Water Hardness Levels In Pennsylvania

Hard water contains trace amounts of the minerals calcium and magnesium.

Pennsylvania typically has a moderate to high level of water hardness. According to the Center for Rural Pennsylvania website, millions of rural and suburban Pennsylvania residents rely on private wells for their drinking water, and new wells are added at a rate of 20,000 a year. Unfortunately, many wells are at risk for contamination, causing the water to contain higher levels of calcium and magnesium, as well as contaminants such as E. coli.

Definition

Water is considered hard or soft based upon the number of calcium and magnesium carbonates that occur in a given sample. While generally not considered hazardous to health, hard water can interfere with most cleaning tasks, including laundering, dishwashing, personal grooming and bathing. Bathtubs, sinks, faucets and shower doors generally develop a film or residue if the water quality is hard, and hair may begin to feel sticky after bathing. According to the Water Research website, the hardness of water is gauged using three different measurements: grains per gallon, milligrams per liter and parts per million.

Water Hardness in Pennsylvania

The Philadelphia Water Department website records the water of Philadelphia and the surrounding area as moderately hard. Rural areas can vary widely depending on weather, geography and other natural conditions. Tap water samples taken from Philadelphia and other counties in Pennsylvania recorded steady hardness levels of 100 to 150 parts-per-million, or 6 to 9 grains per gallon.

Studies

According to studies published by the Center for Rural Pennsylvania website, 41 percent of the samples taken from private wells in rural and suburban Pennsylvania failed at least one safe drinking water standard. In addition to water hardness, lead and nitrate contamination was found to be prevalent, although the prevalence of both chemicals had declined from previous studies. Of the 28 different variables found to impact water safety were bedrock geology, soil moisture conditions, inadequate well construction and lead plumbing components.

Safety Concerns

Contact your local county authorities if you experience regular indicators of hard water and are concerned about the safety of your drinking water. Water softeners and other filters may be effective at reducing the amount of calcium and magnesium in your tap water. Since both calcium and magnesium are considered essential minerals for nutritional health, hard water should not pose any health risks on its own.

Tags: calcium magnesium, drinking water, hard water, Center Rural, Center Rural Pennsylvania

Fix A Hyundai Accent Clutch

Fix a Hyundai Accent Clutch

The manual transmission in your Hyundai Accent uses a clutch to engage and disengage the power from the engine to the transmission. The clutch disc is sandwiched between the engine flywheel and the transmission pressure plate. When you switch gears and let off the clutch pedal, there is a short period during which the clutch is slipping to transmit the power in a controlled way. This causes wear on the clutch; over time it will require replacement.

Instructions

1. Jack the Hyundai Accent and place on jack stands.

2. Drain the transmission gear oil into a catch pan. To drain the gear oil, loosen the drain bolt with a ratchet. Before the drain bolt unscrews completely, use your hand to unscrew it so that it doesn't fall into the drain pan.

3. Disconnect both drive axles (half shafts) from the transmission. To do this, use a ratchet to remove the two bolts that hold the steering knuckle to the strut. Once those are out, you can easily pull the axles out of the transmission. The steering knuckle is the component that the wheel and strut attach to. You can locate the two bolts that you are to remove by following the strut down from where it's bolted in the engine bay. Removing those two bolts allows you to pull the steering knuckle outward so you can pull the drive axle out of the transmission.

4. Remove the exhaust downpipe from the rest of the exhaust. It will be held on with two bolts at both ends and can be removed with a ratchet. Removing this piece is necessary to gain access to the transmission.

5. Disconnect any wiring connected to the transmission and remember where all the wires go.

6. Disconnect the shifter cables connected to the transmission. Use a ratchet to remove each shifter cable and its housing.

7. Remove the bolts holding the transmission to the engine block (there will be about seven or eight bolts). Place a transmission lift underneath the transmission to hold the transmission and lower it down. If you don't have a transmission lift, you can use a transmission attachment for your jack.

8. Shift the transmission back and forth until it drops onto the jack. Pull the transmission straight back, ensuring that no pressure is put on the input shaft, and lower the transmission to the ground.

9. Remove the pressure plate and clutch disc from the flywheel with a ratchet tool. Then remove the flywheel with a ratchet tool and replace it with a new flywheel. Alternatively, have your flywheel professionally machined at a machine shop, and then replace it in your car. Torque the flywheel down to the manufacturer's specification.

10. Place the clutch disc on the clutch disc alignment tool and insert the tool in the flywheel input shaft hole. Connect the new pressure plate to the flywheel and torque the bolts. Once the pressure plate is torqued down, then remove the clutch alignment tool.

11. Grease the new throw-out bearing and place it on the input shaft of the transmission. Once the transmission is installed, it will push against the pressure plate.

12. Jack the transmission back into place, push the input shaft straight into the flywheel hole, push the transmission into place and bolt it down to specification.

13. Reinstall the drive axles by pushing them into the transmission, and reconnect the steering knuckle to the strut, tightening the two bolts that were removed previously.

14. With a ratchet, reconnect the shifter cables to the transmission.

15. Reconnect the exhaust downpipe and wiring.

16. Add transmission gear oil to the transmission through the transmission fill plug until the fill plug begins to drip. Wait until the oil stops leaking out, then tighten the plug.

17.Lower the Hyundai Accent to the ground.

Tags: Hyundai Accent, pressure plate, clutch disc, input shaft, steering knuckle

What Happens After Volcanoes Erupt

What Happens After Volcanoes Erupt?

Changes in the Air

Some volcanoes erupt quietly; others violently shoot gas, steam and ash into the air. After a volcano erupts, gases are released into the atmosphere. These gases include water vapor as well as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen gas and methane. All of these gases can form acid rain in high concentrations.

