Earth and space science activities may help children better understand abstract concepts.
To children, the evolution of day to night can be a mysterious concept. Beginning in the elementary grades, kids are taught earth and space sciences that help them better understand how the earth and solar system work. Fortunately, you can teach many of the more difficult concepts of earth and space science, such as rotation and revolution, using activities that keep the children engaged.
First- & Second-Grade Planet Actions
This activity helps make the concepts of planet rotation and revolution more realistic and easier to understand for younger children. To prepare, the teacher will need one large yellow ball and nine balloons of different colors. Assign each child a balloon, or "planet," and ask them to stand on a pre-drawn course that resembles the rotation of the planets. Instruct children to begin following their course to demonstrate how planets orbit around the sun. Students should also spin as they walk to illustrate the planets' rotations. Follow up the activity with a classroom discussion about the solar system.
Third-Grade Earthquake Demonstrations
As students study the cause and effect of earthquakes, help them better comprehend the effects of earthquake motions on the environment. Instruct students to fill an aluminum tray halfway with wet sand. Place a layer of dry sand on top and have students lightly shake or "shimmy" the pan back and forth to make an "earthquake." Tell them that the wet sand rising to the top is an illustration of "liquefaction"; discuss the concept with the class. In another activity, have the third-grade students fill a tray with gelatin and build sugar cube "structures"; they can then simulate another earthquake and observe the damage to their buildings.
Fourth-Grade Fog Chamber
Fourth-grade students studying the meteorological aspect of earth and space science can better understand how clouds are formed by making a fog chamber. To conduct the activity, place 1/8-inch water in the bottom of a 1-gallon glass jar. Stretch the opening of a rubber glove over the top, with the fingers facing down. Instruct a student to place his hand in the glove and quickly remove it. Next, help each group of students drop a lit match into the jar and place the glove back over the top. As students slip their hands in and out of the glove, fog will form inside of the jar. Discuss how the activity mimics moist air cooling and forming fog or clouds.
Fifth-Grade Sundial Construction
As students build their base of earth and space science classes throughout elementary school, instructors can introduce more in-depth activities in later grades. For example, fifth-grade students may enjoy creating sundials individually or in groups. Use the activity as an opportunity to discuss that sundials must be built according to latitude and that readings may vary by season, based on the placement of the sun. Turn this activity into a long-term project to take note of the difference in sundial accuracy throughout the school year.
Tags: better understand, space science, earth space, earth space, earth space science, help them
Geologists may earn high wages depending on their industry.
Geologists are geoscientists who focus specifically on studying the composition and history of Earth. They may specialize in certain areas; for example, petroleum geologists search the earth for oil and gas deposits, and engineering geologists provide consulting services on construction projects. The annual salary of a geologist will depend on his area of specialty, as well as his level of experience, industry and location.
Annual Salary
Geologists earned an average annual salary of $92,710 as of May 2009, states the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, and the median salary was $81,220. Salaries ranged from $43,140 at the 10th percentile to $161,260 at the 90th percentile. From the 25th percentile to the 75th percentile, the middle 50 percent of geologists earned annual salaries between $56,280 and $117,040.
Industry
The two industries with the highest levels of employment of geologists were architectural, engineering and related services, with an annual average salary of $76,220, and oil and gas extraction, with an annual average salary of $136,270, according to the bureau. Geologists working in management, scientific and technical consulting services earned an average of $73,920 a year, while those working for state governments or the federal executive branch earned averages of $62,550 and $94,560, respectively. The highest-paying industry for geologists was petroleum and petroleum products merchant wholesalers, where the salary average was $139,740 annually.
Location
The bureau named Texas as the top-paying state for geologists, with a salary average of $127,250 annually. The top three highest-paying metropolitan areas in the country were also in Texas: in Midland, College Station and Houston, salary averages for geologists ranged from $138,370 to $142,250. Washington, D.C., and Alaska were the second and third highest-paying states for geologists, with annual average salaries of $107,160 and $104,410 respectively.
Advancement and Outlook
Geologists typically start in entry-level positions, such as research assistant or laboratory technician. With experience, they may move on to higher-paying and more complex projects, and can eventually earn promotions to positions such as program manager or senior researcher. The bureau predicts an employment rate growth of 18 percent for geologists between 2008 and 2018. For those working in industries related to oil and gas, employment rates may fluctuate depending on the price of petroleum; when prices are low, the employment rate may decline as well.
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The Earth is covered in plates that move in conjunction with the planet's internal heat mechanism. Convection currents deep within the mantle form a conveyor belt, moving the plates and thereby the continents. Plate movement causes earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mountain building events and deep sea trenches. These geologic features and events serve as evidence for the convection theory.
Holmes' Convection Theory
In 1929, Arthur Holmes used Alfred Wegener's observations to develop a plate tectonics mechanism theory. Holmes named convection as the driving force behind plate tectonics. His theory suggested that as the mantle became heated it became less dense and began to rise. As the material cooled, it would sink, forming what he described as a conveyor belt. He theorized that the pressure of heated magma broke continents apart, forcing pieces of the continents to move in opposite directions. He speculated further that when the material sank, continents were brought back together.
Sea Floor Spreading
Holmes' theory received little attention in the 1920s because of a lack of evidence to support it. In the 1960s, Hess and Dietz built upon Holmes' theory to create the idea of sea floor spreading. Hess and Dietz recognized that convection currents in the asthenosphere are strong enough to form a powerful mechanism such as plate tectonics. They analyzed maps and magnetic data of the ocean floor. They discovered that the mid-oceanic ridge was a weak zone where new crust was being created. In addition, they found deep-sea trenches along continental margins where crust was being destroyed. Through their research, they determined that the Atlantic Ocean was widening and the Pacific Ocean was shrinking. While Holmes' theory lacked evidence, Hess and Dietz had a mechanism for plate tectonics and the evidence provided by deep sea research to back it up.
Mid-Ocean Ridges
Analysis of the ocean floor indicates that heat flow on the ocean floor peaks at the crest of the ridge. It is also noted that the youngest rocks on the ocean floor exist at the ridge, and the rocks get progressively older moving away from the ridge in either direction. These facts suggest that upwelling occurs at the mid-ocean ridge, pushing the plates apart in both directions. Geologic activity such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are increased at the mid-ocean ridge.
Geomagnetic Anomalies
Throughout Earth's history, there have been a number of magnetic field reversals. During this time, the south magnetic pole will switch to be geographically in the north and vice versa. Rocks containing iron, such as the basalt on the ocean floor, will align themselves with the magnetic poles. The ocean floor shows the magnetic reversals in stripes where the minerals align differently. These magnetic field reversals are mirrored on either side of the mid-ocean ridge, indicating that sea floor spreading originates at the ridge.
Trenches and Island Arcs
Whenever crust is created, crust must also be destroyed. Hess and Dietz recognized that oceanic crust was being destroyed at deep sea trenches. When deep sea trenches occur adjacent to continental margins, volcanic mountain ranges can be seen on the continent. When deep sea trenches form within the ocean, volcanic island arcs are found adjacent to the trench. This occurs because when the crust is pushed deeper into the lithosphere, it heats. The heated material becomes less dense than the area around it, creating volcanic mountains and islands adjacent to the trench.
The New York State Teacher Examination is one of the toughest in the nation.
All teachers in the state of New York must pass the New York State Teacher Examination, which experts regard as one of the the toughest in the nation. The test consists of three parts. The first part, the Liberal Arts and Science section, covers basic subjects including science, math, history, music, social studies, art, humanities, and communication and writing skills. The second part is a written assessment of teaching skills. The final portion addresses skills in the student's major field of study, either elementary or secondary education. Students may take each section of the test at different times.
Instructions
1. Review academic materials related to a broad knowledge of subject material.
2. Practice essay writing in order to improve grammar, spelling and overall writing skills.
3. Study practice materials. You can buy these for $20 to $50 or find resources on line.
4. Seek help from college professors. They have taken the test and spend time working with prospective teachers. They can assist you in finding study materials and working on honing writing skills, as well as recommending areas of focus.
