What Causes Tsunamis To Happen

Tsunamis are sometimes called tidal waves, an incorrect term.

Tsunamis are the result of a rapid displacement of ocean water. The energy of the displacement pushes a large surge of water racing across the ocean at speeds of up to 500 miles per hour--as fast as a jetliner. While a tsunami may only appear on the open ocean as a rise of a foot or two, the wave can have a devastating and destructive impact as it reaches a shoreline.

Plates

The Earth is composed of a large scale network of tectonic plates that are constantly in motion. Often, the shift is merely an inch or two each year. Sometimes forces build up over time and a shift occurs more violently as stored energy is released along faults, or in deep ocean trenches where plates collide. All seas and landmasses have fault lines, but the Pacific Ocean is noted for a "Ring of Fire," an active geological region where earthquakes, shifting crust and volcanoes are common.

Subduction Earthquakes

As plates smash into one another, earthquakes result. When these collisions cause one plate to slide beneath the other, a subduction earthquake occurs. The sudden and violent vertical shift of Earth's crust often triggers a tsunami as tons of ocean water are thrust upward and the downward pull of gravity sends the water rapidly across the ocean. Not all earthquakes result in a tsunami and not all tsunamis traverse the entire span of ocean. The shock of some quakes is absorbed by the ocean and the surrounding geography of bays and landmasses dictates how a tsunami travels.

Other Causes

Subduction earthquakes are the most common cause of tsunamis, but they are not the only cause. Other shifts occurring in large sections of Earth's crust can also trigger a tsunami. A landslide either underwater or along a coastline can move enough material to displace the large volumes of water necessary to create a tsunami. Calving glaciers, those that crack into one or more massive chunks, also push water into a tsunami. Underwater volcanoes that occur near the surface are strong enough to displace water and cause a tsunami. A rare event is an oceanic strike by a comet or meteor that sends columns of water in all directions from where the object fell.

Shoreline Effect

In a deep ocean, the displaced water may be barely noticeable, but the stored energy inside a fast-moving tsunami is released as the wave or surge reaches shallow water. The wave slows down, but the energy inside causes its height to grow. The wave tops move faster then the base, which causes tsunamis to rise quickly and to heights of 100 feet or more as they strike land. The trough, or low point of a wave, reaches the shoreline first. As it does, water along the coast is drawn seaward and the sea floor near shore is exposed momentarily, typically for about five minutes before the first crest hits. A tsunami is usually experienced as a series of waves, called a wave train, that amplifies the destructive nature of these natural disasters.

Tags: across ocean, deep ocean, Earth crust, earthquakes result, energy inside, ocean water, reaches shoreline

Jobs & Careers In Marine Biology

Marine biologists study aquatic organisms and their ecosystems.

Marine biology is the study of marine organisms, their behaviors and their environment. Specialists in the filed can focus on a particular species, a geographic area, animal behaviors or an ecosystem. Marine biologists take into account the chemical, physical and geological oceanography to evaluate organisms and their habitats.

Education and Training

Students who want to pursue careers in marine biology can enroll at a college or university that offers programs in marine science. As there are many fields within marine biology, it is wise to research the schools that offer the programs that are best suited to the student's areas of interest. Some programs provide opportunities for field work. Some schools offer Bachelor of Science degrees in marine biology and others offer advanced programs. The Marine Science Institute at the University Texas at Austin offers undergraduate, master's and doctoral programs.

Careers (Res 2)

Marine biology offers many opportunities for those interested in applied sciences and research careers. Graduates in the field can work for the federal government, private industry, environmental organizations or consulting firms. Some marine biologists work as consultants in the energy exploration industry. Areas that may experience growth are marine electronics, hydro-geology and water quality management.

Ocean Engineering

The oceans provide opportunities for the design skills and technical expertise of ocean engineers. They create innovations in instrumentation and develop new equipment that advances the field of marine biology. The advances impact the technology used by private industry and create additional opportunities for further research. Ocean engineering has contributed to the collection of large amounts of data in remote locations. It facilitates the observation of marine life. It has helped in making discoveries such as hydrothermal vents and ocean volcanoes.

Oceanography

Oceanography comprises three subfields: marine geology, physical oceanography and marine chemistry. These fields work together with marine biologists to provide an understanding of the oceans and their potential as a source of food and minerals. Research grants favor a multidisciplinary approach to the study of the ocean. Technological advances and research furthers the ability to process drinking water, create energy sources and promote safe waste disposal.

Tags: marine biology, organisms their, Careers Marine, field work, marine biologists, Marine biologists

Three Types Of Rocks That Form When Lava Cools

Igneous rock forms when lava cools.

Lava rock, also known as igneous rock, is formed when volcanic lava or magma cools and solidifies. It is one of the three main rock types found on Earth, along with metamorphic and sedimentary. Typically, eruption occurs when there is an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure or a change in composition. There are over 700 types of igneous rocks, all of which have diverse properties; however, they can all be classified into three categories.

Extrusive

Extrusive, also known as volcanic, rocks are a type of igneous rock that form at the crust's surface as a result of volcanic activity. This type of rock occurs when lava flows on or above the Earth's surface and cools down rapidly. The lava comes from the upper mantle layer, 30 to 90 miles beneath the surface, and cools within a few weeks. Because the magma cools and solidifies quickly, the crystals that form do not have time to grow very large, and therefore most extrusive rocks are finely grained. The most common type of extrusive rock is basalt.

Intrusive

Intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rocks form underneath the Earth's surface when magma flows into underground chambers or tunnels. The rock is not exposed to the atmosphere above surface, so the magma cools slowly which allows large mineral crystals to form within the rock. It takes thousands of years for Intrusive rocks to form. A mass of this rock type is called an "intrusion." Granite is the most common type of intrusive igneous rock.

Hypabassal

Hypabassal, or subvolcanic, rock derives from magma that has solidified at a shallow depth of the volcano, mainly in dykes and sills. This type of rock is formed in between extrusive and intrusive rock, and similarly has a texture in between that of intrusive and extrusive rock. This type of rock is rarer than extrusive and intrusive varieties, and often occurs at continental boundaries and oceanic crusts. Andesite is the most common type of hypabassal rock.

Other Types

Over 700 different types of igneous rocks have been discovered to date. These vary in terms of appearance, grain size and amount of time that it takes for the lava to cool. A common igneous rock rule is that if lava cools at a faster rate, the rock formed will have finer grains and have a glassy appearance; if rock cools at a slower rate, the grains will be larger and more coarse. Porphyritic rock is a type that has a combination of large and small grains; this occurs when a rock has a mixed cooling history.

Tags: common type, igneous rock, igneous rocks, magma cools, most common, most common type, occurs when

What Are Canyons

Antelope Canyon is located just outside Page, Arizona.

Canyons are like grooves formed in the Earth from water erosion. The most famous of the world's canyons is the Grand Canyon in Arizona. This is an example of a slot canyon after millions of years of being worn down by the Colorado River. The Grand Canyon is not the only awe-inspiring canyon on Earth. The Colca Canyon in Peru is twice as deep as the Grand Canyon though less steep. Antelope Canyon in Arizona is the most photographed sandstone canyon in the world.

Erosion

Layers of rock eroded by saturating water.

Canyons are formed by the process of water erosion. This occurs when water flows over or within stone. Water falls as precipitation onto a landscape and from that point on, it will flow toward the nearest ocean forming streams and rivers. As a river flows across a landscape it wears down some types of stone and is blocked by other types of stone. This wearing process is dependent upon how fast the current is going, the gradient or steepness of the landscape and what type of stone the bedrock is made of.

Box Canyon

A three-sided, steep-walled box canyon.

Box canyons form when water emerges from a rock face, according to National Geographic. When the water meets an impermeable layer of stone it seeps into the surrounding permeable layers until it saturates the area. This saturation weakens the stone and it collapses, breaking away in layers. This forms a wide, three-sided canyon. Box Canyon in Florence, Arizona, is a prime example of where the water eroded the soft volcanic bedrock to form this type of geologic feature.

Slot Canyon

A slot canyon is formed by rushing water. This occurs mainly on mountains where there is a steep landscape causing water to flow rapidly. The rushing water cuts down into the rock wearing a deep, narrow trench characterized by a "V" shape. Zion National Park in Utah features a breathtaking display of what this type of erosion can do. A hairline fracture in a piece of stone can become a rock climber's paradise after a few thousand years of flowing water breaking it open.

