbonic acid and reacts with minerals in the rock, carbonation occurs. This weakens and breaks down the rock as a chemical weathering process.
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis, a type of chemical weathering, happens when a chemical reaction occurs between hydrogen in rain water and the minerals in a rock, softening the rock.
Oxidation
Oxidation takes place when oxygen combines with water and metallic earth minerals, turning the surface rock a reddish-brown. Another word for this type of chemical weathering is "rusting."
Tags: chemical weathering, mechanical chemical, minerals rock, rain water, type chemical, type chemical weathering
What is a comprehensive exam? Simply a PhD degree's most stressful moment. At no other point in the PhD program are you required to operate at such a broad level completely from memory. However, if you study well you can not only survive your comprehensive exams, but ace them and set up your dissertation proposal for success.
Unfortunately, many PhD degree programs offer very little if any assistance on study for comprehensive exams. Here's a step by step guide to fill that gap.
Instructions
1. START STUDYING FOR COMPREHENSIVE EXAMS THE FIRST DAY OF CLASS.
You have to keep the mindset in your PhD program that comprehensive exam studying starts day one. If you do, your comps preparation will be much easier. Take good notes and save each set of notes digitally. Take your laptop to class and type as you go. If you are a handwritten notes person, be sure to write legibly and organize your notes into a file. Don't fool yourself thinking 'I will remember that later' because you might not. Then you have to take hours rereading a book or researching in the library. Take good condensed notes that you can review later.
2. FILL OUT YOUR OWN PERSONAL PHD DEGREE SUMMARY FORM FOR EVERY BOOK.
Here is what you should consider including:
* Name of scholar
* Best known work
* Bibliographic information on this book
* Key sources/scholars used by this book
* One paragraph summary of book's major premise
* Several sentence analysis of book's importance for the field
* Several sentence critique of the book's argument
* How, if at all, it helps your dissertation project
You can fit all of that information onto one page usually. If you do this for every book you read, your comprehensive exam study will be well underway.
3. WRITE EACH FINAL PAPER TOWARD YOUR PHD DISSERTATION TOPIC.
You might ask, 'Why is that important for comprehensive exams?' You remember best what is important to you and connects with other relevant information. If every paper you write is disconnected from the papers you will have a hard time remembering much from your research. It's okay to have a project and to keep working on it in every class. Tweak and stretch every assignment so that you can faithfully write on your project. You will remember more, so you have to study less at the end. AND you will move forward on your dissertation sooner.
4. GET SAMPLE COMPREHENSIVE EXAM QUESTIONS FROM YOUR PHD DEGREE ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE.
Someone keeps a file of the comprehensive exam questions. Getting a copy of these early in your program helps you understand what your professors are really teaching toward, and looking for at exam time. Having these in the back of your mind keeps you from expending energy in unhelpful directions. It also reduces the anxiety of PhD exams. You know what you are up against.
5. MEET WITH YOUR COMPREHENSIVE EXAM WRITER TO FEEL OUT THE EXAM.
Some exam writers allow you to personalize your exam questions. If you can, fantastic! Hopefully you have already written on some of this material in your class papers and now you have a paper sized study guide for that question! If not, then get a good idea of the bounds of the exam. What will be asked, what not? How many surprises should you expect? How many pages are they looking for in the answers? If they don't want to tell you say some extreme page number to get a reaction.
6. WRITE OUT PROVISIONAL ANSWERS TO YOUR EXAM QUESTIONS EARLY.
Don't get trapped in re-reading every book several times without answering any questions. Even if you only have sample questions, answer those sample questions on paper. Then you can move on to the real business of exam preparation, memorization.
7. MEMORIZE YOUR EXAM ANSWERS IN A WAY THAT YOU KNOW WORKS FOR YOU.
These are just like any other exam you have ever taken, just bigger. They are essay exams, so how do you study for essay exams? Here are some ways some people have tried that work well:
1. Outline each question in detail and then reproduce the outline over and over until memorized.
2. Record yourself answering the question out loud and listen to that recording until memorized.
3. Meet with another student and wrestle with the questions together taking notes and sharpening each other.
4. Write out each question en toto. Then reduce to a detailed outline. Reduce that to a simple outline. Memorize the simple outline. Then attempt to reproduce the essay from that memorized outline either verbally or in written form.