5. Hire a private tutor. While this may be expensive, it will be worth it in the long run if you pass the test.
Tags: York State Teacher, State Teacher, State Teacher Examination, Teacher Examination, writing skills, York State
Nebraska's flag incorporates the official seal of the state.
American states just love to designate official state symbols. The tradition began innocently enough. A person can understand why a state government might want an official state flag or an official seal, an official song or even a state bird. After all, the U.S. has the Stars and Stripes, a Great Seal of the United States, "The Star Spangled Banner" and the American bald eagle. Still, a cynic might accuse Nebraska and other states of going overboard. Nebraska's list far outstrips the basic flag, seal, anthem and bird. Its official symbols include a wide variety of people, places and things that matter to the state's history, economy, physical geography and environment.
State Flag and Official Seal
Nebraska's Great Seal incorporates several elements symbolizing the state's history and economy. The date at the bottom, March 1, 1867, refers to the date Nebraska achieved statehood. Inside the seal, a yellow scroll bears the state motto, "Equality Before the Law." The 1867 bill that created the seal included very specific instructions for its design. The law called for "a steamboat ascending the Missouri River, the mechanic arts to be represented by a smith with a hammer and anvil... agriculture to be represented by a settler's cabin, sheaves of wheat, and stalks of growing corn, in the background a train of cars heading towards the Rocky Mountains."
Nebraska's flag simply centers the seal on a blue background.
State Flora, Fauna and Geology
Like many states, Nebraska has designated a variety of plants and animals as official symbols. These include a state bird (western meadowlark), flower (goldenrod), grass (little bluestem), tree (cottonwood), mammal (whitetail deer), insect (honeybee) and fish (channel catfish).
The state also recognizes an official rock, prairie agate, which actually formed in more northerly states and washed down to Nebraska in rivers and streams. The official gemstone, blue agate, does originate within the state, and the official soil, Holdrege, supports farming in south-central Nebraska and northern Kansas.
State Songs
Nebraska has both an official state song and state ballad. The legislature adopted "Beautiful Nebraska" as the state song in 1967. The melody for the song came to its composer Jim Fras as he lay in a farmer's field, staring at the sky, and Fras later wrote its lyrics with his poet friend Guy G. Miller. The song closes with the lyric, "All these wonders by the Master's hand / Beautiful Nebraska land."
Governor Ben Nelson named Sol Kutler's "A Place Like Nebraska" as the state ballad in 1997. Its lyrics advise the state's citizens to "turn on your smile / tell them life is worthwhile / when you're bred and corn-fed in Nebraska."
Unusual Symbols
On top of the usual state birds, songs and seals, Nebraska officially recognizes some unusual symbols that define its identity. The state boasts a baseball capital (Wakefield) and an historic baseball capital (St. Paul), an official state beverage (milk) as well as an official soft drink (Kool-Aid, invented in Hastings in 1927). On the natural history front, the mammoth earned the title of official state fossil. Nebraska also honors its poets. In 1921, the legislature recognized John G. Neihardt as state poet laureate, and the governor named William Kloefkorn as state poet in 1982.
Tags: official state, baseball capital, Beautiful Nebraska, Great Seal, history economy, Nebraska flag, Nebraska state
Five major fossil discoveries were made in Oklahoma between the 1930s and 2010. Most counties of Oklahoma, especially the eastern and southern parts of the state, have fossils of some type that range in age from 85 million to about 500 million years old.
Saurophaganax Maximus
Saurophaganax Maximus, a carnivorous dinosaur from the Jurassic Period, became Oklahoma's official fossil in 2000 as an honor to the state's paleontological history. Saurophaganax Maximus is the only dinosaur known to have been on the terrain that became the state. This theropod was 5 meters high with a length of 12 meters. It would have hunted on plains as well as lowlands.
Aciculopoda Mapesi
Aciculopoda Mapesi is the oldest known shrimp at 370 million years old as well as the oldest decapod found in the United States. Its discovery by Ohio University paleontologist Royal Mapes and his students was confirmed to the public in 2010. The previous oldest shrimp was a 245 million year old version found in Madagascar. Preservation of muscle tissue from the tail gave scientists the chance to run tests they could not do with many fossil finds.
Trilobites
Trilobites are representative of at least half of the Cambrian period fossils in the United States. Their flat, oval bodies show a relation to present chelicerates such as horseshoe crabs. Many areas of Oklahoma list trilobite discoveries because the land was under shallow sea in the Paleozoic Era. The fossils range in age from 250 million to 540 million years old.
The Cretaceous Period between 65 million and 144 million years ago saw many sea creatures such as cephalopods inhabit the area that would be Oklahoma. Clam and snail fossils are constantly discovered across the state.
Acrocanthosaurus Atokensis
Paleontologists J. Willis Stovall and Wann Langston, Jr. found Acrocanthosaurus Atokensis in Atoka County during the 1950s. They chose the name to highlight the sizeable spines that go across certain areas of the dinosaur's body. The fossils indicate the 18-foot tall meat-eater was between 146 and 100 million years old.
Sauroposeidon
The Morrison Formation of Cimarron County is a prominent site for fossil discoveries from the Jurassic period. Richard Cifelli and a team from the Oklahoma Museum of Natural History are credited with the discovery of the Sauroposeidon in 1994. At 56 feet, the dinosaur is the tallest known specimen from southwestern Oklahoma.
Tags: million years, Saurophaganax Maximus, Aciculopoda Mapesi, Acrocanthosaurus Atokensis, between million, fossil discoveries, from Jurassic
Finding the top science colleges to attend can be a difficult task. Getting accepted can be even more difficult, because some of these schools are the top-rated colleges and universities in the nation in several disciplines. Because science is subdivided into several sub-disciplines, you must also consider which schools rate highest in each of those sub-disciplines.
Biological Sciences
Stanford University's biology programs rank first in the nation, according to U.S. News and World Report. Stanford offers a bachelor of science, master of science and Ph.D. program in the field. Stanford research is primarily focused on molecular, plant, evolutionary, population and marine biology, along with ecology. Its researchers and students are consistently recognized as some of the best in the world, as measured by the number of publications they produce and the number of awards they receive.
Chemistry
The California Institute of Technology (Cal Tech) is renowned for its proliferation of award-winning chemists and other famous graduates of the chemistry program. Nobel laureates Linus Pauling, Edwin McMillan and William Liscomb are all graduates of Cal Tech's chemistry program. Since 1990, the program has produced three more Nobel Prize winners. U.S. News and World Report ranks Cal Tech as tied for the top program in the nation with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. M.I.T. is also highly regarded for its scholarly research.
Physics
M.I.T is widely regarded to have the best physics program in the world. M.I.T. focuses largely on astrophysics; atomic, condensed matter and plasma physics; and nuclear and particle physics. Physics is such an integral part of the culture at M.I.T. that all students are required to take two semesters of foundational physics courses regardless of their major. Graduate students at M.I.T. make widely recognized contributions in the classroom and in applied physics. The school's undergraduate department ranks third, behind Cal Tech and Harvey Mudd College, in the number of Ph.D. recipients that eventually emerge from the undergraduate program.
Earth Sciences
The California Institute of Technology rates first among universities and colleges in contributions to the earth sciences. Its research is primarily focused on tectonics, petrology and geological hazards. Cal Tech is widely recognized for its cross-disciplinary approach. For instance, the Cal Tech Environmental Science initiative depends on the cooperation of the Geological and Planetary Sciences division to work with other divisions such as Engineering and Applied Science to study what impact human beings and natural processes have on the environment. Cal Tech's faculty members are also some of the most distinguished researchers in their respective fields.
Tags: Institute Technology, California Institute, California Institute Technology, chemistry program, News World, News World Report
Qibla locates the geographic direction to the Ka'bah, a holy object of Islam kept in a mosque in Mecca. Muslims face Mecca for their daily prayers, so a practicing Muslim always needs to know the Qibla direction. By performing a few trigonometric calculations, you can find the Qibla direction from anywhere you happen to be. You need to know the latitude and longitude of the Ka'bah for these calculations; according to the Islamic Society of North America, the latitude is 21 degrees north and the longitude is 40 degrees east.