Submarine Canyon

A river that erodes the landscape above the ocean surface also can erode the landscape beneath it.

A submarine canyon is as it sounds. This is a canyon that forms at the bottom of the ocean. Just as the other types of canyons, it is flowing water that creates this feature. Usually, submarine canyons form when a river continuously empties into the ocean at one place. These types of submarine canyons are often extensions of land canyons formed by the same river. Other submarine canyons form from deep ocean currents that gouge grooves along the sea floor.

Tags: canyons form, Grand Canyon, submarine canyons, Antelope Canyon, Canyon Arizona

Historical Facts About Four Corners In Utah

There is no other place like the Four Corners in the United States.

Four Corners is a tourist attraction situated in the only place in the United States where the borders of four states intersect in a single spot. These states are Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado and Utah. The surrounding area is interesting from a geographic, historical and cultural perspective. The monument is in a remote area and is managed by the local Navajo Nation.

History of the Four Corners Monument

The bronze disc at the site today was installed in 1992.

The site was originally marked in 1912, soon after government surveyors determined the exact borders of the four states. It was only in 1992 that the bronze disc encased in granite that we see today was placed at the site. Activities at and around the site include sightseeing and hiking. As the monument is situated on Native American land, visiting it will also give you the opportunity to learn more about ancient and present-day indigenous cultures.

Geological Time Line

A panorama of the rock formations in Monument Valley.

Monument Valley is an ancient repository of many natural stone wonders. Famous land formations such as the Three Sisters, The Mittens and the Totem Pole were carved out of the sandstone by wind erosion. Canyons and dizzying cliffs were formed by geologic uplift. These natural forces continue to shape the land into the present day.

The Old West

Although it is a fact that famous cowboys such as Butch Cassidy and Billy the Kid rode through Utah on their travels, the history of the state is not all gunslingers and tumbleweeds. The American West Heritage Center is a nonprofit organization that works to preserve the area's heritage. The headquarters in Cache Valley, Utah, consists of historic recreations of a working farm, mountain man campsite, a Shoshone encampment and a pioneer settlement.

Local Indigenous Cultures

Ancient indigenous petroglyphs in Monument Valley.

Five Native American tribes currently live in the state of Utah. They are the Ute, Paiute, Shoshone, Goshute and Dine' (Navajo). The ancient, elaborate cliff dwellings that the ancestors of the native people left behind are visited and studied by tourists, anthropologists and archaeologists alike. Literally every corner of Utah has rock art that dates back thousands of years, and most of these are found in remote areas untouched by civilization.

Tags: Four Corners, Monument Valley, borders four, borders four states, bronze disc, four states, Native American

Identify Crystals & Stones

Polished and cut gemstones are a collector's dream.

Learning identify rocks is the first step in building a collection. Minerals and gemstones have distinct colors, textures, and patterns that distinguish them from the more common, less desirable stones that populate most specimen collection sites. With the right tools, any beginner can learn the tricks of the trade.

Instructions

Find Good Specimens

1. Search natural cliffs, outcrops, quarries, hills, and steep slopes, which offer the best collecting sites, according to the U.S. Geological Survey. You're less likely to find gemstones in level country and open fields.

2. An example of an uncracked geode that may contain crystals.

Review field guides, geologic maps, and rock collecting magazines to learn the makeup of rocks and gems. Understanding that crystals are metamorphic rocks created by the rearrangement of mineral components under additional heat and pressure, for example, will prove critical in developing your identification skills.

3. Copper is an example of a metallic mineral.

Tap the specimen with a geologist's hammer. If the specimen is easily shaped by bending, crushing, or hammering, it is more likely a metallic ore. Gemstones have a crystalline structure that cannot be shaped as easily. Even then, shaping occurs only through abrasion, cutting, or fracturing.

4. Labeling your rocks and organizing them in boxes is a good idea.

Catalog each specimen's location in your notebook as you collect it. To avoid errors, save identification tasks for another time, and store each piece in a central container, such as a shoebox.

5. Run your fingers over the specimen to determine its texture. If the specimen feels rough and sandy, it should never be considered a gemstone, no matter how appealing it looks.

Test the Stones

6. Diamonds are the hardest stone on the Mohs scale.

Measure your stone's durability by applying several test substances from a hardness kit. If the first application scratches the specimen, it is probably harder than the stone itself. Try several substances to determine hardness as measured on a Mohs scale, which ranks talc lowest and diamonds highest.

7. If you suspect a crystalline gemstone, strike your specimen to see how well it breaks. Crystals have a tendency to break along fixed planes, which can be examined and compared to various cleavage charts.

8. Scratch the specimen against a hard ceramic plate. If the result leaves a streak, the odds of it being a gemstone are higher. To narrow the possibilities, compare the streak's appearance against maps or charts.

9. Use hand lenses, also called pocket magnifiers, to help identify mineral grains. A six- to ten-power range is best. For best results, use an optically corrected hand lens, which is more expensive but is also considered a more accurate measurement device.

10. Salt crystals can take many different shapes.

Study the specimen's atomic and molecular structure under a powerful glass to determine if the piece is a crystal. Although sugar and salt crystals may look similar in a bowl, in reality their shapes are unique.

Tags: Mohs scale

Earth Science Lab Experiments

Studying rock formations is a topic of Earth science.

Earth scientists study such natural processes and phenomena as volcanoes, hurricanes, earthquakes, energy and mineral resources, human activity on earth, oceanography and geology. A student can conduct an Earth science project in one of these areas and explore the types of processes or activities that occur on our Earth.

Soil Liquefaction

Soil liquefaction occurs when soil changes from a liquid state to a solid state due to water saturation. This is an important condition as it can apply to building and construction. If soil becomes unstable, it cannot hold the weight of the buildings on top of it. This science project investigates the type of soil that can withstand the most water and can be conducted with different soil types, such as sand, clay and loam. A brick is then placed on top of each soil type to determine how much water it takes before the brick sinks. Set the different types of soil in large containers then place a brick on each soil type and add 100 milliliters of water to the soil. Continue to add 100 milliliters of water until the brick sinks. Remember to take plenty of pictures and discuss which type of soil held the brick the longest.

Plate Tectonic Model

Build a model of the Earth to explore the features of plate tectonics, such as sea-floor spreading, magnetic stripes, transform and thrust faulting, subduction zones and volcanoes. The model should include the outer 180 miles of the Earth and its crust. The materials needed include a shoe box, paper, glue, colored pens, markers or paints. The model will allow the user to manipulate the shoe box to act as the sea floor and visibly watch the sea floor move into the trench of the ocean floor. In addition, it will illustrate sea floor creation at the ridges of the ocean floor, as well as earthquake fault lines. For additional detailed directions on constructing the model, refer to the U.S. Geological Survey website.

Plants and Oil Spills

Investigate the effects of the plant Elodea on oil spills. Determine if Elodea would be an effective and natural way to help save the environment. All you need is an Elodea plant and, gasoline, engine oil and corn oil. You will need to add oil to the surface of water containing Elodea plants. Create four different cylinders, each with a plant and water. Add the different oils (same amounts) to three of the bowls. Leave one bowl without oil as a control. Let the plants sit for one week. Measure the level of oil in each cylinder. In addition, note the size of the Elodea plant and the amount of water remaining. Determine if Elodea was effective in removing oil from the water as well as which oil Elodea removed the greatest amount.

Minerals

The Earth contains a multitude of rocks and minerals in its surface. An interesting Earth science project is to collect a different variety of rocks and minerals and identify the types of rocks collected. There are mineral test kits for students with the types of tools needed to both test and identify rocks and minerals. These kits contain streak plates for color tests, glass plates for hardness testing, dropper bottles for acid tests, magnets and magnifiers. Remember to collect rocks and minerals from different locations, for instance, at a park, beach or pond. In addition, take pictures for your project of the rocks and the materials and methods used to determine their identities.

Tags: rocks minerals, science project, brick sinks, Determine Elodea, each soil

The Best Wildlife Biology Schools

The Best Wildlife Biology Schools

Wildlife biology is the study of animals and their habitats. Those hoping to work as a wildlife biologist must have a strong background in biology, zoology and botany. There are only about 25 wildlife biology programs in the United States. The best programs offer high job placement rates, certification from the Wildlife Society and work with government agencies such as the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The best programs are also smaller, offering hands-on experience for students through nature preserves and other natural areas as well as direct work with faculty.