Tags: comprehensive exam, your dissertation, comprehensive exams, each question, essay exams, EXAM QUESTIONS, exams Here
Even though programs like Adobe InDesign or Quark Xpress are among the best programs to use to create timelines, there is no reason why a person should need to buy these programs in order to create an attractive and effective timeline. The fact is, you can create a timeline with Microsoft Word that will look clean and professional by following a few short steps.
Instructions
1. Open Microsoft Word by clicking on the icon on the desktop or by navigating to the icon on the "Start" menu. After the program is opened, navigate to the "File" menu on the Microsoft Word toolbar at the top left corner of the screen. Click on "Page Setup" and change the page to a "landscape" layout. This will flip the page 90 degrees and allow more horizontal space for the items on the timeline.
2. Navigate to the "View" menu, which is located toward the end of the toolbar. When the drop-down menu opens, click on "Toolbars" and then "Drawing." This will open the "Drawing" toolbar in a separate pane on the page.
3. Create the bar for the timeline by clicking the "Rectangle Tool" on the Drawing toolbar. Move the pointer toward the left side of the page, somewhere about halfway down. Click and drag the pointer from one side of the screen to the next. Keep the rectangle thin.
4. Make the rectangle the proper color by clicking the "Fill Color" icon on the toolbar. A selection of colors will appear in a new window pane. Select the color you want the timeline to be by clicking on it.
5. Draw markers on the timeline by clicking on the "Line Tool" on the toolbar. Consider how many events will be listed on the timeline and draw that number of vertical lines coming from the rectangle box on the screen. Alternate the vertical lines by placing every other line underneath the timeline.
6. Add text to the timeline by clicking on the "Text Box" tool on the toolbar. Click and drag a small box at the end of the vertical line that is furthest from the rectangle in the middle of the page.
7. Type the year and event into the text box that was created. For best results to differentiate the year from the other text, highlight the year and select "Ctrl+B" to make this text bold.
8. Continue to add boxes to each subsequent vertical line protruding from the timeline.
Tags: Microsoft Word, timeline clicking, Click drag, Drawing toolbar, from rectangle, This will
Genogram software allows you to map your family's geology on your computer. This mapping becomes a visual representation of your family's generational linage. There are few application providers that offer Genogram software, featuring similar processes for free download and installation.
Instructions
1. Shut down all of the applications and programs on your computer.
2. Open a browser and go to one of the various sites that offer Genogram software (see Resources). Click the download button displayed on the page. The software will download onto your computer.
3. Double click the downloaded .exe file. The location of this file depends on where you designate your downloads to reside on your system. Typically, this is your desktop or your downloads folder.
4. Follow the prompts that require you to agree to the terms of the software license and to designate a location for the software to reside on your system. Restart your computer when the installation is complete.
Tags: your computer, Genogram software, offer Genogram, offer Genogram software, reside your, reside your system
Weathering and erosion are natural phenomena responsible for occurrences such as land slides and rock falls. Teaching students about planetary forces such as weathering and erosion is an essential part of any Earth science curriculum. Earth science projects allow students to fully explore concepts learned in class in hands-on, creative activities that are both thought-provoking and challenging.
Dirty Dishes
Allow students to simulate weathering with a project involving dish plates. This project can be completed in small groups or individually. Ask the students to dirty four dishes (plates or pans) equally with the same amount of food on each dish. Baked on food, such as stuck-on cookie or cake bread works well for this project. Instruct the students to set aside one dish as a control. On the other three dishes, ask the students to find creative ways to simulate chemical or physical weathering and erosion. They can freeze then thaw the dishes or rub them with sand, for example. Ask them to note the effects of the weathering and erosion on the food in comparison to the dish that was not touched. Draw conclusions about weathering and erosion on land formations.
Research Project
Ask students to individually research, in the school library or at home, unusual land formations found in the U.S. or around the world that were created by erosion. Instruct the students to write down at least one interesting fact about each land formation. Ask the students to share their findings with the class and pinpoint the land formations they researched on a map. Study the map and discuss on a class the geographical locations of these interesting land formations.