Instructions
1. Measure your current latitude and longitude by finding your location on a map or globe and reading the latitude and longitude lines. You can also use a fix from a Global Positioning System satellite receiver.
2. Calculate the sine and the cosine of your current latitude.
3. Find the tangent of the the latitude of Mecca.
4. Subtract the longitude of Mecca from the longitude of your current location. Find the sine and cosine of this number.
5. Multiply the tangent of Mecca's latitude by the cosine of your latitude, then subtract this number from the product of the sine of your latitude and the cosine of the difference in longitudes.
6. Divide the number you just obtained by the sine of the difference in longitudes.
7. Calculate the tangent of this number. The result is the Qibla direction, measured in degrees clockwise from due North.
Tags: latitude longitude, Qibla direction, this number, your current, Calculate Qibla, Calculate Qibla Direction, cosine your
Mining is the process of mineral extraction from an ore or rock seam. The minerals can range from precious metals and iron to gemstones and quartz. In ancient times, miners recognized a mineral rock formation from its outcrop at the surface. Modern mining technology uses geophysical techniques that involve measuring the magnetic, gravity and sonic responses of rocks above and around a prospective mineral ore body.
Open Pit
Surface or opencast mining is the easiest way to produce a mineral ore when the deposits of economically valuable minerals lie close to the surface. Miners first remove the vegetation and soil cover above a mineral body. They remove further rock cover with explosives that create an open pit. Quarries are open-pit mines that produce building materials. Exhausted open-pit mines often become landfill sites for waste disposal.
Placer
Panning is one of the easiest methods of placer mining.
Placer mining is a form of open-pit mining of minerals from alluvial deposits, such as sands and gravels in existing or ancient rivers and streams. It is a common mining technique for gemstones and precious metals such as gold. Panning is the simplest method of placer mining where gold particles and gems settle to the bottom of a pan because they are denser and heavier than the sand and gravel.
Strip
Strip mining requires the removal of soil and vegetation.
Strip mining is a variation of surface mining for thin but extensive mineral layers close to the surface with layers of soil or rock above them. Bulldozers scrape and remove layers of soil and vegetation. Explosives break up the rock overburden and enable access to mineral ore. Coal, iron, and tar sands are mined this way.
Underground
Underground mining starts by following a surface outcrop of mineral ore as it slopes into the ground. The ore could be just 20 feet below the surface. Shaft mines are the deepest underground mines. South African gold mines are 12,000 feet underground. Access to underground mines is usually via a sloping or vertical shaft with an elevator mechanism. Miners extract the ore from seams extending horizontally from the shaft. Explosives break up the mineral ore rock and are removed by machinery to the shaft. Ventilation is necessary in deep mines for the removal of toxic gases and cooling. Temperatures below ground can reach over 100 degrees F.
Fluid
Sulfur is mined by first drilling a borehole and pumping water through pipes installed inside it. Water pumped through the pipe dissolves the sulfur and is pumped back to the surface. Sulfur is extracted after evaporation of the water. This type of mining can contaminate water supplies as the boreholes pull in groundwater from surrounding areas.
Marine
Bucket dredgers sweep up and collect minerals from the sea floor. This method has been used to mine manganese nodules since the 1970s. The rock nodules also contain copper, cobalt and nickel.
Tags: close surface, Explosives break, layers soil, mineral body, mineral rock, minerals from, open-pit mines
Marine biology research is constantly making new discoveries that help us better understand life in the sea.
Marine biology is the study of organisms in oceans and other bodies of water. It is an important field of research especially when you take into consideration that roughly 71 percent of the planet is covered by water and an incredible variety and volume of life live in ocean environments. As such, continued research into marine biology and related areas is vital because many humans rely on certain ocean species, such as fish, for food, medicine, and raw materials.
For those looking to pursue a career in the study of ocean life, here is a list of 10 schools that offer some of the best marine biology programs in the world.
Harvard University
At Harvard University, the Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology offers a number of courses related to the biology of marine systems. Courses include:
OEB 51. Biology and Evolution of Invertebrate Animals
OEB 118. Biological Oceanography
OEB 123. Biology of Symbiosis
OEB 130. Patterns and Processes in Fish Diversity
OEB 157. Global Change Biology
OEB 191. Physiological and Biochemical Adaptations
OEB 221. Microbial Diversity
OEB 227. Molecular Approaches to Environmental Microbiology
OEB 234. Topics in Marine Biology
OEB 255. Nature and Regulation of Marine Ecosystems
OEB 278. Topics in Microbial Metabolic Systems
SCIENCE B-53. Marine Biology
The department is also currently conducting research into the roles of seasonal and inter-annual variability in climate on the productivity of the sea, the reproductive biology and dispersal of benthic organisms (organisms at the lowest ecological level in a body of water), and the impacts of invasive and introduced species.
Cornell University
Cornell University offers a comprehensive list of undergraduate courses in marine science. Students who specialize in marine biology have the opportunity to spend a great deal of time at the Shoals Marine Laboratory on Appledore Island in Maine. There, they can take classes, conduct independent research projects and even complete a paid internship.
University of Miami
Since 1949, when the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science (RSMAS) introduced a master's program, marine science has been an integral part of the academic curriculum at the University of Miami. RSMAS is now one of the largest oceanographic foundations in the United States. The institute boasts more than 100 scientists who partake in academic training and conduct sponsored research projects.
Taking advantage of the university's subtropical location, students enrolled in the Marine and Atmospheric Science program are given year-round access to unique marine environments including coral reef tracts, sea grass beds and deep ocean waters. Combine this with the supervision of some of the top scientists in the field and it's no mystery why students wanting to get into marine biology flock to the University of Miami.
University of California - Santa Barbara
Composed of roughly 35 different faculty research groups all engaged in basic research, The Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology (EEMB) at the University of California in Santa Barbara is firmly committed to high educational standards. Researchers at the EEMB are continually using their scientific knowledge to gain a better understanding of some the world's most urgent environmental issues including global warming, biodiversity, pollution, and the impacts of environmental change. Each year, the graduate students and professors in the department educate over 1,500 students enrolled in any of the four specialized undergraduate majors offered by the University (Aquatic Biology, Ecology and Evolution, Physiology, and Zoology). The Aquatic/Marine Biology major, in particular, has received considerable recognition.
University of California - Berkeley
At Berkeley, the Marine Science Program is offered, in part, through the departments of Earth and Planetary Science and Integrative Biology. The program is not only widely regarded as a solid foundation for graduate studies in marine biology, but also as training for technical positions in private consulting firms or federal agencies like NASA.
Current marine science research being conducted at Berkeley includes coastal erosion, coastal pollution and its effect on coastal marine ecosystems, the ocean's role in climate phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña, and the role of the ocean in climate change.
Duke University
The marine labs at Duke University are devoted not only to the study of marine systems but also to the understanding of the human component so that proper approaches to marine conservation can be developed.
The University offers a Master's Program in Coastal Environmental Management and a PhD Program in Marine Science and Conservation. Duke is also home to some of the most advanced marine labs in the world and has courses that are specially structured so that students are often exposed to marine environments that are located in other parts of the world.
Boston University
The Boston University Marine Program (BUMP) was founded in 1969 and has maintained a focus primarily on the field of marine biology. Since 2008, however, BUMP has become an interdisciplinary program the concentrates more on the relationships between marine biology, physical oceanography, biogeochemistry, and marine geology in coastal environments.
In addition to field experiences and coursework, students in BUMP are subjected to a hands-on, research-oriented curriculum in marine science presented by a diverse faculty of talented educators.
University of Washington
Students getting into marine biology at the University of Washington have the option of pursuing a major in popular areas like Biology, Aquatic & Fishery Sciences, and Oceanography.
All of the marine biology coursework at the University of Washington involves hands-on learning and there is even a Marine Biology Community that organizes special courses and events that further the exploration of marine environments.