Baker University-Baldwin City Campus

The College of Arts and Sciences of Baker University offers a degree in wildlife biology. Located in Baldwin City, Kansas, the school maintains three wildlife areas and offers study abroad opportunities. The program also leads to certification as an Associate Wildlife Biologist with the Wildlife Society.

Missouri Western State University

A Bachelor of Science in Biology with a focus on Wildlife Conservation and Management is offered at Missouri Western State University. The program offers certification as a wildlife biologist with the Wildlife Society. Students work with the Otoe Creek Nature Center and the Missouri Department of Conservation's Northwest Service Center to gain experience in the field.

University of Michigan - Flint

The University of Michigan at Flint offers small classes and provides a hands-on experience in the field. Students are well-prepared for further graduate studies in the field of wildlife biology.

University of Alaska-Fairbanks

The Wildlife Biology program at UAF offers access 360 million acres for study of local wildlife. The program is small.

University of Idaho

The Fish and Wildlife Resources program at the University of Idaho is a smaller program that offers undergraduates a chance to work directly with graduate students and faculty. Students get to work directly with the U.S. Geological Survey and the Aquaculture Research Institute.

University of Florida

The University of Florida's Wildlife Ecology and Conservation program offer multiple degree options, including graduate degrees. This program offers direct work with Florida's natural history museums and the unique wildlife fish and wildlife of Florida through a 9,000 acre nature reserve. Work is also done with the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Kansas State University

The Division of Biology at KSU offers a specialization in Wildlife and Conservation Biology. Students work with active research programs and help maintain grants to fund those programs through coursework and part-time jobs offered by the department. Work is done on the 8,600 acre Konza prairie and students also frequently earn internships with the National Science Foundation, Smithsonian Institute, and other state and national programs.

Tags: work with, Geological Survey, program offers, State University, Students work

Composition Of Saturn

Saturn was formed more than 4.5 billion years ago.

Saturn is the second largest planet in the solar system and is the sixth planet in order of distance from the sun. Most of what we know about Saturn was gathered from 20th century spacecraft: the Pioneer 11 probe in 1979, Voyager 1 in 1980, Voyager 2 in 1981 and the ongoing Cassini mission launched in 1997. Saturn is not a terrestrial planet; it is primarily liquid held in shape my immense pressure.

Interior

Cassini landed on Titan, Saturn's largest moon, on January 14, 2005.

The planet itself is composed of 96 percent hydrogen, 3 percent helium and trace chemicals make up the remaining 1 percent. The planet is formed in layers. Closest to the surface is helium and ice, followed by liquid hydrogen, then liquid metallic hydrogen and finally, iron and rock at its core, which are believed to have sunk into the center of the planet during its formation.

Surface

Saturn does not have a solid surface.

Saturn's surface is not solid; it has an average specific density of 0.69, which is less dense than water. The atmospheric pressure is so intense that it would crush any object before it reached the surface. It is difficult to delineate where Saturn's atmosphere leaves off and its surface begins. Scientists differentiate Saturn's surface is from its atmosphere where the atmospheric pressure exceeds 1 bar.

Poles

A glowing aurora is produced over Saturn's northern polar region.

Saturn is an oblate spheroid, meaning that it is perceptibly flattened at the poles and bulges at the equator. Its north pole has a strange hexagonal pattern around it made up of high-energy subatomic particles. A glowing aurora is produced when these particles interact with gas molecules. A massive hurricane-like storm covers its south pole. The storm is made up of spiral bands of clouds, thousands of miles across and circulating at high speeds of up to 342 miles per hour, locked in place over the pole. The eye of the storm is approximately 930 miles in diameter and contains massive clouds that tower 19 to 47 miles high.

Atmosphere

Saturn's atmosphere is not much different than its surface.

The atmosphere of Saturn is comprised of 88 percent hydrogen, 11 percent helium and the remaining 1 percent is a mixture of methane, ammonia and ammonia crystals, ethane, ethylene and phosphine. The outer layer, the tropopause, is mostly clouds of ammonia. Closer to the surface is a cloud layer of ammonium hydrosulfide. Closest to the surface is a cloud-layer of water.

Rings

The two largest gaps between the rings are the Cassini and Encke divisions.

Saturn's rings are made up of hundreds of thousands of narrow bands of ice crystal, silica rock and iron oxide particles ranging in size from specks of dust to the size of a small car. These bands are only about 10 km thick. There are gaps between the strands of rings, the two largest being the Cassini division and the Encke division. There are also structures called "spokes" that extend out in a radial direction. It is believed that these spokes are caused by electrostatic repulsion between the ring particles. Some of the rings appear to be braided strands, kept in place by the interaction of gravitational forces from two of the over 600 small moons lying on either side of the strand that orbit the planet. The rings have their own atmosphere, independent of the planet, composed of molecular oxygen gas.

Tags: atmospheric pressure, aurora produced, Closest surface, gaps between, glowing aurora, glowing aurora produced, hydrogen percent

How Do Volcanoes Erupt With Basaltic Lava & Tephra

How Do Volcanoes Erupt With Basaltic Lava & Tephra?

Tephra and Basaltic Lava: Two Different Types of Eruptions, From Different Types of Volcanoes

Volcanoes come in a variety of shapes, sizes and flavors. Some are broad and flat, some are tall and cone shaped, some are underwater, and some only erupt every several hundred thousand years. But in terms of eruption characteristics, all volcanoes fall into one of two categories: felsic or mafic.

Felsic Eruptions: Explosions of Tephra

In geology, "felsic" refers to relatively light, low-density rock with a high silica content. The most common felsic rock is granite. Other examples include rhyolite and pumice. When it melts--because of the low-density silica--felsic rock produces slow-moving, viscous magma/lava as opposed to the runny, fast-flowing magma produced by mafic rock (discussed in the next section).

In felsic volcanoes, the sticky, silica-rich magma accumulates and forms a plug over the vent (crater), sealing in heat, pressure and volatile gases. Over time, the pressure builds inside the volcano. Finally, when there's enough pressure to breach the magma plug, a catastrophic explosion occurs.

In such explosions, like that of Mount St. Helens in 1980, huge amounts of rock and ash are ejected into the atmosphere. This ballistic debris is called "tephra." Tephra from felsic eruptions can reach miles in altitude, blot out the sun, cause acid rain and smother human settlements on the ground. Felsic volcanoes generally occur near convergent plate boundaries, where heavy ocean crust descends into the upper mantle, melts, then sends a plume of magma up through the silica-rich continental crust. Felsic volcanism produces tall, conical mountains of tephra accumulated over the ages.

Mafic Eruptions: Rivers of Melted Rock

In contrast to felsic rock, mafic rock is richer in heavy elements like iron and magnesium. Types of mafic rock include basalt and gabbro. More dense and rich in metal than felsic rock, mafic rock flows easily when it melts. So, mafic magma/lava doesn't form blockages over volcanic vents like felsic magma, and doesn't trap pressure. Therefore, mafic eruptions aren't explosive. Basaltic magma simply rises out of the earth and flows quickly out of the vent until it cools.

The Hawaiian Islands are all formed from basalt rich, mafic volcanoes: Over millions of years, basaltic magmas rose up through the sea floor and accumulated to form massive, broad mountains. We see the very tops of these colossal mountains as the Hawaiian Islands. Mafic volcanoes are typically formed over mantle plumes or "hotspots," where convection currents inside the earth cause magma to rise up through the basalt rich ocean crust. Also known as "shield volcanoes," mafic volcanoes are the largest, tallest mountains on Earth in terms of their distance from base to summit. Most of their mass, however, remains underwater.

In general, mafic/basaltic eruptions are less dangerous to humans than felsic eruptions. There is little, if any, explosive force, and there is virtually no tephra.

Tags: mafic rock, Basaltic Lava, felsic rock, basalt rich, Basaltic Lava Tephra, Different Types

Art Activities On Geology

Use clay to create landform sculptures.

Teaching students about geology often involves studying types of rocks, sands and landforms. While most of this instruction is done through observation, there are several hands-on art projects that can be completed as part of a classroom geology unit, from building your own landforms to designing your own sandy masterpiece.

Landform Sculptures

Sculpt different landforms to display in the classroom or home by sculpting homemade dough into the desired shape, such as a mountain or a plateau, before coating the landforms with plaster of Paris. Once your sculpture has dried, paint it with acrylic paint to resemble the landform. If you created an island sculpture, place your landform in the middle of a plate and pour water around it for a more realistic look, suggests ProTeacher.