Incorporated in the mass of gases expelled from a volcano exist tiny rock particles called tephra. Tephra particles can adhere to gas particles and be carried for great distances according to the U.S. Geological Survey. The immediate effect of high concentrations of gas in the air result in closure of the airspace above and around the volcano to air traffic. Over time, upper level winds can carry volcanic gases around the world.

Ash particles impede air traffic as well as create immense breathing difficulties for people living near an erupting volcano. After a volcano, these 2-mm or smaller ash particles fly through the air, coating everything near the volcano. Ash particles can form a layer just like snow but it's much harder to remove. Combined with water, the ash becomes a mud-like mass.

The Federal Aviation Administration monitors volcano eruptions to prevent planes from traveling in areas with possible ash particles in the air due to the dangers of loss of visibility and possible engine failure. Ash particle clouds also rise into the atmosphere for transportation with the prevailing winds, making their existence dangerous to any aircraft flying in the vicinity.

Changes to the Landscape

Every volcano makes a change to the landscape of the earth after an eruption. Volcanoes build new earth with every eruption, spewing hot lava from deep inside the earth onto the much cooler surface. After a volcano erupts, the magma flows down the sides of the volcano, reaching a point where it cools enough to stop flowing.

As the flow progresses, everything in the lava's path is consumed. Plants, animals, buildings, roads, and trees are burned completely. Lava flows cool over time and form new rock. Wind, rain, and water after lava flows with weathering to break down lava and turn it into soil.

When a volcano expels high volumes of ash, this coats the surface of the land around a volcano. This creates a dangerous condition of unstable earth with a thick layer of ash coating the sides of mountains and hillsides. Lahars are violent mudslides that result of waterlogged ash rushing down the sides of a mountain. These dangerous mudslides carry ash, rock, and debris, obliterating everything in its path.

Changes to the Water

Rivers and streams near erupting volcanoes suffer the effects of ash, hot gases and lava. After a volcano erupts, the debris expelled by the volcano affects waterways in a number of ways. Streams and rivers form a very basic part of the hydrologic cycle to disperse water through a drainage basin toward the sea. Volcanoes disrupt this process by blocking stream and river bed flows, re-routing courses, and contaminating the water supply with dangerous gases and particles. Fine ash can be carried away easily by water, but it takes time to restore a waterway after an eruption.

Effects on Plants and Animals

Like humans, animals can survive with little permanent effect resulting from ash deposition--as long as the ash isn't too hot and doesn't cover their source of food. The greatest threat from a volcano comes from damage to the environment. Ash quickly contaminates water, a necessity for any animal. Without access to an untainted water supply, many wild animals move to safer areas.

Fish are extremely susceptible to a change in water quality. Volcanic eruptions often result in complete kills in streams and rivers near volcanoes. Ash contaminates the water, and burned or dead trees don't provide enough shade along these rivers to keep water temperatures down. High sediment content in the water prevents proper feeding, movement and reproduction. Birds naturally have difficulty flying in areas with ash clouds. Hot gases are deadly to birds as well.

Plants and trees suffer from the effects of heat generated by the eruption and deposition of ash and sediments. However, unburned trees recover and usually continue growing after ash is washed off the tree itself. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, the increased amount of erosion possible with ash and tephra depositions creates slower re-vegetation of any damaged areas. Tephra contains potassium and phosphorus that are valuable nutrients for rich, fertile soil. Weathering helps release these nutrients into the soil, creating the prime environment for renewed growth of native plants and trees.

Tags: After volcano, After volcano erupts, volcano erupts, after eruption, After Volcanoes, After Volcanoes Erupt

Land Forms & Water Features In The Bahamas

The Bahamas consists of diverse land forms and water features.

Once a haven for pirates, the 700 islands of the Bahamas now attract tourists from around the world. Most people know the island simply as a beautiful vacation destination and not much more. However, the Bahamas has a diverse array of topographical features, including it’s highest point, Mount Alvernia, and the deep underwater trench known as the "Tongue of the Ocean." The island is also home to the third largest barrier reef in the world.

Bahama Banks

The Bahama Banks are large platforms of calcium carbonate limestone that make up an archipelago. Scientists believe that the platform was originally a part of what is now the North American continent and that it broke off when North America separated from Africa millions of years ago. At some point, these platforms were above the water. The Banks are approximately 4,500 meters thick and the surfaces can be steep in certain places. The crystal blue waters around the Banks are shallow and no deeper than 25 meters. Research on the Banks is conducted by the University of Miami and the Florida Institute of Oceanography. Researchers study the Banks to learn more about how the earth transformed over the centuries.

Mount Alvernia

Located on Cat Island, Mount Alvernia is the highest point in the Bahamas at 206 feet. It was originally called Como Hill but was renamed by an Anglican Monseigneur who became a Catholic Priest, Father James Hawes. Hawes named the hill after the Tuscan Mount Alvernia in Italy, where Saint Francis of Assisi is believed to have received the wounds of the cross. Hawes built a monastery atop Mount Alvernia called The Hermitage which still stands and is currently a tourist attraction.

Tongue of the Ocean

Separating the islands of Andros and New Providence is the Tongue of the Ocean. It is a deep underwater trench with depth within the trench ranging from 115 feet to over 6000 feet. The United States operates the Atlantic Undersea Test and Evaluation Center, which tests torpedoes and other devices within the trench. From the air, the Tongue of the Ocean looks like a large curve under the sea.

Coral Reef

The third largest coral reef is located in the Bahamas

Most of the islands that constitute the Bahamas have some amount of coral reefs surrounding them. Coral can also be found in the Lucayan Cave, which is the largest underwater cave area in the world. Additionally, just off the coast of Andros Island is the world’s third largest coral reef barrier. It is 229 miles long and inhabited by sharks, crabs, lobsters, fish, turtles, dolphins, conch, manta rays and other marine life forms. Like all reefs around the world, the Bahamanian reef developed over thousands of years and is created from the skeletons of coral, which are slow growing lifeforms.