Texas A & M
The Marine Biology Department at Texas A & M gives faculty and students access to a multitude of fascinating and environmentally-sensitive marine ecosystems. There are five main areas of focus in the Department: fisheries, marine mammals, oceans and human health (aquatic health), wetlands and biodiversity. Through extensive field work, students receive productive training in the conservation and management of specific ecosystems.
Marine Biology graduates from Texas A & M often find employment with environmental consulting firms, private industries, federal agencies and biomedical laboratories.
College of Charleston
The College of Charleston offers one of the most wide-ranging master's degree programs in marine biology. While the program may not offer a lot in the way of specialization, it is all-encompassing, and emphasizes a large variety of topics including cell biology, physiology, population biology, ecology, toxicology, and marine genomics. The school also provides fellowships and teaching assistant positions to help support graduate students.
In order to complete the master's program, students at Charleston will need to spend a minimum of 30 hours in the field, pass a comprehensive exam and complete a thesis presentation and defense.
Tags: marine biology, Marine Biology, marine science, into marine, into marine biology, marine environments, University California
A QA (quality assurance) engineer typically works in developing, prototyping, improving processes or analysis of an environment, service or product. Because this profession involves testing in a variety of areas, most QA engineers require strong academic abilities in mathematics and science and at least an associate's degree, but sometimes a bachelor's degree. Depending on the field, additional training and certification may be required.
Computer Techology
Quality assurance professionals in the computer technology field typically work with computer systems or software. They test and evaluate systems or software for usability. Because systems and software are so complex, quality assurance personnel will use a variety of test procedures to evaluate quality. Quality evaluation in computer technology can include speed, functional abilities, ease of use and in some cases the product or systems ability to withstand certain environments.
Computer and software quality assurance professionals are required to have a bachelor's degree in a computer-related discipline. Average salaries can range from $55,000 a year to $85,000 a year depending on the complexity of the systems or software they're analyzing.
Engineering Fields
Quality assurance in engineering professions include inspecting products and processes, conducting tests and collecting data to improve quality. QA professionals in engineering may assist in product design, development or production in a manufacturing environment. They also may be required to conduct experiments to test the durability of a product. In an engineering profession, most quality assurance personnel will have at least an associate's degree in engineering technology. Average salaries can range from $31,000 a year to $55,000 a year depending on experience and environment.
Scientific Fields
Quality assurance professionals in the scientific industry usually use mathematical and scientific theories to solve problems in development and research. In a manufacturing environment, they monitor processes to ensure quality of products. Scientific quality assurance personnel keep careful records, and continue research to find ways to constantly improve a product, service or environment.
Scientific quality assurance personnel can work in agricultural, geological, chemical, biological, environmental and nuclear industries. Rather than focusing on a product, they continuously find new ways to improve processes and environments. In most cases, scientific quality assurance professionals are required to have an associate's degree in applied science or science technology and in some industries, they're required to have a bachelor's degree. Wages range from $15.00 per hour to $42.00 per hour.
Production Fields
QA engineers in production fields typically are involved with continuous process improvement to streamline and evaluate production activity. Their overall function is to cut costs and improve product production flow and processing. Because this profession typically is involved with overall profitability, salaries can range from $72,000 a year to $100,000 per year. Some organizations may offer a bonus structure depending on the company's revenues.
Outlook
QA engineers can be in high demand due to the nature and profitability of their work. Some organizations will accept new graduates to move into this role. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, QA engineering is an emerging career because of the constant changes in technology and the need to streamline processes and improve overall functions of any organization.
Tags: assurance personnel, assurance professionals, quality assurance, quality assurance personnel, range from, systems software, associate degree
College students desiring to study the mysteries of the earth need look no further than the local community college. Students either seeking an earth science major or needing to fulfill their credits for science for general studies will enjoy studying geology, astronomy, oceanography, meteorology and geography classes at their local community college. Most community college courses include lab work.
Geology
Geology is the study of the processes that take place in and on the Earth. The knowledge gained is used to interpret the history of the Earth and to confront environmental issues that affect the planet. It helps scientists understand the resources that the Earth produces so they can be conserved and used effectively. Community colleges offer geology classes covering environmental issues, the physical aspects of the Earth and the historical aspects. The studies in most geology classes include labs.
Oceanography
Prepare for a career in oceanography at your local community college. Earn an associate's degree or transfer to an university for a bachelor's degree. Study the geography of the ocean, the movement of its water and the lifeforms that inhabit this enormous habitat. Learn about oceanographic instruments and how they are used. Marine ecology classes take students to the field, where they learn collect, record and evaluate data.
Astronomy
Many community colleges offer courses in astronomy to entice students to consider a career in a field of science. Courses such as Survey of Astronomy and Elements of Astronomy instruct students about the history of astronomy and also cover the latest events that have taken place. Astronomers also need to understand physics, chemistry, biology and ecology, as well as the Earth, so students will need to take those courses too. Some community colleges offer advanced courses that cover the use of telescopes and methods of astronomy.
Meteorology
While most degrees in meteorology come from universities, community colleges offer classes that introduce the subject of weather. They discuss atmospheric changes, climate change and the effects of pollution on the weather. Some courses have students participate in forecasting the weather using various means of information.
Geography
Geography is the study of the relationship between human beings and the environment. It covers the "where" and "why" of historical events, the location and interactions that take place across the globe. Courses in geography cover more than the memorization of facts or locations on a map. Physical geography, economics and human geography are offered at the community college level. Weather and climate courses, cultural and regional classes and mapping classes are also part of the available classes.
Tags: community college, colleges offer, community colleges, local community, local community college
Natural processes, like rain and snow, help minerals become rocks.
Rocks are classified as sedimentary -- one of the three major rock types -- if they are composed of compacted sediments. Sediments are loose particles of rock, called lithics, or minerals that originate from the weathering of rock or from precipitation out of solution.
Transportation
After sediments are formed, they are usually transported some distance before they can settle and become sedimentary rock. Gravity, wind, water and ice are all possible transportation agents. During transportation, larger fragments weather down to smaller fragments. This weathering results in rounding of the sediment grains as they come in contact with each other and other abrasive materials. Another result of transportation is sorting, which is a grading of sediments based on their size. Smaller fragments are often transported longer distances than large fragments and sorting is a display of this.
Deposition
Deposition is the settling of sediments that occurs when a transportation agent no longer has the necessary energy to transport the sediments. Environments of deposition are highly variable and include locations such as river channels, desert valleys and the ocean floor. In sedimentology the environment of deposition gleaned from the study of a sedimentary rock is a key factor in determining ancient geologic environments of a region and how they may have changed over time.
Preservation
For sediments to finally become a sedimentary rock, it is important that they be preserved between deposition and lithification. For preservation to occur the sediments must not erode and undergo transportation after deposition. Sediments deposited on land are easily eroded and have a low chance of preservation, while sediments deposited underwater have less chance of erosion and a higher chance of preservation.
Lithification
Lithification is the term used to describe any process that turns sediments into sedimentary rock. This can be accomplished through some combination of compaction and cementation. Compaction is the packing together of grains, reducing the pore space between them, and can be caused by burial beneath more sediment. Cementation is when naturally formed cement is precipitated around the sediment, holding the grains together in a consolidated form. This can occur from groundwater moving through the sediments and leaving elements behind in the sediment as it flows. Some sedimentary rocks can also form by mineral crystallization. This is when elements of the grains and cement react to form new minerals that grow in an interlocking arrangement and hold sediment grains together.
Tags: sedimentary rock, become sedimentary, become sedimentary rock, chance preservation, grains together, minerals that
Wear comfortable shoes for hiking Green Mountain trails in Lakewood, Colorado.
Green Mountain, located in Lakewood, Colorado, is home to William Frederick Hayden Park, a 2,400-acre recreational area featuring three trailheads that lead to five popular trails. Situated between two distinct regions, Green Mountain rests between the Great Plains short-grass prairie ecosystem and the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. The area geology consists of sandstone, volcanic rock and petrified wood. Wildlife species include meadowlarks, mule deer, rabbits, bluebirds, coyotes, black-tailed prairie dogs, hawks and rattlesnakes.