Geology Collage

Create a geology collage by providing children with a selection of newspapers and magazines to browse. Have them cut out any pictures of geology-related items, such as a sandy beach, a wall made of stone or a volcano and let them glue their geology objects onto a piece of paper making a unique collage. Give older children a more specific goal, such as creating a collage out of specific types of rocks or landforms.

Sand Art

Use colored sand to create a sand painting art creation. Using a paintbrush, have children place a thin layer of glue on a sheet of sturdy construction paper in the area where they want the sand before sprinkling the sand in the desired area. Add different colors to fill the paper with sand. While younger children may simply enjoy making art from the sand, teach older children about rock layers by having them create a replica of the rock layers found in a landform, such as the Grand Canyon.

Tags: older children, rock layers, types rocks

How Is The Hardness Of Diamonds Determined

Diamonds mined today were actually formed millions of years ago.

A diamond is the hardest natural substance known to man. It's actually a crystal that forms in the earth's mantle, deep below the surface, when carbon atoms melt and re-harden. Deep-source volcanic eruptions eventually force diamonds toward the surface. The intense heat and pressure account for the diamond's hardness.

Moh Scale

The Moh scale ranks 10 minerals in ascending order of hardness. Talc, the softest mineral on the scale, is ranked number one. Diamond, the hardest, is ranked 10. Substances that don't appear on the scale can be rated according to their hardness compared to the hardness of minerals that do appear on the sale. Some common substances are assigned a fixed place on the scale. Fingernail, for example, is rated 2.5.

Testing Method

Kits are available that contain rods with fragments of the minerals listed on the Moh scale. The tester hits the mineral in question with a rod and makes note of which mineral the rod contains, and whether or not the rod scratched the mineral. Some kits have samples of the actual minerals. The tester swipes these against the mineral being tested. Only diamond can scratch a diamond, so a test kit with a diamond sample would definitively determine that the mineral being tested is also a diamond, if no sample besides the diamond could scratch it.

Significance

Knowing how hard a mineral is makes it much easier to identify. Using the Moh scale, for example, a mineral that scratches calcite, which is number three on the sale, but does not scratch fluorite, which is number four, obviously has to be a mineral known to be harder than calcite but softer than fluorite. The common non-mineral substances with fixed ratings help narrow the choices. As noted, a substance that no other substance scratches except a diamond is itself a diamond.

Knoop Test

An alternative method of testing the hardness of diamonds is the Knoop Test, developed in the 1930s by the National Bureau of Standards, which is now known as the National Institute of Standards and Technology. This test measures a substance's hardness according to how difficult it is to indent. The tester pushes the indent object into the surface of a smoothly polished diamond with a measured degree of force. It's held there for several seconds. The tester then removes the tool and measures the size of the indentation. The size of the indentation identities the substance as a diamond if, when measured, the indentation equals the anticipated size of a diamond's indentation.

Tags: being tested, diamond sample, Knoop Test, mineral being, mineral being tested, size indentation, that appear

What Beginning Salary Would You Expect To Start With When You Are A Geologist

After you get your bachelor's degree in geology you can work jobs in a variety of industries.

As a geologist you'll study natural and human-caused processes that occur in the earth. You may also examine natural resources like iron and coal and show business and government leaders where to best drill and/or mine for resources like oil, water and uranium. You need at least a bachelor's degree before you get hired and start earning a beginning salary as a geologist. Annual wages you can earn exceed the national average wage of $40,711 as reported by the Social Security Administration. If you earn graduate degrees, you can increase the amount of money you receive in your beginning salary.

Beginning Salaries for Geologists

Salaries for geologists rose by approximately 8 percent between 2010 and 2011, according to AAPG Explorer. Increase in petroleum and crude oil prices may have driven a large portion of the wage increases. Geologists who have a bachelor's degree from an accredited college or university can start out earning $74,000. By getting a master's degree they can earn a beginning salary of $96,000. If geologists return to school and get a doctorate degree and they can start out earning as much as $107,500 a year.

Median Wages New Geologists Earn

An annual salary of $60,000 for a geologist with two or less years of experience was considered low by the AAPG. With three to five years of experience, geologists earned an average salary of $102,300. The average annual salary beginning geologists earned was $93,000. However, the highest wage earners who had between zero to two years of experience took home approximately $110,800 a year.

Salaries by Industry

Some industries like the oil industry paid geologists more than other industries. For example, the United States Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reports that, as of May 2008, geologists working in oil and gas extraction earned a median annual wage of $127,560. By working in the federal executive branch, geologists took home about $90,220 a year. The architectural, engineering and related services and management, scientific and technical consulting services industries paid geologists about $66,770 and $62,070 a year respectively. State government organizations paid geologists working for them approximately $57,700 a year.

Job Outlook

Jobs for geologists are expected to grow by approximately 18 percent from 2008 through 2018 according to BLS. This represents a faster than average job growth compared to other occupations. Ongoing need for oil and petroleum as well as the focus on restoring and preserving the earth may drive some of the growth. Geologists who get graduate degrees may have improved opportunities to get hired.

Tags: bachelor degree, beginning salary, paid geologists, start earning, years experience, about year

What Attractions Are Near Altus Oklahoma

Altus, a small city in southwestern Oklahoma, was founded in 1886 under the name Frazer. At that time, it was located almost three miles to the west of its present site. In 1891, after a disastrous flood, Frazer's citizens relocated the town to higher ground and renamed it Altus, which is Latin for "high." Although it's best known as the home of Altus Air Force Base, which is an important training facility for the pilots and crew of multiengine military aircraft, the Altus area also offers a variety of cultural and natural attractions.

Museum of the Western Prairie

Located in downtown Altus next to the Kiwanis Ball Park, the Museum of the Western Prairie (okhistory.org/outreach/museums/westernprairie.html) educates visitors about the rich geological and cultural history of southwestern Oklahoma. Exhibits explain the prehistory of the region, the culture of its Native American tribes, the history of European settlement and the area's current status as an agricultural, military and industrial center. The museum is open Tuesday through Saturday from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m.

Morgan Doll Museum

The Morgan Doll Museum (no website; 909 E. Broadway St., Altus; 580-482-2387) is a private facility launched in 2005 by longtime doll collector Mary Morgan. The collection comprises thousands of rare and antique dolls, dollhouses and accessories dating from the 19th century to the present day. Highlights include a room-size, fully furnished recreation of Tara from "Gone With the Wind" and more than 50 Shirley Temple dolls. The museum is open Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday from 1 p.m. to 5 p.m. or by appointment.

Quartz Mountain Nature Park

Located about 20 minutes north of Altus in the Wichita Mountains, Quartz Mountain Nature Park (quartzmountain.org) stretches along the western shore of Lake Altus-Lugert, which is a popular regional destination for boating and fishing. The park features a resort lodge, a performing arts center, a nature center, interpretive trails, sand dunes and numerous primitive camping sites. It's also home to Baldy Point, a forbidding 300-foot granite dome that attracts brave rock climbers from all over the country. Quartz Mountain Nature Park is open 24 hours a day, seven days a week.

Great Plains State Park

Approximately 30 minutes northeast of Altus in the rugged granite foothills of the Wichita Mountains, Great Plains State Park (no website; 22487 E. 1566 Road; Mountain Park; 580-569-2032) offers visitors everything from rock climbing and rappelling to water skiing. The park has hiking and biking trails for all skill levels; it also includes the eastern shoreline of 6,400-acre Tom Steed Lake, which is famous for its crappie and walleye fishing. RV, camping and picnic sites are available, and pets are welcome. Great Plains State Park is open 24 hours a day, all year long. The park office is open Monday through Friday from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m.

Tags: Great Plains, Great Plains State, Mountain Nature, Mountain Nature Park, Nature Park, Plains State, Plains State Park

Landforms In Slaton Texas

Playa lakes are shallow basins that collect rain water and runoff.

A landform is a feature of the Earth's surface, such as a mountain, island or lake. Playa lakes are prominent landforms in the Texas High Plains, which includes Slaton, nearby Lubbock and the Texas Panhandle. These reservoirs provide habitats for animals and water for use in many locations. The shallowness of playa lakes and the erratic rainfall in the High Plains amplify the need for protection of these landforms as water supplies. Canyons also form part of the landscape and history of areas in the vicinity of Slaton.

Definition and Size of Playas

A playa is a shallow, circular collection of water in a normally small area. Playas can exceed 800 acres, though 87 percent of playas cover less than 30 acres. The average playa is approximately 15 acres.