Rocks in Bottles
Gather 15 shale, sandstone or limestone rocks for this project as well as three empty wide-mouthed plastic water bottles. Label the bottles A, B and C. Place five stones in each bottle and fill bottles B and C about halfway with water. Allow the bottles to sit overnight in the water. As a class, pass around bottle B and ask each student to shake the bottle vigorously ten times. Pass bottle C around and ask the students to shake the bottle 100 times with short periods of rest. Pour out the water and discuss as a class the differences between the rocks from A, B and C. Follow with a discussion about how water effects rocks in weathering and erosion.
Model Formation
Instruct students to make a model of land formations created by weathering and erosion. They can get creative and choose what medium to use for their model, such as clay or papier mach , depending on their land formation. Give the students a list of land formations to choose from or ask them to research a land formation on their own. The students should present their models to the class and give brief discussions on how they were formed, where they are located and how they created their models.
Tags: land formations, Instruct students, land formation, weathering erosion, discuss class, Earth science, erosion They
People who live at high altitudes must adjust to lower atmospheric pressure.
Altitude describes a location's elevation above or below sea level. As your altitude increases, the atmospheric pressure decreases, causing changes in the environment and in your daily routine. For example, water boils at a lower temperature at high elevations, increasing cooking time for boiled pastas, steamed vegetables and soups. Vehicles require engine adjustments and reduced tire pressure. Even your body has to adjust to thinner air and faster dehydration rates. Because of these differences, it is helpful to know the altitude of a particular address.
Instructions
The National Map
1. Access the U.S. Geological Survey's National Map at viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/.
2. Type your address into the "Find a Place" box at the top of the page, then click "Search." A gold circle appears over your address and all addresses with similar search terms.
3. Click the down arrow on the GIS Toolbox at the top of the map to display the map tools.
4. Click on the "USGS" tab and select "Spot Elevation."
5. Click on the circle that corresponds to your address. The elevation in feet and meters appears on the map.
Google Earth
6. Download Google Earth at google.com/earth/download/ge/agree.html.
7. Launch the program and expand the "Search" tab by clicking on the down arrow.
8. Enter your address into the "Fly To" box. Google Earth navigates to your location and puts a box with a crosshair over your address.
9. Place your mouse cursor over the box until it lights up. The information bar at the bottom of the map shows your elevation.
Tags: your address, Google Earth, address into, atmospheric pressure, down arrow, over your
In the United States, the major source for funding grants for geologic mapping projects is the National Cooperative Geologic Mapping Program (NCGMP). Under the administrative umbrella of the United States Geological Survey (USGS), which is part of the U.S. Department of the Interior, the NCGMP has three divisions of grant programs, one directed toward federal mapping, one for state mapping projects and one to train students through higher education geologic mapping programs.
Functions
The USGS defines a geologic map as one that shows geologic features in addition to natural features, such as mountains, rivers and streams. Geologic mapping or geological surveys plot geologic structure, including rocks, minerals and crust features. Knowing and understanding the geologic structure of an area helps seismologists to recognize and map existing faults, geologists to pinpoint ore deposits and scientists in general to understand the historic geologic trends of the planet better.
Federal Projects
What the NCGMP terms the FEDMAP program is available as a means to fund only federal projects. FEDMAP grant proposals are reviewed by a committee consisting of three USGS Earth Surfaces Processes Teams and representatives from pertinent agencies, such as the National Park Service, the Fish and Wildlife Service, the Association of American State Geologists and the USGS Water Resources Discipline. Federal projects may take place in any of the states and U.S. territories and may consist of a coordinated effort with STATEMAP projects.
State Projects
STATEMAP is a matching-funds program between the NCGMP and the states to finance state geologic mapping or geological surveys. Geologic mapping projects awarded grant funding through the STATEMAP program go through a competition with other state projects around the nation. To fund the chosen STATEMAP projects, the NCGMP and the state contribute equally to the cost. According to the NCGMP, the states' geological survey workers conduct the mapping process and have one year to complete the grant-funded work. State projects may overlap with ongoing federal plans.