Rooney Trailhead
The Rooney Trailhead is close to C-470 along Rooney Road on the west side of Green Mountain. The parking lot is the largest of the park's three parking areas and has restrooms. Upon arrival, take a short walk up to cross the C-470 pedestrian bridge to access the trailheads for Green Mountain Trail and Rooney Valley Trail. The Green Mountain Trail attracts mountain bikers to challenge their skills on the seven-mile loop with a 1,200-foot elevation gain. Bring a hat for sun protection, as Green Mountain imparts little opportunity for shade. After your trail adventure, stop by the Dinosaur Ridge Visitor Center located at Alameda and Rooney Road to learn about fossils of the area and visit the gift shop.
Utah Trailhead
Found along West Alameda Parkway and on the south side of Green Mountain is the Utah Trailhead. Access to the John O. Hayden Trail is located here and begins with a steep incline leading to the summit of Green Mountain. The Green Mountain Trail intersects the Hayden Trail twice, once near the trail base and also at the top of Green Mountain, allowing a short jaunt to the 6,800-foot summit landmark, a radio tower. The Hayden Trail ends at the summit. You can return by the same trail or explore other trails located at the top, such as the 1.3 mile Summit Loop Trail or the 0.9 mile North Access Trail. The parking lot is small at this location, and no water is available. Park hours are 5 a.m. to 10 p.m., and the park is open year round for day use.
Florida Trailhead
Discover the Florida Trailhead at West Alameda Parkway and Florida Avenue on the southeast side of Green Mountain. This trailhead is a popular entry point because of its close proximity to the city of Lakewood, and it is easily accessible for after-work mountain bikers, runners and hikers to gain entrance to the Green Mountain Trail, a loop that offers varied up and down terrain. The Green Mountain Trail and all other trails offer outstanding views of the distant Denver metropolitan skyline, the monolithic rock outcroppings of Red Rocks Park and the snowy-peaked Rocky Mountains. Dogs are allowed, but must be on a leash - a rule that is strictly enforced.
Tags: Green Mountain, Green Mountain Trail, Mountain Trail, Hayden Trail, Lakewood Colorado, side Green
California geologists watch for volcanos as well as earthquakes.
California may be best known for earthquakes, but the state is also home to four active volcanoes. Because an active volcano is classified only as one that has erupted at some point in human history, many people are not aware of these Golden State volcanoes, since most do not represent an imminent threat. Yet it is no coincidence that the state has both volcanoes and earthquakes; seismic activities cause both of these.
Lassen Peak
Lassen Peak is one of the only dome volcanos with a crater hole.
The Lassen Peak volcano has had the most recent eruption in California history. In 1915 the volcano spewed hot ashes and gases as far as 200 miles away. The blast caused mudslides and avalanches and destroyed the surrounding area. For the next two years, Lassen Peak continued to erupt on a smaller scale than the initial blast. It is part of the Cascade Volcanic Range, and geologists still closely monitor it. Lassen Peak is in the Lassen Volcanic National Park, where visitors can view boiling mud pits and steam vents caused by the volcano.
Mount Shasta
Mount Shasta is always covered in snow.
Mount Shasta last erupted in the mid-18th century, but debris flows occurred in the 20th century. Due to its elevation, 10,000 feet above the surrounding landscape, Mount Shasta is an impressive formation. The top is a cone, covered with snow year-round. Mount Shasta, also part of the Cascade Range, is located within National Forest land. Visitors to the volcano should take Everett Memorial Highway, which winds past many scenic overlooks and a few campsites. The volcano has no official trails to the summit, though toward the end of the summer, paths begin to appear, having been worn by adventurous hikers.
Long Valley Caldera
The Sierra Nevada mountain chain was formed by volcanic activitiy.
Long Valley Caldera has been on the radar of the U.S. Geologic Survey since 1980. The area has shown many signs of impending volcanic activity, including a marked rise in surface elevations, strong emissions of carbon dioxide gas and frequent earthquakes. Long Valley is located on the eastern edge of the Sierra Nevadas, proving that striking natural landscapes are often born out of explosive and dangerous natural processes. Scientists are currently monitoring the caldera closely in order to provide adequate warning to area residents in case of an eruption.
Medicine Lake Volcano
Medicine Lake volcano emits steady streams of slow-flowing lava.
Medicine Lake is called "the sleeping giant" of volcanoes. This shield volcano is 150 miles around and more than 7,900 feet high. Medicine Lake volcano has been erupting on and off for more than 500,000 years, creating formations, such as lava tubes, spatter cones, chimneys and craters. Unlike the forceful explosions of volcanoes such as Mount St. Helens, the Medicine Lake volcano has smaller, gentler lava flows that are far less destructive. The last eruption of Medicine Lake caused the creation of Glass Mountain around the year 1000 A.D. The Medicine Lake volcano is not expected to erupt in the near future.
Tags: Medicine Lake, Lassen Peak, Mount Shasta, Medicine Lake volcano, Lake volcano, Long Valley
Meteorology students study and learn to predict weather patterns.
For high school students interested in pursuing a degree and career in meteorology, more than 80 colleges and universities across the United States offer meteorology as a major, according to American School Search. As of 2010, depending on the school and state, the average cost of tuition to earn a meteorology degree ranged from $4,200 a year at the low end to almost $37,000 a year at the high end. To help offset tuition costs, high school students can apply for meteorology scholarships that come from a number of sources.
Meteorology Schools
Before even starting college, high school students can apply for and earn scholarships directly from the school where they intend to earn their degree. Scholarships help to attract high-quality students, so many meteorology schools offer incoming freshmen scholarships to study at that school. The University of Oklahoma's School of Meteorology offers $1,000 to $2,000 yearly tuition waivers for new freshman students in the meteorology program. Penn State University's Department of Meteorology extends several different scholarship opportunities to high school seniors intending to study meteorology at the school.
Professional Organizations
Just like employees in other industries, meteorologists can join professional organizations and societies for networking and educational opportunities. Meteorology students can take advantage of meteorological professional organizations and the scholarships they offer. The American Meteorological Society sponsors the AMS Freshman Undergraduate Scholarship that gives $2,500 a year for two years to a high school student intending to major in meteorology. High school meteorology students can also apply for two undergraduate-specific scholarships from the National Weather Association.
Military
The United States military can also be a source of meteorology scholarships for high school students. The United States Air Force ROTC High School Scholarship program provides three types of tuition scholarships to students pursuing technical degrees the Air Force deems most usable for airmen, with meteorology included in that list. The scholarships go to high school seniors and award full tuition and fees for three or four years, plus $900 a year for books. Both the United States Army and the United States Navy offer similar scholarship programs for meteorology students.
Other Sources
High school students interested in meteorology can find scholarships from other sources as well, like from private foundations and nonprofit organizations. The Energy Solutions Foundation looks to encourage high school students to pursue careers in math, science and engineering. The Foundation sponsors scholarships for sophomore high school students who aspire to major in a number of math, science and engineering-related fields, including meteorology.
Tags: school students, high school, United States, high school students, high school students
The Calvert Cliffs of Maryland are peaceful now, but during the Miocene period (between 5 and 23 million years ago), they were the underwater home of megalodon, the giant ancestor of the great white shark; of giant predatory rays; and prehistoric crocodiles of 30 feet in length. Marine fossils are easy to find at the cliffs, with a little digging or simply by walking the beach.
Instructions
1. Look on the beaches of Calvert Cliffs State Park, located between Routes 2 and 4 in southern Calvert County, Maryland. Wait for low tide, when more of the beach is exposed and sand and silt have been washed away to reveal fossils.
2. Walk along the exposed cliffs, looking for exposed fossils. If necessary, loosen rock and dirt with your trowel or rock hammer.
3. Look for shark teeth. Marine animals such as sharks and rays have cartilaginous skeletons, which usually rot away before they fossilize. But a shark's hard enamel teeth last for millennia. Look in particular for blackened, flat, triangular fossils. With luck you will find a megalodon tooth, which can be up to six inches long. More likely, according to the Maryland Geologic Survey, you will find the teeth of prehistoric tiger, mackerel, and hammerhead sharks, up to an inch long with the bony roots attached.