Formation of Playas

Playa basins develop from ground depression. The National Wildlife Resources Council presents a theory that water interacts with organic material under the soil surface to form acid that erodes caliche, the underlying carbon matter. Water, along with particulate and organic matter, flows more easily through surface openings to create and grow basins. Playas obtain water primarily from rain or irrigation runoff. As a result, playas frequently experience alternating wet and dry periods that are difficult to predict.

Location and Climate

In the United States, most playas are situated in the Southern High Plains. Approximately 19,300 playas dot the Texas High Plains, which includes Slaton and the Panhandle region. Other areas of the Southern High Plains region include eastern New Mexico, western Oklahoma, extreme southeastern Colorado and southwestern Kansas. Thunderstorms in May, June, September and October provide the majority of precipitation for playa basins. The climate in Slaton and other High Plains communities features significant daily temperature ranges, low relative humidity and irregular rainfall.

The Importance of Playas

Playa lakes recharge, or replenish, the Ogallala Aquifer, a major source of water for Texas. An aquifer is a layer of rock, sand or gravel beneath the surface that holds water. Water from playas flows downward through cracks in the basin's clay lining into the aquifer. Recharge also results from the flooding of playa basins following rains. Cap rock, or caliche, hinders the recharging of the Ogallala Aquifer through rainfall, especially since rainfall is limited. Playas can also serve as animal habitats.

Ransom Canyon

Buffalo hunters used Ransom Canyon.

Slaton sits near Ransom Canyon, a popular passage through the Staked Plains of Texas and New Mexico because of the area's gradual elevation increase. In the 1600s, priests and military captains traveled through the canyon from Santa Fe, New Mexico to San Angelo, Texas. The fresh water springs in the canyon attracted Native Americans, cattle herders, buffalo hunters and members of the Untied States Calvary, among others. Ransom Canyon hosted negotiations that secured the release of Spanish and English traders held as Comanche hostages.

Caprock Canyon

Caprock Canyon is located near Slaton.

Caprock Canyon exhibits the product of erosion and the exposure of geological formations. Exposed red sandstones and siltstones fill the area and provide color characteristic of canyons. The state park that features Caprock consists of steep clifffs and rugged terrain for more experienced climbers and cyclists and trails with subtle, more easily navigated trails. The park climbs 1,000 feet from its eastern to western boundaries. As with Ransom Canyon, Comanche Indians, herders, ranchers and buffalo herders traveled in and through Caprock Canyon.

Tags: High Plains, Ransom Canyon, Caprock Canyon, Playa lakes, High Plains which, includes Slaton

What Are Utah'S Two Major Drainage Regions

Utah's Glen Canyon National Recreation Area features the Colorado River.

Utah, the "Crossroads of the West," is the 13th largest state in the country at 54.3 million acres or 84,916 square miles. The state's population is 2.76 million, according to the 2010 U.S. Census. It consists of three major geosystems: Rocky Mountain, Colorado Plateau and Great Basin.

Climate and Weather

Utah is the country's second driest state but has diverse soils, climate and vegetation. The geography includes arid flat lands, valleys and lower basins; humid plateaus and high mountains; and semi-arid transitional regions that cover about one third of the state each. Precipitation ranges from about eight to 18 inches or more annually.

Rocky Mountains geosystem

The Rocky Mountains geosystem covers northeastern Utah. It consists of high mountains chiseled out by glaciers and streams. The area features U-shaped valleys, moraines (debris piles created by mountain glaciers), sharp ridge lines and glacial lakes. It includes Wasatch mountains, which run north-south, and the Uinta mountains, which run east-west.

Colorado Plateau geosystem

The Colorado Plateau geosystem across southeastern Utah contains deep canyons, plateaus and mesas formed by erosion from flat-lying layers of sedimentary rocks. This region contains several state parks, a national recreation area, six national monuments and five national parks. It also has large deposits of natural gas, oil, coal, tar sands, oil shale, gilsonite and uranium.

Basin and Range geosystem

The Basin and Range geosystem covers western Utah. It includes numerous steep mountain ranges (running mostly north-south) alternating with flat, dry desert valleys filled with sediment. About 15,000 years ago, this area was flooded by the prehistoric Lake Bonneville.

Colorado and Green River drainages

Utah's two major drainage regions are the Colorado and Green rivers. The Green River begins in the eastern section of Wyoming's Wind River Mountains. It flows for 730 miles, 450 of which are in Utah, dropping from 6,000 feet elevation to 3,000 feet. The river drains northeastern Utah, about one fourth of the state. Its tributaries include the Duchesne, White and Yampa (located in Colorado). The Green River remains virtually wild with only one large dam, the Flaming Gorge Dam.

The Colorado River flows southwesterly through Utah beginning out of a sandstone bedrock canyon west across the Moab Valley's northern end. Then it turns and flows through cliffs at The Portal and on to another sandstone canyon. The Green and Colorado rivers converge at Stillwater Canyon in Canyonlands National Park.

Tags: Colorado Green, Colorado Plateau, Green River, Basin Range, Basin Range geosystem, Colorado Green River, Colorado Plateau geosystem

Geology Crafts For Kids

Colorful rocks can be used in a variety of craft projects.

You’ve just come back from a weekend of camping or your vacation at the beach and your amateur geologist has brought back a backpack full of rocks. Rather than let them sit in a box in the corner gathering dust, use these found treasures for some creative projects. These crafts can combine your child’s love of rocks with the fun of creating their own artwork.

Tumbled Rock Jewelry

Beach rocks or pebbles are usually quite smooth due to the action of the waves constantly turning them and rubbing them against each other. Rocks also tend to be more colorful when they are wet. One way to get that "wet" look for rocks of any origin is to polish them in a rock tumbler. Tumbling rocks does require patience, since each step takes about a week and there are usually at least three required cycles. At the end, you will have a handful of colorful, shiny rocks suitable for making jewelry or other gifts. There are starter tumbler kits made for children that have the necessary grit and polish included. Some of the tumbler starter kits also come with inexpensive jewelry pieces to mount the stones in. If you are planning several craft projects, you might consider buying an adult tumbler that can handle more rocks.

Rock Mosaics

Brightly colored rocks, such as pink quartz, green serpentine or red jasper, are perfect materials for mosaics. Obsidian, which is usually found in black, brown or shades of gray, is also a good choice. Help your child break up larger rocks by putting them in a towel or dishcloth and striking them with a hammer. You may want to tumble the rocks before using them, since it brings out the colors and takes away sharp edges. Once you have your rocks ready, take a piece of cardboard and draw your design. Glue the rocks on to the cardboard. Your mosaic can be completely made of rocks, or you can mix the materials, perhaps adding small pieces of driftwood or shells.

Rock Mice

Take some smooth rocks and make a family of rock mice. Stones that are oval or egg-shaped work best. Glue four tiny pebbles on the bottom of the mouse for legs and let them dry. Take some googly eyes, the ones that move, and glue them to one end of the rock. If you have an egg-shaped rock, put the eyes on the pointed end. Cut out a tail and two ears out of felt and glue them on your mouse. Use a felt pen to draw a nose and some whiskers on the rock. Now give each of your mice its own identity. Make tiny glasses out of wire, hats or bow ties out of paper or fabric scraps or even little clothes out of felt. Take an empty egg carton, paint or color it and make a "mouse house" for your new friends.

Tags: craft projects, glue them, Take some, them rock

The World'S Largest Deserts

Not all deserts are hot and sandy.

Most of us picture a vast expanse of hot sand when we hear the word desert. However, because geologists strictly define a desert as an area that receives little precipitation, the two largest deserts in the world are at its poles. Taking into account Antarctica and the Arctic, more than 1/3 of the Earth's surface is a desert.

Antarctic Desert

Also known as the Maudlandia Desert, this desert covers 5.5 million miles in southeast Antarctica. It receives only 2 inches of precipitation per year, less than the Sahara. The precipitation is always in the form of snow.

Arctic Desert

Only slightly smaller than the southern polar desert at 5.4 million miles, this desert region encompasses portions of Sweden, Alaska, Russia, Canada, Norway, Finland, Greenland and Iceland. It is unlike the popular notion of a desert not only because it is cold rather than hot, but also because it is made up of islands. The islands are surrounded by the Arctic Ocean.

Sahara Desert

The Sahara stretches 3.5 million miles across northern Africa from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. The word Sahara means desert in Arabic. The desert encompasses the Tibesti mountain range, whose highest peak, the Emi Koussi, rises beyond 11,000 feet. Some parts of the Sahara contain pyramidal sand dunes more than 500 feet high. Recorded temperatures have hit 135 degrees Fahrenheit.