Colleges and Universities
According to the national mapping program, the purpose of the EDMAP component is to fund educational projects in order to "train the next generation of geologic mappers." The EDMAP division of the national mapping program awards grants to college and university projects following a competition among proposals. EDMAP groups often work on current state and federal projects or in close proximity. Grant awards to colleges and universities for geologic mapping projects are matched dollar-for-dollar by the educational institution submitting the proposal. Grant recipients have one year to complete the funded work.
Even nature's largest geographical footprints are susceptible to weathering.
Weathering is an important process in which large pieces of rock and other geological materials are broken down over time. This process can occur due to human activity (mechanical weathering), through chemical interactions or because of simple exposure to the elements. Regardless of the process, weathering is always an essential part of sustaining life on this planet.
Creation of Soil
Soil is one of the cornerstones of life on earth. Without it, no plants would be able to grow and, therefore, no other life could be supported. Weathering is an essential part of soil creation. As large rocks and other geological materials are exposed to rain, wind, freezing temperatures and other elements, they break apart. It may take hundreds or even thousands of years, but even the largest rock will be reduced to tiny pieces of dirt that can be used as soil. The amount of time necessary to break down geological material will depend on what the material is, its size and the overall weather conditions.
Minerals
Minerals such as phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and iron are essential to life on this planet. Rocks and other geological materials are often filled with these minerals; they just aren't accessible to life forms. As rocks break down over centuries and turn into dust, plants and even small animals are able to extract the minerals from the tiny dirt particles. For example, the root system of a plant is designed to extract minerals from dirt particles. Thus, the minerals once inaccessible to a plant because they were contained in a large rock are able to feed thousands of plants.
Creation of Usable Materials
Weathering creates three distinct types of material: clay, sand and gravel. These materials are important to plant life on earth, but they also are used by man for a number of functions. For example, clay has been used for centuries as a building material and a medium for art. Sand is often used as protective material. Sandbags protect lives and buildings from floodwaters, and you can often find sand barriers used to slow down or block out-of-control vehicles on the highway or even on racetracks.
Tags: geological materials, other geological, other geological materials, break down, dirt particles, down over, essential part
Physics research grants place priority on cutting edge research.
In the broad field of physics, grants are available for everything from research in hydrology to the funding of nuclear physics accelerator facilities. The United States government awards dozens of grants across all fields of science, while independent societies like the American Geological Union also offer financial assistance. The Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom, for those living or researching across the pond, is very generous with physics research support.
Science and Technology Facilities Council
The Science and Technology Facilities Council of the UK is generous in its support of physics research.
The United Kingdom's Science and Technology Facilities Council awards a handful of grants for research in the areas of experimental and theoretical particle physics and particle astrophysics. Acceptance of grant proposals is contingent upon novel research of the highest scientific merit that will either be an invaluable contribution to world physics or put the UK at the forefront of particle physics research. Accepted proposals will have research paid for in full, including up to £50,000 for equipment.
Science and Technology Facilities Council
Polaris House
North Star Avenue
Swindon
SN2 1SZ 44-01793-442000
stfc.ac.uk
The Horton Research Grant
The Horton Research Grant awards those who research the physics of water.
As awarded by the American Geological Union, the Horton Research Grant helps fund doctorate research in the area of hydrology and water resources, including the physics of hydrology. Applicants must submit a title page, executive summary, statement of purpose, detailed budget, and two letters of recommendation. Proposals will be judged based on adapted criteria of the National Science Foundation, the primary tenet of which is the study's merit in advancing knowledge within and across scientific fields. Awards are available in varying amounts, though they are commonly given at $10,000.
American Geophysical Union
2000 Florida Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20009
800-966-2481
hydrology.agu.org
Nuclear Physics
The Department of Energy funds Nuclear Physics Accelerator Facilities.
The United States Department of Energy awards the Research and Development for Next Generation Nuclear Physics Accelerator Facilities. Priority will be given to proposals considered compelling by the physics community. Applications will be submitted to a peer review, which will base their decision on the scientific merit of the project, the appropriateness of the proposed method, the competency of applicant's personnel and adequacy of proposed resources, and the reasonableness and appropriateness of the proposed budget. The total budget for available grants is $2 million, though amounts vary based on the need and merit of a given project.
U.S. Department of Energy
1000 Independence Ave., SW
Washington, DC 20585
1-800-dial-DOE
202-586-4403
science.doe.gov
Theoretical Physics
Funding for theoretical physics can be found through the National Science Foundation.