4. Look for the teeth of the prehistoric crocodile, Thecachampsa antique. Unlike shark teeth, these are conical, resembling a tusk. They range from light brown to red in color and are usually an inch or two inches (though four to five inches is possible).
5. Look for the teeth of marine mammals of the order Pinnipedia, which includes seals, walruses, whales, dolphins, and porpoises. These teeth are more apt to look like a human's tooth, in that they have two sections, the exposed tooth and the root. (A reptile's or shark's tooth is more likely to snap off from the root.) These teeth can range from ¼-inch to perhaps 2-inches long; they are usually quite dark in color, coffee brown to nearly black.
6. Look for the vertebrae and ribs of marine mammals (again, porpoises, whales, seals, and so on). Vertebrae are symmetrical in shape, usually a large, thick disk with a ring of bone attached for the nerve path. Ribs will resemble sticks or the fragments of a stick. They range in color from dirty bone to nut brown, depending upon the surrounding sediments.
Tags: Calvert Cliffs, Look teeth, marine mammals, range from, shark teeth, teeth prehistoric, These teeth
Geoscience is concerned with the Earth and its resources.
Geoscientists study the Earth, its environment and its resources. Various career options are available to individuals who pursue degrees in this field of study. Geoscience majors can work as teachers or research scientists, depending upon which area their degree program emphasizes. Some schools now offer online degrees in this field of study.
Northwest Missouri State University
Northwest Missouri State University offers an online Master of Science in Geographic Information Science. The program is primarily designed for those working in government or the business sector in a capacity that utilizes the technologies of geographic information systems (GIS). The program focuses on various aspects of GIS utilization such as geostatistics, GIS modeling, project management, database design and cartography. The program requires the completion of a total of 32 credit hours in the field, 21 of which are core courses. Nine hours of electives are chosen by the student. Students must also complete a master's thesis as part of the program. The program can usually be completed in about two years. Courses include studies in Database Design and Implementation, Spatial Analysis and Geostatisics and Digital Cartography and Geovisualization.
Northwest Missouri State University
800 University Dr.
Maryville, MO 64468
660-562-1212
nwmissouri.edu
Western Governors Unviersity
Western Governors University (WGU) offers an online geosciences degree in the field of education. Students can pursue a Bachelor of Arts in Science with an emphasis in teaching geoscience in grades 5-12. WGU differs from traditional colleges and universities offering online degrees in that students move through the program based on the development of competency in each subject rather than simply completing a required number of credit hours. The program takes four to five years to complete for incoming freshman students. Transfer students can expect to complete the program in about two to three years, depending upon the number of credits they have already achieved at another institution. Students take courses in Integrated Natural Sciences, Earth and Space Science Theories and Concepts and Specific Teaching Practices: Science Pedagogy.
Western Governors University
4001 South 700 East, Suite 700
Salt Lake City, UT 84107-2533
801-274-3280
wgu.edu
University of Tennessee
The University of Tennessee at Martin offers an online Master of Science in Education with an interdisciplinary emphasis in geoscience education. The degree program requires 18 credit hours in core courses along with various courses in education. Students must also complete a field experience and a research project as part of the curriculum. Geoscience courses include studies in Earth Systems Science, Understanding Evolution, Physical Geology, Oceanology for Teachers, Astrophysics for Educators and Global Climate Change. Education courses include various areas such as Models of Instruction, Curriculum Development, and Advanced Teaching Strategies and Advanced Computer Applications and Technologies in Education.
Well-preserved fossils are an important source of information about Earth's history.
Across the globe, new fossils are found every day by novice excavators and seasoned paleontologists alike to reveal some of the Earth's secrets once thought lost. While some of the information obtained can serve immediate economic purposes, such as directing a search for oil or other natural minerals, the most valuable information is what these fossils reveal about the past. Encased in the bones, footprints, egg shells and imprints of long-dead sea creatures, land animals and plants is a treasure trove of information about Earth's history.
Age Indicators of Rock Layers
This fossil of coral reveals the stone was once part of an ancient sea bed.
Fossils are the most important tool in determining the age of sedimentary rock sequences in which they are found. While they do not provide an exact year of encasement, fossils give a reliable age of the rocks in which they are found by being compared with similar species in other regions. These correlations are made possible by consulting the fossil record, a detailed catalog of findings spanning the accepted geological time scale. Index fossils are ideal for dating surrounding rocks and are common, well preserved and easily recognizable. Also called zone fossils, the most important include ammonites, trilobites, pollen and graptolites.
Habits and Behaviors
Fossils are the only link to the lives of ancient or extinct creatures, and much information can be obtain from these solitary, fragile objects. What animals ate and how they moved, their social interactions with each other and how they raised their young can all be learned by studying bones and fossil beds. Preserved remains of ancient creatures, such as skeletons, imprints and teeth, paint a picture of what their life was like including whether they traveled in herds or alone, the living conditions they preferred and migration patterns followed by individual species.
Environmental Indicators
Information about this marine creature's entire ecosystem can be learned from this single fossil.
Information as basic as where the rock was deposited to what types of organisms inhabited the ancient ecosystem can be obtained from just a few well-preserved bones or other fossils. By using similar living organisms as a jumping off point, scientists can create an educated picture of what the environment of any dig site in the world used to be like during the lifetime of unearthed plants and aminals. Organisms with living descendants obviously yield the most reliable results, as predictions become less accurate once scientists encounter extinct plants and animals, whose survival requirements will never be fully understood.
A Changing Landscape
Fossils provide evidence about changes in the Earth's crust over time, including shifting land masses, mountain formations and other movements since the fossils were deposited. Scientists can discern how the Earth's current surface came to be by examining similar plant and animal fossils found in sedimentary rocks of the same time period from different areas of the world. Fossils of several different ages found at fractures and faults in adjacent localities offer evidence of this movement of the Earth's crust, even if the change is not obvious to the naked eye.
Evidence for Evolution
Without fossils, there would be no record of the beginning, progression and continuing evolution of life that has been occurring on Earth over millions of years. Knowledge of extinct organisms would have been lost to time, and any understanding of modern plants and animals would be learned only from existing species. Fossils remain critical in understanding the evolution of life on Earth as well as the planet itself, and they have revealed information on the developments of shells and bones, when mammals first appeared, when animals began to take flight and periods of mass extinctions on our planet.
Tags: about Earth, about Earth history, Earth crust, Earth history, evolution life
A look at the huge continent of Asia reveals considerable geographic diversity.
If you glance at a map of Asia, the first thing you might notice is the sheer size of the continent, ranging from the archipelagos of Japan and the Philippines to the mountains in South Asia and the vast deserts and plains. This variety makes Asian geography an intriguing field of study for historians.
Deserts
The largest Asian deserts are found in China -- the Gobi and the Takla Makan deserts. However, the Middle East also teems with deserts. India contains desert land as well.
Islands and Peninsulas
The countries of Indonesia, Japan and the Philippines consist only of islands -- and so they are called archipelago nations. Indonesia alone has more than 13,000 islands. Peninsulas are outcroppings of land into a body of water, such as the state of Florida. The major peninsulas in Asia are found in Malaysia, India, Saudi Arabia and Indochina (Vietnam and Cambodia).
Volcanoes and Mountain Ranges
Just in Japan, there are 165 volcanoes -- including 54 active ones. The highest volcano in Japan is Mount Fuji, which (fortunately) is inactive.
The most well-known mountain range in Asia is the Himalayas, which contain K2 and Mount Everest. This range is about 1,500 miles long, reaching from the Black Sea all the way to the Tibetan plateau, serving as part of the barrier that keeps India walled off from the rest of the continent.
Other mountain ranges include the Caucasus and the Kush, in South Asia and extending westward. The Pamir Knot, sometimes called the "Rooftop of the World," is the highest peak in this area.