Tags: Mount Alvernia, Tongue Ocean, third largest, around world, Bahama Banks, coral reef, deep underwater

Oil Field Job Description

Physical fitness is important for oil field operators.

Oil field operators set up or operate various drills to remove petroleum products from the earth. They also set up these drills to find and extract core matter and samples for testing during oil exploration processes.

Responsibilities

An oil field operator checks for safety or environmental issues at a drill location, ensures that oil-producing wells operate effectively and verifies that pneumatic and mechanical pumps are adequate. The operator also inspects equipment, structure and materials and communicates with co-workers, maintenance personnel and supervisors.

Skill Set and Tools

It is helpful to have good communication skills, physical fitness and perfect vision in a oil field operator role, according to O*NET OnLine. To perform the necessary tasks competently, a oil field operator often uses brake pedals, powered wrenches, tongs and slush pumps.

Education and Salary

Oil field operators usually have a high school diploma or an associate degree in geology. Companies prefer individuals who have practical experience. As of 2010, the average annual earnings of oil field operators were $53,000, according to the career resources website Indeed.

Tags: field operators, field operator

What Are The Three Rivers On The Kansas Map

The famous frontier town Dodge City is located on the Arkansas River.

The state of Kansas contains three major navigable rivers: the Missouri, the Kansas and the Arkansas rivers. While the Kansas River flows into the Missouri, the Arkansas and Missouri rivers are tributaries of the Mississippi River. The major river basins contain most of the major population centers in Kansas, and have been key in developing commerce and agriculture in the state.

Missouri River

The Missouri River is the largest of Kansas's rivers, and forms the northeast corner of the state border. At one time the Missouri was the longest river in North America, and was prone to extensive flooding and course changes. It has undergone extensive engineering, which has straightened, channelized and dammed the river, reducing its floodplain and making it more suitable for commercial uses. In Kansas, the city of Leavenworth is located on the banks of the Missouri. Kansas City lies at the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers.

Kansas River

The Kansas River is located in northeastern Kansas, forming at the confluence of the Smoky Hill and Republican rivers at Junction City. It flows 170 miles to meet the Missouri at Kansas City. Historically, the river served as an avenue of transportation, including the use of steam ships in the 19th century. Although the river is not used for commercial transportation today, the Kansas River valley is an important transportation route for railroads and highways. The largest cites on the Kansas are Topeka and Kansas City.

Arkansas River

The Arkansas River flows through the southeastern portion of Kansas. Originating in the Rocky Mountains, the Arkansas is the sixth longest river in the United States, flowing 1,469 to meet the Mississippi River. In Kansas, the Arkansas tends to be a braided river, forming several small channels within the river bed. Traveling through a semiarid region, the river has deposited fertile sediments and is used extensively for irrigation. Notable cities include Dodge City and Wichita.

Significance of Rivers in Kansas History

Kansas is a central plains state, with flat topography and an average elevation of 2,000 feet. The river valleys of the state have been inhabited by Native Americans for thousands of years. Fort Leavenworth, the first United States settlement, was established on the banks of the Missouri in 1827. The state's largest city, Wichita, is located at the confluence of the Arkansas and Little Arkansas rivers, a location that has been used as a trading center for as long as 11,000 years. The state's major river valleys contain most of the larger cities and towns in Kansas, providing irrigation for the state's important agricultural sector.

Tags: Kansas River, Arkansas River, Kansas City, Missouri Kansas, Arkansas rivers, banks Missouri

State Facts About New York

New York is located in the Northeastern United States.

Known as the Empire State because of its great wealth and resources, New York is bustling with industry ranging from agriculture to manufacturing, publishing and finance, and the state's diverse geography ranges from mountains to beaches.

Basic Facts and Population

Albany is the capital of New York, and the state is divided into 62 counties. 2009 census data estimates that New York ranks third in population with roughly 19,541,453 inhabitants.

History

Originally settled by the Dutch in 1624, New York was under British rule from 1664 until the American Revolution. In 1788, New York became the eleventh state in the Union. In 1789, George Washington was inaugurated as the first president of the United States in New York City, and the city served as the nation's first capital.

Geography

New York borders Canada, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and major bodies of water adjoining the state include the Atlantic Ocean, Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. The highest point in the state is Mt. Marcy at 5,344 feet and the lowest is sea level where the state borders the ocean. The state covers more than 47,000 square miles and ranks 30th in size among other U.S. states.

Tags: United States

Hunt For Gemstones

Gemstones are real treasures that have fascinated people for centuries. However, the visions some may have of laborers working diligently in deep mines studded with gem crystals is far from reality. In fact, you can find gemstones yourself. The United States has many locations that are potential sources of gemstones. Hunting for them can be as easy as driving to an existing mine that is open to the public, or as challenging as striking out with geological information in hand and discovering your own find.

Instructions

Hunting for Gemstones

1. Locate known sites where gemstones have been found in the past. Diamond State Park in Arkansas and the ruby mines of Franklin, North Carolina, are good examples.

2. Research the geology and geochemistry of gemstones to better understand where and in what kind of rock conditions you might find them, if you want to make your own finds.

3. Study the specific type of gem you want to find. Learn identify the stone in its raw, uncut state. Many uncut gemstones look very plain and dull, compared to when they are cut.

4. Get and use the right tools. Shovels, buckets and screens are all useful for hunting gems.

5. Use a shovel to dig gem-bearing earth or a pick to remove gem-bearing rock matrix from a known or suspected deposit and put it into a bucket. Take the bucket to a nearby water source.

6. Pour a portion of the bucket into a screen and pour water over the material to clean off dirt, mud and other debris.

7. Look over the large rocks and remove any that are not gems or do not contain gems. Use a rock hammer to break larger rocks apart to search for hidden treasures. Continue to work through the material, eliminating any medium-sized rocks. Comb through the smaller rocks for gem crystals.

8. Stay alert for crystals that might be simply laying exposed on the surface around the deposit. Many valuable stones have been found this way.