Arabian Desert

The 1 million mile span of the Arabian Desert dominates the Arabian peninsula. At the center of the Arabian Desert lies the Rub'al Khali, the largest continuous body of sand in the world. The Arabian Desert crosses the boundaries of several countries. Most of the desert is in Saudi Arabia, but it extends into Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Iraq, Yemen and Oman.

Gobi Desert

The Gobi Desert in China and Mongolia has a climate between that of the two polar deserts and the subtropical Sahara and Arabian deserts. It is roughly half the size of the Arabian Desert. Much of the Gobi is rocky rather than sandy. During the years of the Mongol Empire, the Gobi was the site of several cities along the Silk Road trading route.

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What Are Two Major Agents Of Erosion

Water from streams can gradually grind rocks into sand.

Erosion is the natural process where the earth and its soils are broken down by wind and water. As a result of this natural process, channels, gulleys, canyons and many other natural geological phenomena are created over hundreds or thousands of years. According to National Geographic, erosion by wind and water are responsible not only for small scale geological features, but also large-scale ones such as the Grand Canyon. Does this Spark an idea?

Water

As water falls onto a geological feature, such as a mountain, gravity pulls the water down, coalescing it into one or more places where it naturally encounters the least resistance on its way down to lower elevations. The natural pathway that water takes from places of higher elevation to lower elevations also causes the soils and rocks along that pathway to erode into features such as stream channels or small canyons, which may take several decades or hundreds of years. In large weather events, flash floods can dramatically cause quick changes in the landscape.

Wind

Another major contributor to erosion is the wind, especially in desert environments with mountains, where the winds can carry grains of sand at high speeds, hitting rock formations and degrading the rock. Over time, just as water can shape the earth's soils and rocks, wind can also change and shift Earth's geological formations; however, evidence of wind erosion is much more subtle than water-based erosion sites. One of the best examples of wind erosion is shifting sand dunes in deserts.

Primary Succession

Although not technically considered erosion, primary succession does involve the breaking down of rocks over time; however, in this case, the rocks are broken down into soils by plants. Mosses and lichen are responsible for the initial stages of primary succession, where rocks are slowly broken down as these plants sink their root structures into the rock searching for water and minerals. Over time, enough rock is broken down into soil so that smaller plants or tree shoots can take root.

Erosion Concerns

In urban development and community planning, the issue of erosion is of major importance due to the risk of freshwater ecosystems becoming easily contaminated by sediment runoff caused by erosion. Sediment runoff is the number one danger to the health of freshwater ecosystems, as the turbidity of the water becomes less clear and waterborne animals are not able to breathe. As a result, communities should seek to enact and enforce steep slope development ordinances and maintain a buffer zone between construction sites and freshwater sources.

Tags: broken down, broken down into, down into, earth soils, erosion wind, freshwater ecosystems, lower elevations

American Hiking Society Grants

AHS grants serve hiking trails across the country.

Since the early 1980s, the nonprofit American Hiking Society has helped protect trails and other outdoor recreation sites through advocacy and volunteerism. In addition to trail building, fund raising and conservation initiatives, the society offers yearly grants through its National Trails Fund. These grants help construct new foot trails and protect existing sites. Visit the American Hiking Society's website for the latest grant information and up-do-date application deadlines.

Basics

The American Hiking Society created the National Trails Fund in 1998. As of 2011, this fund is the only privately supported national grants program that funds grassroots organizations in their efforts to establish, maintain and conserve American foot trails. These grants award community organizations with the financial assets needed to secure labor and materials for foot trail building or maintenance.

Amounts

As of 2011, grants from the American Hiking Society's National Trails Fund have awarded 157 grassroots community organizations across the United States with a total of almost $487,000. Award amounts start at $500 and reach up to $5,000. The needs and scale of each proposed foot trail project determine the amount of the grant awarded by the AHS fund.

Requirements

National Trails Fund grants cater only to nonprofit community organizations with valid IRS designation letters. Only members of the Alliance of Hiking Organizations may apply for grants from the fund. Projects may last no longer than one year, with very few exceptions. The American Hiking Society considers awarding grants to projects that cater mostly to hikers, though it does consider some multi-use trail proposals. Commonly funded projects include securing trail lands, acquiring new trail corridors, improving ease of access, bolstering safety, restoring damaged trails and promoting constituency. The AHS posts up-to-date application information at its official website.

Past Recipients and Projects

In 2010, the American Hiking Society awarded 10 grassroots community organizations---including the Gray Community Endowment of Maine, the Friends of Thorn Creek Woods in Illinois and the Tahoe Rim Trail in Nevada---with National Trails Fund grants. In the past, recipients have used NTF funding for surveying, topographic mapping, purchase of gates and bridges, equipment expenses, debris removal, volunteer incentives, signage, promotional materials, administrative costs and more.

Tags: American Hiking, American Hiking Society, Hiking Society, National Trails, National Trails Fund, Trails Fund, community organizations

Geotechnical Properties Of Soils

Geotechnical engineering uses soil as a construction material.

The geotechnical properties of soil play a major role in any construction project involving buildings, roads or earthen structures such as dams and embankments. These projects use soil as an engineering material in terms of its ability to carry weight and support structures. The geotechnical properties of soils involve the physical and chemical characteristics that make up a soil's environment. Does this Spark an idea?

Soil Characteristics

The characteristics that make up a particular soil environment originate from the types of rocks the soil came from. Soil forms as weathering effects from wind and rain wear away at existing rock formations to the point where fine mineral particles and rock fragments remain. Over time, soil, water, air and organic materials from decayed plants and animals combine to create a soil's structure and texture. The amount of water, air and organic matter present determines a soil's cohesiveness in terms of how well it holds together, according to the South Dakota School of Mines & Technology. Cohesiveness also depends on the types of particles that make up the soil, which can appear as sand, silt, clay or fine mineral particles. An environment's geotechnical properties have to do with the soil's mechanical structure, which determines how it moves when additional weight is applied.

Soil Consistency

Soil consistency properties stem from an environment's overall structure in terms of the amount of air, liquid and solid material present. According to the South Dakota School of Mines & Technology, soil particles can appear in different shapes and sizes, which take on or absorb water and air in different proportions. In geotechnical terms, soils are measured according to their plasticity, or ability to mold together. Plasticity has to do with water content and how a soil behaves at different water levels. Measuring plasticity involves establishing how much water it takes to turn a particular soil environment into a solid or liquid material. Plasticity properties vary according to the types of soil particles present, with fine grain particles having the highest plasticity and sand particles having the lowest.

Soil Strength

Soil strength refers to a soil's ability to maintain its basic shape and form when weight is applied. According to the South Dakota School of Mines & Technology, factors affecting soil strength include soil particle size, as well as water and air content. Moisture-prone soils, such as clay or organic soils, tend to expand when water is present. When this happens, the soil environment eventually compacts as moisture evaporates. From a geotechnical standpoint, moisture-prone soils make for a poor construction site in terms of load-carrying capacities and structural soundness. A sound soil environment maintains its structural integrity when water present, which leaves soil particle shapes intact when water levels evaporate.

Tags: soil environment, Dakota School, Dakota School Mines, geotechnical properties, Mines Technology, School Mines, School Mines Technology

How Is Radioactive Dating Performed

Fossilized remains of animals help scientists understand the ancient history of the Earth.

Radioactive dating uses the natural decay rate of radioisotopes to estimate the age of historic sites, landforms, fossils or other objects. One of the most common forms of radioactive dating is carbon dating, where the rate of decay of carbon radioisotopes is used to measure the age of organic materials, such as fossils.

Radioisotopes

Radioisotopes, or radioactive isotopes of materials such as carbon or rubidium, will decay into new isotopes at a consistent rate, regardless of other factors like temperature or physical state. The radioisotope is known as the "parent" radioisotope and the new isotopes are known as "daughters." The half-life of the radioisotope is the amount of time needed for half of a quantity of the radioisotope to decay into new isotopes.

Calculating Age

Calculating the age of an item is computed after using a mass spectrometer to analyze the make-up of the object -- looking for and determining the number of daughter isotopes in the object. Scientists then use the predictable rate of decay of that daughter's parent radioisotope to determine the length of time required to produce that many daughter isotopes. The known rates of decay can be found in the Geological Society of America's Geologic Time Scale. After analyzing the object, the researcher graphs the parent radioisotope's rate of decay to determine the time it took for the known number of daughter isotopes to be produced.