Valleys and Plains
Northern India features the Ganges Plains. In China, the major rivers Yangtze, Amur and Huang Ho run through a valley that runs almost 1,600 miles in length. Vietnam's Mekong River and the Salween and Irrawaddy Rivers in Myanmar also travel through major valleys.
While the memories of a trip are still fresh in your mind, it's important to jot down as many highlights as you can think of. A lot of leisure and business travelers keep a trip journal for that very purpose and use their notes to create informative reports for school, for work or for publication in a newspaper, magazine or guidebook. The insider tips and cultural advice imparted in a travel report can then help fellow travelers make smart decisions and get the most for their money and time.
Instructions
1. Identify the target readership of your travel report and what topics will be the most interesting and relevant to the readers. If, for instance, you're writing a travel report for a school assignment, your instructor and classmates will want to hear anecdotes and observations about what you personally experienced. An essay for a travel publication will focus on elements such as reservations, directions and costs so that readers will know what to expect. A travel report that's related to your work makes the trip more of a fact-finding mission to articulate cultural mores, global interfacing and/or exploring the potential for holding future conferences or establishing new offices.
2. Start with a working outline and include categories for transportation, accommodations, meals, geography, history, climate, local customs, sightseeing attractions/excursions and "off the beaten path" recommendations. If the report is being prepared in the context of business, you'll want to include an additional section for meetings, interviews and presentations and which are relevant to the objective of the trip.
3. Write down as much as you can remember for each category. Keeping receipts, maps, postcards and brochures will help to jog your memory. If you're referencing restaurants in your report, many of them have websites from which you can extract information about their hours of operation and copies of menus. In addition, hotel websites often list nearby attractions for visitors.
4. Create an overview of your travel report, which will be the introduction to your material. The overview not only sets the tone of the report but provides readers with a few preview tidbits that will make them excited to read it. In magazines, this is the "hook" that grabs a reader's attention and usually takes the form of an anecdote, a question or a little known fact about the location.
5. Supplement your travel report with references to books, documentaries and websites where readers can learn additional information.
Tags: travel report, your travel, your travel report
Floods can cause great harm and sudden misfortune.
The Probable Maximum Flood (PMF) is the most severe possible flood in a particular drainage area. It is calculated by combining information about the precipitation, geology and water management strategies of a particular area.
Definition
According to the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, the Probable Maximum Flood is "the flood that may be expected from the most severe combination of critical meteorological and hydrologic conditions that are reasonably possible in a particular drainage area."
Calculation
The PMF is determined in large part by the Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) which is determined by looking at historical weather records as well as studying the meteorological conditions possible in an area to determine the greatest theoretical amount of precipitation for an area. PMP is considered with the drainage capacity of an area to determine the PMF.
Significance
Knowing the Probable Maximum Flood for an area enables engineers to build dams and other water-control structures to withstand the PMP and prevent flooding. Calculating the PMF helps governments develop specific disaster-preparedness plans.
Tags: Probable Maximum, Maximum Flood, Probable Maximum Flood, area determine, drainage area, most severe
Higher education has become a very expensive endeavor, often requiring students to go through considerable financial hardship and accumulate a mountain of debt. One way to avoid this debt is by applying for scholarships. This is especially the case for graduate work, where the costs usually increase. However, organizations and foundations that manage scholarship funds often require a proposal from the applicants explaining what they will be doing in their program of study and how the funds will be used. Since the decision as to whether to give the applicant the funds often rides on this proposal, it is important to get it right.
Instructions
1. Create an introduction for your proposal that catches the attention of the reader. While you do not want to summarize the information that will be in the body of the proposal, you do need to stress the importance of the work you will be doing. For example, if you will be studying the incidence of malaria in certain areas, you can point to the number of those who die each year from this disease.
2. Review existing research and work already done on the topic. You want to give a fair appraisal or previous research on the topic, even when it disagrees with your own views. Explain how your research with either refute previous views or add further evidence to support them.
3. Make the hypothesis for your research very clear. Explain the methodology you will use and the criteria by which you will judge whether your hypothesis is correct or incorrect. You should also list the resources, both physical and in terms of university staff, that you will have available to further your research.
Tags: your research, funds often, that will, will doing
Federal Emergency Management Agency flood zone designations are used by many industries. Insurance and home mortgage companies use the designations to determine the financial risk of funding a project or transaction in a particular area. Disaster-response teams also use the zone descriptions to better prepare for emergencies.
FEMA
The Federal Emergency Management Agency is affiliated with the Department of Homeland Security and is responsible for assisting in disaster response anywhere in the country. FEMA also is tasked with providing a reasonable means of prediction of where disasters, such as floods, are most likely to occur.
Flood Zones
Flood zones are determined by FEMA. Factors such as base flood elevation, or BFE, are considered when designating zones. The BFE is the calculated depth of a potential flood in an area dependent on its height of elevation with respect to sea level.
100-Year Flood
Floods that have at least a 1 percent chance of an annual occurrence are known as 100-year floods.
A2 Flood Zone
An A2 flood zone has a 1 percent chance of flooding inside of that 100-year flood zone. The A2 zone also has a 26 percent chance of experiencing a flood during a 30-year mortgage term.
Base Flood Elevation Information
An A2 designation differs from the regular A flood zone because BFE information is normally available in an A2 zone. This BFE information helps insurance and mortgage companies to more accurately assess risk and calculate rates.
Oil (aptly called "black gold") is the major driving force of today's world economy. Crude oil, after extraction, is distilled into various components such as gasoline, diesel, tar and petrochemicals. Because it is a product of fossilization, crude oil is buried deep beneath the earth's surface in the form of deposits. However, digging up every patch of available land or boring random holes in the ocean bed is not a realistic option for discovering oil deposits. Hence, geologists have developed indirect methods that indicate the possible location of oil reserves.
Signs of Reservoir Rocks
In the quest for oil deposits, geology of the surface and surrounding areas has been the major marker for a long time now. Oil starts with a quantity of organic matter and sediments that transform into oil when subjected to intense pressure over a long time; such deposits are usually located in a rich "source rock." The oil then gradually moves out of the source rock into another more porous location known as a "reservoir rock." The oil is trapped in this reservoir by a rigid exterior that forms over the top. The presence of such a rock structure is a prominent sign of oil deposits.
Signs of Various Geophysical and Chemical Changes
Geologists can detect reservoir rocks by focusing on the various geophysical and chemical changes brought about by an oil deposit on its immediate surrounding. These changes can also be considered indirect markers of oil deposits.
Gravitational changes: The earth's gravitational force field does not have the same effect on all substances. Oil pockets may exhibit a slight change in gravitational response to a sensitized gravity meter.
Magnetic changes: Presence of viscous fluid (such as oil) can contribute to changes in magnetic flux. Magnetometers may be able to detect oil reserves under a rock bed based on this concept.
Presence of hydrocarbon: By using hydrocarbon sniffers, traces of hydrocarbons can be found in an area that would indicate a greater probability of finding an oil deposit in the vicinity.
Drilling Procedure
In spite of the various methods devised to pick up signs of potential oil deposits, the probability of actually finding an oil trap at the location is very low. The only way to be certain of the presence of oil in the area is to perform a test drilling procedure.
Geological engineers study to improve oil drilling methods.
Geological engineers study natural resources and develop philosophies and tactics to extract minerals and petroleum from underneath the Earth's surface. Colleges and universities educate students in geological engineering through academic coursework, field training and research. Graduates of a geological engineering program can find opportunities in construction firms, consulting companines, oil companies and government agencies.
Curriculum
Students in a geological engineering degree program must take courses in geological materials engineering, exploration geophysics, geomechanical engineering, exploration design, geohazard analysis and remote sensing for engineering. These courses provide students with an opportunity to acquire an understanding of the earth's structure, rocks and soil. Students learn about computer imaging technology, environmental science and basic natural sciences. Other topics covered in these courses include foundations for structures, contaminated sites and energy sources.
Field Work
In addition to classroom work, students are also required to work in the field. This offers students an opportunity to apply the theories they learned in their coursework into practical applications in the field. Field work provides students with the chance to work in teams and create detailed reports of their findings. Students working in the field may have an opportunity to map terrain, discuss findings, and develop compass and pace methods.