9. Try mining a deposit if you have permission to do so and can afford the equipment.

Tags: been found, have been, have been found

What Education Do I Need To Be A Geologist

Natural forces create many mysteries for geologists to solve.

Educational requirements for a geologist depend upon the career path or specialty the student wishes to pursue. Geologists study the history, composition and physical actions of our planet's structure. Companies in the private sector, such as those in the oil and gas industry, employ geologists. Government positions include seismic research to study or monitor earthquakes and volcanoes. Geologists may also study earth history as it relates to fossils or prehistoric civilizations.

Areas of Specialization

Geologists may choose to specialize in hydrology, or the study of the planet's water cycle and issues that might affect life on Earth. Oceanographers focus on the oceans and seas, including the organisms that make their home in the water, currents and underwater geography. Geophysicists expand on basic geology by including a study of gravitational and electromagnetic forces to gain a better understanding of why certain actions occur. Seismologists typically focus on earthquakes and volcanologists study volcanoes, but the two fields often overlap. Engineering geologists work with engineers and architects to ensure that new projects are geologically sound. Additional areas of specialization include mineralogy, geochemistry and glacial studies. Educational requirements vary for each area of specialization, requiring students to complete courses that are most relevant to the area.

Degrees

At minimum, an entry-level position as a geologist will require a Bachelor of Science degree in geology. For a research position in hydrology or geoscience, private employers normally seek candidates with at least a master's degree, and a doctorate is required for upper-level research positions. A doctorate is also needed to teach at the college or university level.

Course of Study

Traditional undergraduate geology programs consist of general educational courses during the first two years and core classes during the last two years. Students may have courses in chemistry, physics, marine and planetary geology, hydrology, geochemistry, and paleoecology. A research project or thesis may be included as a graduation requirement. Depending on the specialization, further studies may include courses in engineering, oceanography, atmospheric studies and biology.

Licensing

State licenses may be required for geologists employed in areas that have a direct impact on the public or who provide services to the public. Policies vary widely between states, but the standard procedure requires geologists to pass an examination once they have earned their degrees and obtained a minimum level of experience. Even in a state with no licensing requirements, geologists may choose to obtain professional certifications from organizations such as the American Institute of Hydrology.

Salary

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that salary ranges vary by employer and specialty. As of 2008, the median salary for geoscientists was $79,160 as of 2008, with a range that extended from $41,700 to $155,430. The oil and gas industry offered the highest median salary ($127,560) but the least security. Employees of state governments averaged $57,700 annually. Average salaries for federal employees, as of March 2009, was $108,118 for geophysicists, $105,671 for oceanographers, $94,085 for geologists and $89,404 for hydrologists.

Tags: Educational requirements, median salary

Job Requirements For A Geoscientist Job

Geoscientists, such as geologists, study different aspects of the structure and composition of the Earth.

Geoscientists study the structure and composition of the Earth. There are a large number of fields and subspecialities in geoscience, such as geophysics, geology, volcanology, stratiography and petroleum geology. The exact job requirements will depend on the particular type of geoscience you wish to practice, but there are some prerequisites that most geoscientists need to meet.

Undergraduate Education

All geoscientists will need to obtain a bachelor's degree in a field of geoscience. For example, the California Institute of Technology offers bachelor's degrees in geobiology, geology, geochemistry, geophysics and planetary science. Students taking these courses will study topics such as minerology, stratography and applied geophysics. Geoscience students will generally also need to take classes in mathematics, physics, chemistry and biology. Many universities require or encourage geosciences undergraduates to conduct research or fieldwork during the summer.

Graduate Education

Most jobs in the geosciences, including those with state geological surveys and federal agencies, require at least a master's degree in your specialist field. If you want to conduct high-level research or teach at university level you will also need a doctorate. Graduate programs focus on a specific discipline. For example, at CalTech, graduate students in geophysics must take six graduate-level courses in geophysics, as well as five courses in a minor field and complete a thesis. Graduate students are also required to conduct independent research.

Licensing

Many states require geoscientists who work with the public, or who work for a public agency, to obtain a license. License requirements vary by state, but may include a minimum education requirement, experience in their field and passing a state exam. For example, in Maine, licenses are granted by the Maine Geological Survey. Candidates must have at least a bachelor's degree in geological sciences and seven years of experience in geological work. Up to four years of this can be gained while at university. Candidates must also pass the National Association of State Boards of Geology examination, and a local knowledge exam. Unlicensed geologists can generally work under the supervision of a licensed geologist while they gain the necessary experience.

Additional Requirements

Most geoscience jobs will require experience in areas such as computer modelling, data analysis and remote sensing. Depending on the position, you may also need experience of conducting remote sensing, satellite imaging and knowledge of using Geographic Information and Global Positioning systems. You should also be competent in using any computer programs that are commonly used in your specific field. Employers may also look for field experience and strong communications skills, especially the ability to write technical reports and papers. Geoscience job candidates should also be able to demonstrate the ability to analyze complex data and to draw conclusions from varied data sets.

Tags: also need, bachelor degree, Candidates must, composition Earth, remote sensing

Top Ranked Science Colleges

Within a chemistry department, students can study chemical engineering or biochemistry.

Colleges and universities across the country offer undergraduate and graduate degrees ranging from biology and chemistry to physics and geology. When choosing a program, consider each school's location, tuition and program strengths. U.S. News and World Report's 2010 rankings for best science programs include Stanford University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and California Institute of Technology.

Stanford University: School of Humanities and Sciences

Stanford University is a private school in Stanford, California. The School of Humanities and Sciences offers competitive, top-ranked science departments. In 2010, the school ranked first in the nation for biology, tied for first in computer science, tied for second in mathematics, tied for first in chemistry, tied for second in Earth sciences and tied for first in physics, according to U.S. News and World Report.