The National Science Foundation offers grants for theoretical physics research in the following fields: atomic, molecular, and optical physics; nuclear theory; elementary particle theory; mathematical physics; astrophysics and cosmology theory; gravitational theory; and theoretical plasma physics. Interdisciplinary grants are also offered. The purpose of the grant is to support the development of qualitative and quantitative understanding of fundamental physical systems. In addition to research, the grant supports activities like visitor programs.
The constant movements of earth's continents have influenced evolution.
If you were to take a map of the world, cut out all the continents and lay them on a table, you might notice they can almost be put together like the pieces of a puzzle. Geologists believe the pieces of earth's outer shell---or tectonic plates---have always been on the move, continually bringing some continents together while splitting others apart every few hundred million years. While this process has clearly affected the evolution of the planet, what might not be as obvious is the effect it's had on the evolution of life.
Evolution 101
Earth's largest creature -- the whale -- once walked on land.
Scientists believe species evolve to adapt to their environments. For example, whales have undeveloped leg bones inside them, which leads scientists to suspect they once walked on land. As the diets of these air-breathing mammals shifted to mostly plankton and other small ocean creatures, they began spending more and more time in the water until it finally became their home. Because having legs didn't do much in the way of giving whales an advantage over oceanic predators, they began evolving with each generation until finally --- millions of years later --- their legs had been replaced by fins. For similar reasons, giraffes developed long necks, polar bears developed thick coats and human beings began walking upright.
Adapting to Change
The joining of India and China resulted in the evolution of four different species of frogs.
While whales evolved because they were forced to spend more time in the ocean to survive, other species had even less choice in the matter. When plate tectonics bring together previously separated landmasses, animals are forced to live in new environments and contend with new enemies. Evolution is nature's way of giving each species a chance to survive, gradually changing it to adapt to its environment. A prime example of this occurred about 55 million years ago, when geologists believe India and China came together, giving rise to the Himalayan-Tibetan plateau. At the time, one species of frog is believed to have lived in Asia; but when it was separated into different groups by the Himalayan-Tibetan plateau, each group began evolving independently, resulting in four different species.
Negative Effects of Plate Tectonics
The llama migrated to South America when two continents came together.
Oftentimes, when earth's constantly changing layout leaves species in particularly hostile environments, they don't evolve quickly enough to survive. Such was the case about three million years ago, when volcanic activity formed a land bridge connecting North and South America. Animals from North America adapted so well to the southern continent that at least four native South American land mammals were driven to extinction. Other South American species, like the armadillo and the opossum, managed to escape to North America, becoming extinct in their native land but thriving in their new home. Meanwhile, a few northern species, like the llama and the tapir, disappeared from their homeland but began to thrive in South America.
Looking Into the Future
In 50 million years, the joining of Africa and Europe will eliminate the Mediterranean Sea.
Because both processes occur over long stretches of time, the effects of evolution and plate tectonics might not be obvious --- but each continues to be an ongoing process. Over the course of the next 50 million years, Africa and Europe will come together, eliminating the Mediterranean Sea. In 250 million years, geologists believe, earth will be comprised of only two landmasses: a union of Antarctica and Australia and a combination of North America, South America, Europe, Asia and Africa. While scientists may be able to predict these changes millions of years in advance, only after the mergers occur will we know how evolution will react to them.
Tags: million years, South America, North America, Africa Europe, Africa Europe will
Flood frequency refers to how often a flood of a given size can be expected for a certain location. It can be represented as the probablility that a particular size of flood will occur each year. Flood frequency analysis is a useful tool for engineers when planning bridges or other projects near bodies of water. Does this Spark an idea?
Instructions
1. Find annual peak flow data for the river or stream you are interested in. Data for the U.S. can be found on the USGS Web site. The more years of data on record, the more accurate your analysis will be.
2. Calculate the recurrence interval for the size of flood you are analyzing. The recurrence interval simply equals the number of years on record divided by the number of flood events.
3. Use the recurrence interval to calculate the probability that a flood event will happen in any year. This probabilty equals one divided by the recurrence interval. For example, a flood with a 100-year recurrence interval has a 1 percent chance of happening this year or any year in the future.