Applications

This method of determining age has applications in archeology, geophysics, geology, oceanography and paleoclimatology. Materials that can be dated this way include minerals, wood, shells, bones and organic sediments such as peat. Some historically significant uses of the method include the dating of late Pleistocene and Holocene era artifacts and determining when major geologic events occurred.

Uncertainty

Some radioactive dating, especially carbon dating, cannot be entirely exact in its age estimates. The level of carbon radioisotopes in the atmosphere in ancient times could have fluctuated, meaning that the radioisotope's decay rate is not always predictable. For example, during historic eras where there is a high level of carbon radioisotopes in the atmosphere, more radioisotopes would have been present in an object than in an object that originated during a period of low atmospheric carbon radioisotope levels.

History

This method of dating was discovered in the 1940s by a team of researchers lead by Willard F. Libby at the University of Chicago. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Libby in 1960 for his leadership in developing radioactive dating.

Tags: carbon radioisotopes, daughter isotopes, parent radioisotope, rate decay, carbon dating, carbon radioisotopes atmosphere, decay into

Valleys In Georgia

Georgia has five physiographical regions within its borders: Coastal Plain, Piedmont, Blue Ridge, Appalachian and the Ridge and Valley regions. Because most of the state is comprised of the Coastal Plain and Piedmont, very few valleys are on the map. Most valleys are located in the Ridge and Valley area.

Location

The 2,800-square-mile Ridge and Valley region is next to the Cumberland Plateau in northwestern Georgia. It occupies approximately 5 percent of the state's surface area, according to Georgia Department of Natural Resources' Wildlife Resources Division. Valleys contained in the Ridge and Valley area include the Great Valley and the Chickamauga Valley. The Armuchee Ridges split these two valleys. The Great Valley ranges between Atlanta and Chattanooga, Tenn.

Elevation

The valleys of the Ridge and Valley region range from 600 to 800 feet in elevation. The ridges separating the valleys range from 1,000 to 1,600 feet tall. The rocks underneath the earth in this area are "symmetrically folded, producing long parallel valleys and ridges that are oriented in a northeast-southwest direction," according to the Georgia DNR.

Geology

The valleys of northwest Georgia are comprised of "Paleozoic sedimentary rocks that have been folded and faulted" to form the parallel valleys and ridges in existence today, according to the University of Georgia's Department of Geology. The faults in the region are thrust faults containing sheets of sandstone, shale and limestone piled on top of each other. The Ridge and Valley region contains construction-grade limestone, as well as barite and ochre. Coal was also once found and mined in the northwestern region.

Biology

The rivers running through the Ridge and Valley province are extremely diverse. The Georgia Department of Natural Resources says Georgia's rivers are "the most diverse temperate freshwater ecosystems in the world." An example is the Etowah River, which at one point contained 91 species of fish but now has only 76 native species. The increase in human population in the area since the 1800s has placed strain on the watershed, harming native species. The area contains a lot of the same animals and plants as the Coastal Plain, for these species travel through the valleys to spread the range of their habitat. Important species in the northwestern part of Georgia are its many crawfish, including the Conasauga Blue Burrower, which only exists in the Ridge and Valley area.

Tags: Ridge Valley, Coastal Plain, Georgia Department, Ridge Valley area, Ridge Valley region, Valley area, Valley region

Land Features On A Topographic Map

Topographic maps help travelers identify terrain and points of interest.

A topographic map shows geological details of a particular region, with contour lines and symbols that represent slopes, mines, vegetation, mud, sand and gravel formations. Both natural and man-made land features are represented on a topographic map. The USGS (United States Geological Survey) produces topographical maps, which are used by campers, hikers, scientists and students to identify regions they are visiting or exploring in detail.

Contour Lines

These lines indicate land with the same elevation. They are represented by a dark color (usually black or brown) and include a number indicating elevation of the land in feet. Closely-spaced contour lines show deep slopes, while lines that are far apart indicate gentle slopes.

Vegetation

A light green box indicates trees that are 6 feet tall or higher. Uneven, light green dots represent low-hanging bushes or brush. Formally planted vegetation, like an orchard, is represented by evenly placed, light green dots. A light green pattern, similar to that of an ink stamp, indicates vineyards.

Land Surfaces

Faint brown dots on a topographic map show the location of dunes, sand or mud. Unevenly spaced brown dots of varying hues show moraines (rocks and sand deposited by a glacier) or gravelly areas. An intricate land formation with irregular features (a lava bed, for example) may be shown with a grayish-brown box or series of short, wavy brown lines. Short, thick brown lines designate a tailings pond (debris from mill or factory waste).

Mines and Caves

Two crossed pick axes indicate a quarry or working mine. Two crossed arrows pointing downward specify a clay or sand pit. A "Y" lying on its side indicates the entrance to a cave or mine tunnel. An "X" or half-black, half-white box represents a mine shaft. Brown lines of varying lengths arranged in an oval shape show the location of a mine dump.

Buildings and Man-Made Structures

A black rectangular box, small white square, cross-hatched rectangle (or one with angled lines) indicate a general building. A black square with a pennant flag on top represents a school. A black box with a cross on top is a church. A solid pink or grayish-brown rectangle indicates a large residential or built-up area. A black or white cross lying on its side indicates an airport.

Highways and Roads

A thick red line indicates an interstate or primary highway. A red and white line indicates a hard surface secondary highway, like a state or county route. Two thick black lines with a thin one in the middle represent a dual highway with traffic lanes going in opposite directions. A thick red line over a light blue rectangle indicates a bridge

Railroads

Thick black lines with short lines through them designate railroad tracks. A single thick black line represents one track, two thick black lines indicate two tracks, and so forth.

Tags: light green, black lines, lines indicate, black lines with, brown dots, brown lines

How Do Computers Help Geologists

Geologists study the earth for patterns.

Geology is a science that governs the study of the earth and its materials and processes. There are many focuses in the realm of geology. Some geologists study minerals and mineral composition, others study the way the earth moves and the way its plates interact with each other and still others look at the way different materials act when they encounter each other. Computers and computer simulation play an important part in all these facets.

Engineering

Some geologists work to study specifically how minerals respond to stress. They use engineering programs to simulate different stresses based on the information about different types of stone that they have collected. These programs are used to test sites for various building projects, or examine mineral-based construction materials for integrity and suitability.

Models

Buildings are not the only things engineers create digital models of. Many geologists study natural disasters that are affected by the earth, such as earthquakes and volcanoes. Using very intricate computer programs, they create models of these disasters to better understand how they work, and how certain events set chains of action into motion. Computers are then used to sense and even attempt predictions of these events.

Field Equipment

Although geologists use computers often in their work, this does not keep them behind a desk. Many geologists are hired to investigate sites around the world for valuable minerals and deposits of oil. Companies need geologists to tell them where the deposits are located and dig for them. Geologists travel from place to place, testing soil samples and giving their opinion on the rock formations nearby to help others make decisions. To help, they use portable computer devices to analyze the soil or compare topography maps to their surroundings.

Time Management

The computers and computer programs that geologists use has drastically cut down on the amount of time geologists need to do their survey work. A project that once took days or weeks now only takes a few minutes with the right software. This has changed the time priorities of geologists drastically. Instead of asking other geologists for help and comparisons, or collecting materials, geologists can now use computer programs to immediately compare findings around the world. Many companies are hiring fewer geologists now that so much can be done by only one.

Types of Programs

The type of software geologists use depends on their focus. Some may use programs focused specifically on map analysis and representation. One program may focus on maps that show fault lines. Another may give a view of mineral deposits layers. Some programs compare multiple kinds of information in one map. Other geologists use 3D programs to test the strain on rocks in specific shapes. Some use simple diagnostic programs that show the geometric qualities of minerals and maps.

Geologist Opportunities

Although some companies are hiring fewer geologists since one can accomplish so much using computer programs, opportunities for geologist positions are expected to continue growing. This is primarily because older geologists who do not have experience in the modern computer software are retiring, and are replaced by younger geologists who have learned the latest geology software and can apply it at their job.

Tags: computer programs, study earth, around world, companies hiring, companies hiring fewer, each other

Pan For Gold In South America

South America is rich with gold deposits even recreational panners can access.