The Natural Science department is divided into physics, chemistry, biology, applied physics, mathematics and statistics. Within each department, students can pursue undergraduate majors or minors, or master's and doctorate degrees. Students can further specify their studies with a concentration, such as plant biology or genetics.

Stanford University

450 Serra Mall

Stanford, CA 94305

650-723-2300

stanford.edu/dept/humsci

Massachusetts Institute of Technology: School of Science

Located across the Charles River Basin from Boston in Cambridge, Massachusetts Institute of Technology offers a consistently top-tier science program. In 2010, the School of Science tied for first in the nation for physics, tied for second in earth sciences, tied for first in chemistry, tied for second in mathematics, tied for first in computer science and tied for second in biology, according to U.S. News and World Report. Undergraduates can work toward Bachelor's of Science degrees in biology, brain and cognitive sciences, chemistry, earth, atmospheric and planetary sciences, mathematics and physics. Graduate students can pursue a Ph.D. within any of the six science departments.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

77 Massachusetts Ave.

Cambridge, MA 02139

617-258-9344

web.mit.edu/science

California Institute of Technology

California Institute of Technology, located in Pasadena near Los Angeles, offers top-ranked science programs. The school is divided into six academic programs, five of which are science-based. In 2010, the division of biology tied for fourth best in the nation, chemistry tied for first, physics tied for third and the geological and planetary sciences division ranked first, according to U.S. News and World Report. Bachelor's of Science, Master's of Science and Ph.D. degrees are available. Within each program, students can further specialize their degrees and study subjects such as chemical engineering, biochemistry or geochemistry.

California Institute of Technology

1200 E. California Blvd.

Pasadena, CA 91125-0001

(626) 395-6811

caltech.edu

Tags: Institute Technology, tied first, tied second, California Institute, California Institute Technology, Massachusetts Institute, Massachusetts Institute Technology

Examples Of The Rock Cycle

Sandstone formations weathering into soil are part of the rock cycle.

The concept of the rock cycle is one of the basic foundations of historical geology. It's a general model describing how rocks and minerals change and recycle. It explains and ties together the diverse processes of rock formation, weathering, erosion, volcanism, plate tectonic folding, faulting, and subduction. In a nutshell: molten magma hardens and solidifies into igneous rock which uplifts into mountains, is eroded into dirt that eventually forms sedimentary rock which metamorphosizes back into igneous rock, restarting the cycle.

Appalachian Mountains

When young mountains are first uplifted by tectonic plate collisions, they are tall and jagged, like the Rocky Mountains. Over millions of years old mountain ranges like the Appalachians are worn down by the effects of wind, water and the freezing and thawing cycle. Their peaks become low and rounded as the rock they are made up crumbles into dirt and sand. This sediment is transported by wind and water until it's deposited into layers that eventually become sandstone, shale or other types of sedimentary rock. As the rock cycle progresses, this rock too will become eroded into soil.

Glaciers

Glaciers are a key part of the rock cycle. As mountains are pushed up, glaciers erode them back down again. During the ice age glacial periods, giant sheets of ice ground rocks up into the fertile glacial till soil covering the American Midwest. The glaciers moved granite boulders and rocks from Canada and dropped them throughout the Midwest until they far outnumbered the native sedimentary rocks. The many lakes and rivers carved by the glaciers allowed for more water erosion and transport of sediment, continuing the never ending rock cycle.

Grand Canyon

The rock cycle and the water cycle are inextricably intertwined, one affecting the other. The formation of the Grand Canyon illustrates the relationship of uplifting and erosion. The Colorado Plateau was uplifted into a mountain range by a combination of tectonic continental drift and volcanism. The mountains eroded away and their sediments were deposited on the bottom of an ancient ocean, forming the many layers of sedimentary rock visible in the canyon walls. According to John Douglass, the ancient Lake Bidahochi burst its natural dam walls, releasing the spillover rush of water that cut through the soft rock and carved out the giant canyon in 5.5 million years.

Tags: rock cycle, sedimentary rock, eroded into, Grand Canyon, igneous rock, into dirt, into igneous

Types Of Rock In The Badlands

The Badlands are anything but bad.

The Badlands are a unique cross-section of different land masses. Much of the sedimentary materials that make up the landscape have been washed from the Rocky Mountains. Other sediment material has been deposited from the many glaciers that have grown and receded across North America. Fossils also play their part as different plant and animal species have flourished and died out in the area.

Pierre Shale

One of the deepest forms of rock in the Badlands is called Pierre Shale. Pronounced "peer," this shale was formed when the Badlands were covered with ocean. As plants and sea creatures died, they sank to the floor of this ocean and decomposed. Over centuries, this layer of decomposing matter became compressed, forming a layer of deep black shale that exists today.

Lignite

As the ocean drained away, rivers replaced them. Trees grew along the rivers, and after a time, they. too, died and decomposed forming areas of peat. This peat was in turn buried under river clay and even volcanic ash. Time and pressure transformed the peat into veins of lignite coal.

Bentonite

As the western volcanoes spewed ash into the air, much of it drifted east and ended up in the badlands. Rain washed the ash into lakes and ponds where it became more concentrated and was ultimately covered with other sediment. These compressed layers of ash developed into beds of bentonite and can be spotted as the distinctive blue layers of eroded rock.

Granite

Granite is formed when many different minerals are compressed over time. Granite comes in different colors, depending on the minerals contained. Quartz and mica make up much of the granite in North America. When iron is present, the granite has a reddish tinge due to the rust that forms as the iron oxidizes. When feldspar is present, the granite has a greenish tint.

Petrified Wood

Petrified wood formed when trees became trapped in water or clay that is high in calcium and silica. The water prevents bacteria from decomposing the wood. The high mineral content of the water or clay slowly replaces the cells of the plant with minerals. This creates an exact copy of the original tree. But instead of being made of wood, the tree is now made of stone. Many of the petrified trees in the badlands are light brown in color and so soft that they quickly erode when exposed to the elements.