Prospecting was once a huge business in the United States. In the Old West, gold diggers literally drove economies and sprung several cities into existence. Unfortunately, when the gold rush dried up, the gold diggers left or became poor, the economies went downhill and the cities became ghost towns. However, it is still possible to prospect for gemstones and meteorites for money and enjoyment.
Instructions
1. Hunt around your local area for a spot that may be rich in gemstones or meteorites. Some local parks may advertise it, but most likely you will have to do some searching on your own. A simple web search for "gemstone prospecting areas" with the name of your city or state should produce good results. You may need to travel a bit though, so be prepared to make a trip out of it
2. Apply for a permit to dig in the area. Every state government has an application for prospecting--prospecting without a permit is illegal. You will have to pay for everything that comes out of the ground, but the prices are not as high as buying the stones at retail prices.
3. Buy or rent prospecting tools. Whether you buy them or rent them depends on your commitment to prospecting. Prospecting can be a fun, one-time trip, a full hobby or a source of income. Rent the tools at first and then decide if you want to continue pursuing prospecting as a regular activity.
4. Go camping. Prospecting is a great reason to go camping. It's an alternative to the usual fishing and hiking trips and may take you to some interesting and desolate environments. Technically, you only have to spend one full day to go prospecting. But if you are going to drag yourself out to the middle of nowhere, get a permit and rent equipment, you might as well maximize the experience.
5. Learn identify gemstones and meteorites. Buying a gemstone identification book beforehand will save you a lot of work. Not everyone is a geologist and you may not be able to tell the difference between pyrite and gold. See the Resources section for a website that shows check stones.
Tags: gemstones meteorites, gold diggers, will have
The Freshwater Pearl is the state gem of Tennessee
Tennessee is home to a range of semi-precious stones, including the state gem the Freshwater Pearl. In particular, gems are likely to be found in the east of the state, where the Appalachian Mountains are situated. Though not commercially-mined, the area is popular with amateur enthusiasts, or 'rock hounds' as they often call themselves.
Tennessee Freshwater Pearl
Formed from freshwater mussels, the Tennessee Freshwater Pearl can be found in lakes and rivers across the states. Since gemstones are, in essence, crystaline rocks that can be cut and polished, pearls are not technically gemstones. They have, however, been classed as such by collectors and enthusisasts since the Victorian era, when the deinition of precious gems and gemstones began to get broader.
The river peal was designated Tennessee's State Gem in 1979. The Tennessee River Freshwater Pearl Farm in Camden -- the only freshwater pearl farm outside of Asia -- gives a comprehensive insight of the creation and production of the state gem.
Emeralds
Around 270 million years ago, the tectonic plates that now lie under the continents of North America and Africa collided, pushing up rocks to form what is now the Appalachian mountain range. In the Southern Appalachian region, which includes almost the entire eastern half of the east of Tennessee as well as significant portions of several neighboring states, high-purity minerals such as quartz and mica and emeralds, though very rare, can theoretically also be found in this part of the Volunteer State.
Beryl
As with sapphires, the geological history of the Appalachian Mountains means that, though rarely found, beryl is also present in the eastern region of Tennessee.
While pure beryl is colorless, it is mainly found tinted by impurities, in particular with blue, red, yellow or white tints. Green beryl that is colored by trace amounts of chromium and occasionally vanadium is also known as emerald.
Middle Tennessee Gem and Mineral Society Museum
Tennessee boasts fewer gemstones than some other American states, but the Middle Tennessee State University Mineral, Gem and Fossil Museum has on display examples from all over the world.
Located in Murfreesboro, the museum was established in 2005 by the university's Department of Geosciences and is open to members of the public as well as to students.
The Ring of Fire is a series of active volcanoes located along the Pacific tectonic plate.
The Ring of Fire refers to the series of active volcanoes that circle in a horseshoe shape throughout the Pacific Ocean. Seventy-five percent of the world's active volcanoes and ninety percent of the world's earthquakes occur along this ring, which is the result of movement along the Pacific tectonic plate. The ring is located along the edges of four continental areas.