The gold deposits in South America are the stuff of legend. The Spanish conquistador Pizzaro and the English adventurer Sir Walter Raleigh after him set off on journeys through South America to find El Dorado, the lost city of gold. Today, South America is an excellent locale for dedicated gold panners. It has both rich deposits of the mineral, especially in Peru, Brazil and Chile, and a relatively low number of amateur prospectors panning. Gold panning in South America is a perfect trip for an adventurous spirit.

Instructions

Prepare Your Journey

1. Pinpoint the South American river or stream to start panning. Research geological maps. Look for rivers and streams in mineral-rich areas, especially quartz-rich areas. Contact the landowners if the land you want to pan on is private property. Consider the accessibility of the stream, as well as backup streams nearby if the first yields no gold.

2. Plan the travel steps needed to get to the river or stream you plan to pan for gold. Book air travel and ground transportation to get you near your destination. Purchase maps of the area you plan to travel. Choose hiking routes and camping areas if the river or stream you intend to pan in isn't accessible by road.

3. Pack according to your travel plan. Take into account the length of any hike you'll take to the panning spot, and the days you'll be camping once you arrive.

Discover Your Riches

4. Follow your travel plans until you reach your river or stream. Get a good night's sleep once you've arrived and before you begin panning. Head to the stream early, ready for a day of hard work.

5. Search for deposits of dark sand on the stream- or riverbed. Dark sand is denser than light sand, so it's likely the dense gold will be deposited there as well. Seek areas in the river or stream where bedrock shows through. Often gold will be found in the sand and gravel deposited in the nooks and crannies around bedrock.

6. Fill your pan about 1/3 full of sand and gravel and stream water. Shake the pan as vigorously as you can without losing any gravel, sinking the gold to the bottom. In the stream, wash away the top layers of sand and gravel until you uncover the gold at the bottom of your pan.

7. Store any found gold as safely and inconspicuously as possible in your backpack.

8. Claim any gold findings over $10,000 U.S. on your return through customs, because it may be subject to a tax.

Tags: South America, river stream, sand gravel, areas river, areas river stream

Calculate Downhole Lag Time

Downhole lag time is the difference between the time it takes drilling mud to go from the surface to the bottom of the drill stem and the length of time it takes a marker, introduced into the drilling mud, to go to the bottom of the drill stem and return to the surface. Changes in the downhole lag time can alert the driller or toolpusher to overpressure conditions in the hole due to sediment undercompaction, with the goal of preventing a blowout during drilling.

Instructions

1. When the drilling mud is introduced to the borehole, start timing. When the mud hits the bottom end of the drill stem, stop timing. This is the down time.

2. Introduce a chemical marker into the drilling mud and start the stopwatch.

3. When the chemical marker returns to the surface, stop the stopwatch. This is the marker time.

4. Subtract the down time from the marker time. The result is the lag time.

5. Subtract the down time from the total time it takes for a marker introduced into the drilling mud at the surface to travel to the bottom of the borehole and back to the surface.

Tags: bottom drill, bottom drill stem, down time, drill stem, into drilling, time takes

Salary Of A Mining Geologist

A mining geologist, also referred to as a geological or mining safety engineer, is a geoscientist that studies the earth's components to determine how and where to mine for rocks and other minerals such as coal and stones. In May 2009, the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reported estimated wages based on 6,310 mining, geological and mining safety engineers employed in the United States.

Qualifications

Most geoscientists are required to have at least a master's degree, but occupations related to research typically require a doctoral degree. Mining geologists who offer services directly to the public are required to obtain a license to practice professionally in many states.

Average Salary

According to the BLS, the median annual salary was $79,440 for this occupation as of 2009. The 10th percentile earned $48,400 and the 90th percentile earned $119,300 per year. The median hourly wage was $38.19. The 10th percentile earned $23.27 per hour and the 90th percentile earned $57.36 per hour.

Industries

Mining geologists can work in a variety of industries including coal mining, metal mining, oil and gas extraction, government agencies, and architectural, engineering and related services. The highest levels of employment were reported in architectural and engineering services (1,800 jobs) where mining geologists earned annual mean wages of $77,210. The highest wages were reported in the oil and gas extraction industry, where mining geologists earned annual mean wages of $97,140.

Geography

Mining geologists can be found in the United States in areas with mountainous regions and states that require finding new mineral resources. The highest concentration of workers were found in Wyoming, West Virginia, Alaska, Colorado and Nevada. In Wyoming, which has 7.92 mining geologist for 10,000 workers, these professionals earn annual mean wages of $86,040 per year. In Alaska, the annual mean wages were estimated at $95,200. The top paying states for this occupation were California, Texas and Alaska. In California, annual mean wages were $97,760 and in Texas $96,130.

Tags: annual mean, annual mean wages, mean wages, percentile earned, wages were

Middle School Science Fair Projects On Sleep

Science fair projects on sleep teach students the importance of sleeping well.

According to the National Sleep Foundation, sleep affects a wide variety of processes in our bodies, from energy levels to how quickly wounds heal to memory function. A lack of sleep affects these processes negatively. Middle school science fair projects on sleep highlight these functions and how sleep may affect them.

Sleep and Memory

The science fair project on sleep asks, "Can sleep deprivation affect memory?" Design a 20- to 30-question test, along with a study guide that clearly goes over all information placed on the test. Design the test around a subject that is not too difficult but that students are unlikely to already know much about, e.g. facts about giraffes or facts about tree frogs.

To test the hypothesis, choose a sample group of at least 20 students, and assemble them on a Friday evening. Explain the test procedure to them, and then give them an hour to study the study guide. After reading the guide, randomly divide the students into two groups: a test group and a control group. The control group should get eight hours of sleep Friday night, while the test group should get five. On Saturday morning, have the entire group assemble and take the test you designed. Record the results of your research for your middle school science fair project.

Sleep and Athletic Performance

The science fair project on sleep asks, "Can sleep deprivation affect athletic performance?" Design an athletic performance test, such as running around a track or catching footballs, baseballs, etc., and choose a sample group of at least 15 students.

For this project, the same students will be both the control group and the test group. On a Friday evening, instruct them to get eight hours of sleep Friday night. Assemble them on Saturday morning, and administer your test. For example, see how many times they can catch a football thrown at them 10 times. Record their scores, and then instruct them to sleep for only five hours Saturday night. Assemble them again on Sunday, perform the same test and then record their scores and compare to the scores of the day before to test your hypothesis.

Sleep and Senses

This science fair project on sleep asks, "Can different smells affect sleep quality?" Choose a sample group of 10 to 20 people, and decide on three or four different-smelling items to use in your research, e.g. mothballs, lavender, mint and cinnamon. Gather enough of each scent object to distribute equally among all of your test subjects.

Instruct each subject to place one of the scents in her bedroom each night before going to sleep. For example, have each subject use lavender on the first night, mothballs on the second, mint on the third night and cinnamon on the fourth. Subjects should follow their own normal sleep and waking patterns, and record any differences in their sleep that they notice on each night they add a scent to their room. Record the results, and test your hypothesis for your middle school science fair project.

Tags: fair project, science fair project, science fair, control group, fair project sleep, project sleep asks, sample group

What Are The Three Important Tools Of Modern Map Making

Maps make it possible to locate geographical locations througout the world.

Map making requires not only precision and talent, but accuracy in order to be an effective tool for the user. Today's map makers have a variety of tools at their disposal that were not available to map makers decades ago. These tools allow map makers to produce accurate, informative maps at a fraction of the time it took to make centuries past.

Graphic Design Software

The first step in manufacturing accurate maps is to obtain graphic design software. Graphic design software allow map makers to create maps based on specific geological locations and to customize their maps with individual color, size and font preferences. Graphic design software is available for purchase at most office supply stores as well as through online vendors.

Online Distance Calculators

Online distance calculators are another excellent tool that can be used to make maps for personal or professional use. Online distance calculators allow the user to calculate the distance between two specific locations by entering in the city of origin and the city of destination. Most online distance calculators are available for use free of charge on the Internet. Online distance calculators, while usually quite accurate, are best used as a tool for verifying independently researched information and should not be used as the sole source of information when determining the geographic distance between two points.

Geographic Software Programs

Geographic software programs provide excellent tools, allowing map makers to research geographical information for the areas they are mapping and to zero in on geographic locations and obtain details about the location, including specifics such as landmarks and street names. Geographic software programs are available for purchase at most computer software retailers and stores that cater to products for educators. While many of these software programs are also available for use online free of charge, it is important to note that these sites are best used as resource tools to verify information that has been independently researched and not as main sources of facts.

Tags: software programs, allow makers, available purchase, available purchase most, best used, design software, distance between