Tags: formed when, covered with, North America, Pierre Shale, present granite, water clay

Fisheries & Wildlife Colleges

Catch fish for a living: become a fisheries biologist.

Those seeking a career as a wildlife or fishery biologist can find bachelor's of science degree programs at various universities that feature courses ranging from the basic sciences to wildlife or fisheries management, ecology and conservation. Graduates are qualified to work for state agencies, national parks, nonprofit groups and private corporations. They can also go on to pursue master's or doctorate degrees.

The Southeast

The University of Georgia Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, in Athens, Georgia, offers two tracks. The wildlife major concentrates on the study of natural resources for management of game and non-game species. The fisheries and aquaculture track focuses on the complete aquatic environment. Both tracks support the acquisition of good communication and analytical skills needed to find solutions to complex environmental problems.

The school offers opportunities to study abroad in countries all over the world, including Brazil, Australia and Finland. In addition, internships are available through private companies, landowners, conservation organizations, and state and federal agencies. Cooperatives also are offered through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the U.S. Forest Service and Georgia's Department of Natural Resources.

The Northeast

With a degree in wildlife biology, you might have the opportunity to study megafauna like wolves.

The State University of New York in Syracuse, New York, offers degrees in aquatic and fishery science and in wildlife science, as well as in several similar areas through its College of Environmental Science and Forestry. According to its website, the school's mission is to "advance the knowledge and skills and to promote the leadership necessary for the stewardship of both the natural and designed environments."

Areas of focus in aquatic and fishery science include the biology and diversity of aquatic plants and animals; the application of ecological principles of management to aquatic habitats; and hands-on study in a variety of habitats in New York and along the Atlantic Ocean.

The wildlife science track focuses on wildlife population management; endangerment and overpopulation issues; and the integration of the needs of wildlife with those of people.

The Midwest

The University of Minnesota's College of Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Sciences in the Twin Cities (Minneapolis-St. Paul) offers a degree in fisheries and wildlife with a choice of specialization in either fisheries or wildlife.

The fisheries option focuses on fisheries resource science, management and administration; fish hatchery management; aquaculture, aquatic education and aquatic assessment. The wildlife track focuses on wildlife science, management and administration; zoo biology; terrestrial biology; environmental assessment; and education.

The Southwest

Texas A & M University in College Station offers a degree in wildlife and fisheries sciences with three areas of specialization: aquatic ecology; wildlife ecology and conservation; and vertebrate zoology.

According to the university's website, its Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences offers "the most diverse and progressive education available in the conservation of the earth's biodiversity." Areas of special interest include extinction, wildlife and fisheries recreation uses, aquacultural food production and urban wildlife management.

The West

The University of Idaho's Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources offers degrees in both fish and wildlife resources. According to the school's website, students receive "a solid foundation in biology and ecology and ensures they will be able to apply principles-based practices in a complex and continually changing environment."

The department works closely with the U.S. Geological Survey's Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, which fosters management of natural resources. The university is in Moscow.

Tags: Fish Wildlife, track focuses, wildlife fisheries, wildlife science, aquatic fishery, aquatic fishery science, degree wildlife

What Are Three Differences Between The Upper & Lower Mantle

The Earth's interior is one example of the planet's system of complex structures.

The Earth's internal structure consists of an inner core, outer core, lower mantle, upper mantle and the crust. The different layers of the Earth's interior are characterized by their varying chemical compositions, which are determined by temperature, pressure and density. Therefore, each layer of the Earth's interior has different physical properties.

Temperature

The deeper you go into the Earth, the temperature gradually increases. The crust is cooler than the mantle, which is cooler than the core. This concept of increased temperature with depth creates a major difference between the upper and lower mantle. The temperature difference between the top of the mantle and the bottom of the lower mantle spans from 870 to 3,700 degrees Celsius.

Pressure

When space decreases, pressure increases. As you can imagine, the space in a sphere decreases from the outside to the inside. Therefore, with increased depth of the Earth, pressure increases immensely. This concept creates another difference between the upper and lower mantle. The pressure difference between the top of the upper mantle and the bottom of the lower mantle creates two different states. The top of the upper mantle is solid. Then, from the middle of the upper mantle through the lower mantle, the matter is a viscous substance.

Density

The deeper you travel into the Earth, the more dense the matter becomes. Like floatation devices float on top of water, the Earth's crust floats on top of the liquid mantle. Similarly, the liquid mantle floats on top of the outer core, which floats on top of the inner core. The density from the mantle to the core decreases at a 30 percent rate.

Physical Properties and Composition

Extending to 670 kilometers, the upper mantle consists of peridotite and dunite, which are solid, ultramafic rocks that are made up of olivine and pyroxene. The rocks become more unstable as you travel deeper into the upper mantle, until they become a thick substance like plastic in the lower mantle. The lower mantle extends from just under the upper mantle to 2,900 kilometers.

Tags: lower mantle, upper mantle, difference between, between upper, difference between upper, Earth interior, between upper lower

Make A Mobile Of The Rock Cycle

Rocks can change due to environmental conditions. A mobile is a great way to help visualize the rock cycle.

Mobiles are a popular school project assignment for children of all ages. These free-moving sculptures, made to hang from a ceiling or window, are often used to depict different scientific processes in an easy-to-comprehend, visual format. In order to create a mobile of the rock cycle, which demonstrates environmental changes that affect the composition of rocks, it's important to understand the rock cycle itself. Once crafters feel confident in their ability to explain the rock cycle, making a mobile becomes a creative crafting project.

Instructions

1. Reference a chart of the rock cycle to gain an understanding of what the mobile will depict. Rock cycle charts are available online, or by referencing a science textbook.