North American Pacific
The North American section of the Ring of Fire stretches from southern Mexico up to the southern coast of Alaska, where it turns west. This section of the ring includes the San Andreas Fault in California, which has generated a number of earthquakes in the state. It also includes the Paricutin volcano in Mexico and Mount St. Helens in Washington state.
South American Pacific
The South American portion of the ring stretches the length of the western coast of the continent. The plates in this section helped create the long trail of Andean mountains along the Argentinean and Chilean coasts. Movement along this section has created several devastating earthquakes in Chile.
Asian Pacific
The Asian portion of the ring of fire stretches from Siberia down through the southeastern coast of Japan. The most famous volcano in this portion of the ring is Mount Fuji in Japan. Several earthquakes in Japan, including the Sendai earthquake in 2011, have occurred as a result of movement along the Asian Pacific Rim.
South Pacific
The South Pacific portion of the ring of fire starts in the Philippines, goes west through the Indonesian islands, and stretches down along the eastern coasts of Australia and New Zealand. The Hawaiian islands were formed as a result of the plate tectonics in this region, as well as earthquakes in Indonesia and New Zealand. The most famous active volcano in this section is Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines.
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Seismology is a branch of earth science which is concerned with earthquakes and other activity that occurs beneath the planet's surface. The scientists who work in this field are called seismologists. Usually these professionals hold advanced degrees. They monitor earthquake activity, attempt to predict it and work with many other geologic and scientific fields in such diverse activities as searching for oil and natural gas reserves and mining.
Identification
The word, "seismic", comes from the Greek word for earthquake and the word "logo" comes from the Greek word for knowledge. Seismology is the study of earthquakes and seismologists are the scientists who study them. While ancient people created myths to explain earthquakes, the first European scientific study of earthquakes began after a devastating earthquake hit Lisbon, Portugal, in 1755. As many as 70,000 people were killed in that earthquake and by the tsunami that followed.
History
Following the Lisbon earthquake scientists began recording the time, location, and specific effects of earthquakes. The earliest observers included the Englishman John Mitchell, and Elie Bertrand, from Switzerland. By 1820, earthquakes were associated with changes in the earth's surface because of the writings of Maria Graham about changes in the coast of Chile. Robert Mallet, of Ireland, is credited with figuring out measure the depth at which earthquakes occur in the late 1800s. The understanding that plate motion along faults is a cause of earthquakes was the conclusion of the American Grove Karl Gilbert in the early twentieth century. His work inspired another American, his contemporary, Harry Fielding Reid, who described how earthquakes allow for pent-up stresses in the crust to be released.
Function
Seismologists rely on an instrument called a seismograph that measures the frequency and amplitude of the waveforms generated by earthquakes. A primitive seismograph was invented as early in the second century AD in China. Modern seismographs can measure waves generated around the earth. The first electromagnetic seismograph was invented by Luigi Palmieri in the late nineteenth century. One of his seismographs was installed near Mount Vesuvius, the volcano that destroyed Pompeii in 70 A.D. By the early 1900s researchers at the University of Tokyo built a seismograph with much improved the sensitivity. The data gathered by the increasingly accurate seismographs measure the seismic waves produced by earthquakes, volcanoes, explosions and events that you might not think of as having a seismic signature, such as avalanches and landslides. Using the data from these instruments, seismologists look for patterns from which they can draw conclusions and make predictions.
Types
Seismologists provide important expertise for many commercial and national purposes. Ground motion specialists consult with architects and engineers who are building and planning bridges and buildings so that they will be able to withstand a major earthquake. They also advise disaster relief personnel about where an earthquake might do the most damage so that they can plan ahead in case one happens. The petroleum industry hires seismologists to locate new oil deposits using the same technology that helps them to study the structure of the inner earth. Government seismologists monitor the earth to learn when other countries are testing new weapons by detonating them deep underground. The US Geological Survey also hires seismologists to monitor and interpret seismic activity.
Considerations
Seikei Sekiya of Japan was the first person to become a professor of seismology. Another Japanese seismologist derived the formulas to show the rates of an earthquake's aftershocks. This kind of research requires highly trained scientists with advanced degrees following an undergraduate degree in geology, computer science, geophysics, math or physics. If you are interested in this field, you can watch a real-time seismic monitor online that shows where earthquakes are happening.
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