Research
Students enrolled in a geological engineering program are encouraged to participate in research projects. These projects may be lead by faculty members, and students have an opportunity to perform research in a number of related geological areas, including geology, rock mechanics, solid waste management, water resources, sustainable engineering, alternative energy and engineering of recycled materials. Research also provides students with an opportunity to network and create work opportunities.
Project
In order to graduate, students are also required to complete a project in the field. Before beginning the project, students must create an outline of their project and gain approval from a faculty member. Students will have to research and create an original project and present it in front of a panel. This project can be used as an example of a student's work when they look for employment opportunities.
Tags: geological engineering, students with, also required, engineering exploration, engineering program, engineers study
Surveying programs offer specializations in geomatics, mapping science, and other areas
When selecting a land surveying school, it is important to choose a program that will prepare you for licensure within your region. While licensing requirements vary from state to state, the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying recommends obtaining a Bachelor of Science degree from an accredited four-year surveying program. As of October 2009, the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology recognized six schools with four-year accredited residential programs in surveying and geomatics.
East Tennessee State University
East Tennessee State University (ETSU) offers a Bachelor of Science degree in surveying and mapping, with electives in cadastral design, Geographic Information Systems and photogrammetry, and surveying business. With laboratory classes usually limited to 15 to 18 students, ETSU provides close interaction with instructors and extensive preparation for the Fundamentals of Land Surveying portion of the professional license exam. As part of the interstate agreement Academic Common Market, ETSU offers in-state tuition not only to residents of Tennessee but also to residents of Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, South Carolina, Virginia and West Virginia.
East Tennessee State University
807 University Parkway
Box 70267
Johnson City, TN 37614
423-439-1000
etsu.edu
Oregon Institute of Technology
The Oregon Institute of Technology offers a Bachelor of Science degree in geomatics, with options in surveying and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The curriculum is computer-intensive, preparing students to use a range of technical equipment including Global Positioning Systems (GPS), digital total stations, and satellite and terrestrial remote sensing.
Oregon Institute of Technology
Main Campus - Klamath Falls
3201 Campus Drive
Klamath Falls, OR 97601
541-885-1000
oit.edu
Saint Cloud State University
Saint Cloud State University offers a Bachelor of Science degree in land surveying and mapping science within its undergraduate geography department. The program takes an interdisciplinary approach, providing students with a broad base in geology, climate and ecosystems, along with technical surveying skills. Students accepted into the four-year surveying program must possess an associate degree or certificate in a related field.
Saint Cloud State University
720 4th Avenue South
St. Cloud, MN 56301
320-308-0121
stcloudstate.edu
Southern Polytechnic State University
Southern Polytechnic State University offers a Bachelor of Science in surveying and mapping, with a particular focus on fieldwork and critical thinking outside the classroom. Most classes are lab-based, and students gain hands-on experience with GIS and GPS technology while learning to lay out construction projects, design subdivision developments and create maps from field measurements.
Southern Polytechnic State University
1100 South Marietta Parkway
Marietta, GA 30060
678-915-7778
spsu.edu
University of Alaska Anchorage
The University of Alaska Anchorage provides a unique wilderness setting for surveying studies. The school offers a Bachelor of Science degree in geomatics, with a curriculum covering photogrammetry, remote sensing, geodesy and hydrography.
University of Alaska Anchorage
3211 Providence Drive
Anchorage, AK 99508
907-786-1800
uaa.alaska.edu
University of Florida
The University of Florida offers a Bachelor of Science in geomatics within its college of agricultural and life sciences. The program emphasizes interdisciplinary study in the social sciences, with required courses in economics, environmental impacts and business management.
In kindergarten, throwing a ball can teach basic physics.
The science standards for public schools have been in place since 1998. These standards describe in detail "the essential skills and knowledge students will need to be scientifically literate citizens in the twenty-first century." The standards identify within each grade level what students should know about the physical, life and Earth sciences as well as investigate and experiment in science, which is used to teach all parts of the science standards.
Kindergarten through Third Grade
In the youngest grades, students learn the basics of physical, life and Earth sciences. In kindergarten and first grade, the standards include understanding texture, shapes, weight, plants and animals at the most basic levels. This includes understanding that some objects are heavier than others, the body parts of animals and the survival needs of plants and animals. By third grade students have gained an understanding of life cycles and start to experiment with and learn about chemistry principles, habitats and astronomy.
Fourth and Fifth Grades
In fourth grade the standards include teaching students how electricity and magnetic fields work. Life science includes learning all the parts of a food chain and how animals and plants evolve to fill a niche. The various types of rocks and how rocks and landmasses are formed are also part of the fourth grade science standards in California. By the end of fifth grade, students will have learned about the periodic table, elements, anatomy and the water cycle on Earth.
Middle School
Middle school science standards build on what students learn in elementary school to revisit many of the same science topics in greater detail. In sixth grade students learn about geological events, such as earthquakes, ecosystem dynamics and the energy cycle of different natural systems. Seventh-grade standards include cell biology, genetics, evolution, Earth history and how light works. Eight-grade standards focus a lot on physics and chemistry, with students learning about velocity, the structure of matter and atoms and chemical reactions.
High School
The high school standards in California are not divided by grade. Depending on how the high school structures its science courses, students may learn any of the standards in any grade from ninth to 12th. In high school the standards are designed to give students enough understanding to feel prepared for any college science course. The standards in high school include, but are not limited to, understanding thermodynamics, Newton's laws, waves, using the periodic table, chemical bonds, nuclear processes, cell biology for plants and animals, what properties affect an ecosystem and how energy travels through Earth. Students should also learn California geology in high school science courses.
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Maine's Acadia National Park features a picturesque example of a rocky shore.
Rocky shore ecosystems are highly specialized environments with species adapted precisely to their surroundings. Such ecosystems, made up of boulders and bedrock, account for 33 percent of all coastlines worldwide. These environments can be divided into four major zones, each revealed in phases. They may seem nearly lifeless at first glance, rocky shores are teeming with life that is highly susceptible to human damage; visits to these ecosystems must be carefully monitored so as not to cause any harm. (see References 1 and 2)
United Kingdom
Rocky shores are quite common among the coast of the United Kingdom, making up 34 percent of the total shoreline. Despite this continuity, these ecosystems are extremely varied among themselves, depending primarily on the type of rock that forms them. Rocky shores can be spotted all over the United Kingdom, including the northern stony sea loch inlets and much more exposed coasts on the Atlantic ocean. Parts of the Durham area, for example, are bordered by rocky cliffs formed by limestone.
Pacific Northwest
The northwest coast of the United States features a great deal of notable rocky shore ecosystems. California's extensive coast can claim a handful of its own, including the areas of Monterrey Bay, Big Sur, Pacific Grove and Carmel (see Reference 4). The rocky shores of the Gulf of Farallones near San Francisco are now part of a Marine Sanctuary, having been exposed on multiple occasions to such threats as oil spills. In Washington, rocky coast lines are the norm along the San Juan islands as well as the protected shores of the northern Puget Sound.
New England
Parts of the United States' New England coast are characterized by their rocky shore ecosystems. In fact, north of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, rocky coastlines dominate New England shores. Maine's coast, in particular, is known for its rocky shore coastlines covered with such creatures as mussels and barnacles. Much of Connecticut's rocky shore, on the other hand, is populated predominantly -- and in some cases, almost exclusively -- by algae
Africa
Approximately 30 percent of Africa's total coast is rocky shore, including much of the southern region such as South Africa and the southern shorelines of Mozambique and Namibia. The island of Madagascar, just off the southeastern coast of the continent, has a coastline of sandy shores interspersed with rocky beaches. The northeast coast, encompassing the diverse area of the Masoala Marine Park, exemplifies this combination with algae-ridden rocky shores such as those of the islands Nosy Hely and eastern Nosy Rangontsy. Meanwhile, rocky coasts make up nearly the entirety of the island's southeastern shores.
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