2. Cut a cardboard circle approximately 12 inches in diameter. Poke a hole in each quadrant of the circle, near the outside perimeter, using scissors or a hole punch. Loop a 12- to 18-inch piece of string through each hole and secure it with a simple knot. Gather the four strings at the top and tie them all together. Attach one additional piece of string at the connecting knot. Secure this string to the center of the wire hanger. The cardboard circle should now be securely dangling from the hanger.

3. Following the rock cycle chart, trace and cut out icons for each element of the cycle: igneous rock, metamorphic rock, sedimentary rock, sediment and magma. Use gray construction paper to represent the types of rock, red for the magma and brown to illustrate sediment. Decorate the paper and label it according to the cycle chart. Cut out arrows to represent the different processes within the cycle, including cooling, melting, weathering and erosion, heat and pressure and compaction. Use a different color for each process arrow and label them with a marker.

4. Staple each construction paper element and arrow to an 8- to 12-inch piece of string. Punch enough holes in a circular pattern around the mobile's cardboard disc to accommodate all of the elements of the rock cycle. Including the process arrows, you should have approximately fifteen holes. Arrange the holes in a manner that will allow the elements to be displayed in a pattern similar to that of the rock cycle chart.

5. Thread the string of each rock cycle element through the hole where it will hang. Secure the string to the top of the cardboard disc using a piece of tape. Check the final product to make sure that each piece of the rock cycle is hanging in the correct location, according to the chart. Reposition any elements that may be out of place.

6. Hang the completed mobile from a hook on the ceiling or inside of a windowsill.

Tags: rock cycle, cycle chart, piece string, rock cycle, cardboard circle, cardboard disc, construction paper

Types Of Disaster Management

Hurricanes are a typical natural disaster.

There are many different types of disasters, both natural and man made, which occur in various countries throughout the world. When these disasters occur, an array of management teams are mobilized to properly clean up and manage these disasters. FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency) has specific ways of dealing with different disasters.

The National Hurricane Program

The National Hurricane Program has been set up by a number of different federal management agencies, including FEMA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA), the National Weather Service and the United States Transportation Administration and the Army Corps of Engineers. These organizations work closely with one another during hurricane season, pinpointing where a hurricane will make land fall and what areas need to be evacuated. They also determine which roads should remain opened and be closed and where shelters need to be set up. This helps to mitigate the negative affects of a hurricane, because people are prepared for it.

Nuclear Power Plant Emergency

As nuclear power plants become more prevalent, so too, does the possibility of a nuclear power plant disaster. FEMA, as well as the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), have designed plans on deal with such a disaster. They have worked closely with local and state governments to develop emergency response plans. Each plan has two specific emergency planning zones, zone one covers the ten-mile radius around the location of the nuclear meltdown, whereas zone two covers a 50-mile radius around the location of the meltdown. This will help all the local, state and federal disaster management organizations safely screen people for radiation poisoning and treat those who have been exposed to radiation because of the disaster.

Earthquakes

Much of FEMA's protection and disaster management during earthquakes is monitored and regulated by the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP). Some other organizations in this multi-agency earthquake management program are the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the National Science Foundation and the U.S. Geological Survey. Because earthquakes are unpredictable, disaster management entails preparing for earthquakes to strike, knowing what fault lines are active, and locating specific buildings and neighborhoods that are more likely to suffer severe damage should an earthquake strike.

Terrorism

The RAND (Research and Development)Corporation has created the Center for Terrorism Risk Management Policy, which works closely with the office of Homeland Security to protect the country from disasters caused by a terrorist attacks. This organization assesses insurance, financial and liability risk in response to a variety of terrorist attacks. At the same time, the federal government has created an entire task force, through Homeland Security, to protect the nation's airports, borders and major cities from terrorist threats, attempts and attacks. If and when an attack occurs, these organizations, along with FEMA, will respond to control the disaster and tend to the injured, assess and investigate how the disaster occurred and determine what needs to be done to keep it from ever happening again.

Tags: closely with, around location, disaster management, Homeland Security, Homeland Security protect, Hurricane Program, local state

Restaurants In San Andres Colombia

San Andres is an island in the Caribbean, a part of Colombia, although it is actually nearer to Nicaragua. The town is a duty-free zone, so shopping is good. There are also stunning beaches and premier scuba diving sites in San Andres, a growing resort area for South American tourists. It is only 17 square miles, and resorts and hotels of different types are scattered around the island. While there are many restaurants in the bigger hotels, a number of stand-alone restaurants can be found in San Andres, a good number of which specialize in seafood.

Restaurante La Regatta

Wine bottles decorate the landscape, trees, and walkway to this restaurant set above water. There are four tables outside and 20 inside, all with glassware and linen tablecloth and napkins. The dining area has windows with shutters that can be removed to feel the breeze. Decorations are of a fisherman's motif, with lobster traps and ship lights adorning the ceiling. Most of the staff only speak Spanish. The menu, also in Spanish, is composed mostly of seafood: fish, lobster, shrimps, and more. There are appetizers and wine, soda and juice selections. The meals are served on china plates, and entrées come with plain white rice or coconut seasoned rice.

Restaurante La Regatta

Av Newball

San Andres Island, Colombia

+57-8-512 0437

Margherita e Carbonara

This authentic Italian restaurant has options for indoor or outdoor dining. There are four tables outdoors, where patrons may watch passersby or enjoy the breeze coming from the ocean. Indoors are seven tables and on the walls are pictures of old Italy. Each table has glass containers with oil and vinegar, and two shakers containing each of spicy pepper and cheese. The menu has a full range of Italian food: spaghetti, penne, tortellini, gnocchi, lasagna, pizza, salads, meat dishes and fish. The selection of drinks includes white and red wines, beer and sodas.

Margherita e Carbonara

Av Colombia 1-93 Zona Rosa

San Andres Island, Colombia

+57-8-5121050

El Rincon de la Langosta

Literally translated, Rincon de la Langosta means Locust Corner. Lobsters with noodles and lobster's claws are some of the many lobster specialties of this restaurant, although lobsters can be ordered any which way customers want. The restaurant claims not only to have the best food and service in San Andres, but also the best view of the sunset in San Andres. It lists part of its address as "where the sun merges with the ocean." It also has an infinite view of the Caribbean sea. Reservations are encouraged in this restaurant.

El Rincon de la Langosta

Carretera Circunvalar, Sector Schooner Bight Km. 7

San Andres Island, Colombia

+57-8-5132933

rincondelalangosta.com/

Tags: Andres Island, Andres Island Colombia, Island Colombia, Rincon Langosta, this restaurant, four tables

How Are Mineralization Replacement Fossils Formed

Petrified wood is the result of minerals replacing some or all of the plant's organic material.

According to the Virtual Fossil Museum, fossils are the remainders and traces of organisms that were alive in the past. Some types of fossils are formed when the organic materials in bones or tissues are gradually replaced by inorganic minerals deposited by groundwater, oceans or lakes.

Permineralization

Substances such as bone and wood contain many tiny pores where water can seep in and dissolve the organic matter, replacing it with minerals such as silica, which crystallizes when the water evaporates. This process is called permineralization. According to science educator Mike Viney of the Virtual Petrified Wood Museum, some of the natural structure of the bone or wood may remain and become part of the matrix of the fossil.

Silica

According to the University of California Museum of Paleontology, the mineral silica is capable of permeating and replacing soft tissue. Fossils made of silica often retain the structural integrity of the original plant or animal material right down to the cell structure, giving scientists much information about the characteristics of the organism.

Pyrite Fossils

Pyrite is a mineral made of iron sulfite, which is often present in marine environments. The University of California Museum of Paleontology says that plant fossils made of pyrite indicate that they were formed in or near a marine environment.

Carbonate Fossils

Carbonate fossils can occur in either marine or nonmarine environments but are often found in acidic peat bogs. According to Viney, balls of fossilized swamp plants composed of calcium carbonate have been found in areas around the world where coal formed. These coal balls are unique because they preserve different types of plants that lived and grew together. As with silica, carbonate fossils preserve detailed information about the original organism.

Tags: bone wood, California Museum, California Museum Paleontology, information about, Museum Paleontology, University California, University California Museum

Find Gold In A Creek

In gold bearing regions, creeks can hold gold deposits.

Gold prospecting is an interesting and potentially profitable pastime for many people. Those involved in gold prospecting often search in streams and creeks where gold, washed down from the surrounding hills, settles. According to the California Geological Survey, one of the simplest methods used to locate gold in a creek is panning. In panning, a prospector uses a shallow, metal or plastic pan to separate gold from other materials. This is a quick and effective method for identifying potential gold deposits within a creek.

Instructions

1. Look for gold to settle and accumulate in certain areas in creeks. Check gravel and sediment beds on the upstream side of the inside of bends of the creek. Search behind large rocks and boulders, in exposed tree roots, and along crevices where gold will catch against obstructions.

2. Dig rocks, gravel, sand and sediment from the area you believe holds gold. Take this raw material to an area where the water is shallow to allow you to work comfortably and safely. Look for slow moving water that will help to wash away any sediment or cloudiness from the raw material.

3. Remove any large rocks or stones. Sometimes gold forms as an aggregate in quartz or other minerals, so inspect these rocks carefully. Place the remaining material in a gold pan. Add water to the pan and work the material back and forth quickly to rinse out any sediment or mud.

4. Work the remaining small stones and sand in a rocking action to help any heavier gold settle and separate from worthless material. Tip the pan, occasionally, to let the water wash the unwanted material from the pan. Continually examine the material for signs of gold. Because the gold may be very small flecks, scrutinize the material carefully.

5. Continue to work that area, if you find gold. Also, look in adjacent areas along the creek for other locations that may hold gold deposits.

Tags: gold deposits, gold settle, hold gold, hold gold deposits, large rocks, where gold

Minerals In The State Of New Jersey

Several types of minerals are found in New Jersey.

Though likely unknown to the layman, geological minerals make up a great majority of the things that we use and consume on a daily basis, from cars to carpets and even toothpaste, according to the Utah Geological Survey. According to the website, minerals.net, these naturally occurring chemical substances are a commodity because they contain elements that are needed to make various goods, or simply because of their beauty. The state of New Jersey is a hot spot for several minerals.

Malachite

The semi-precious stone Malachite is a copper carbonate hydroxide. It presents itself in a distinctive mixture of light and dark green bands and is a relatively hard material. This mineral is used solely for decorative purposes and is commonly carved into statues or crafted into jewelry.

Sulfur

Sulfur is an elemental mineral. In its natural form, it is comprised of very soft, attractive, deep yellow crystals. The mineral is highly combustible, which is the main reason it is mined. Sulfur is one of the most commonly used elements in industry. It is a primary ingredient in gunpowder, matches, insecticides and fungicides.

Dolomite

This sedimentary mineral is composed of calcium magnesium carbonate. It is most commonly pink in appearance, but it can also be found in white, gray or yellow, or it may even be void of color. Dolomite has a medium hardness and is used for several practical reasons. For example, it is added to soil to reduce acidity levels, making the soil favorable to plants that will not flourish in high-acid levels. The element is commonly ground down and turned into pavement and concrete. It is also used to make Milk of Magnesia--a laxative and antacid.

Gypsum

Gypsum is made of hydrated calcium sulfate. It is an extremely soft mineral that can be scratched by a fingernail. Most commonly, it is white, gray or colorless, but it can also be found in red, brown and yellow. The most common application for gypsum is in construction materials, such as drywall, concrete and plaster. It is also used as an agent in mead and as a coagulant for tofu.

Silver

Silver is a well-known metallic chemical element and is considered a precious metal. It presents itself in the color that mimics its name and is fairly soft. This element has a high electrical conductivity, and as such, is used in electronics such as circuits. Other common uses for the mineral include currency, jewelry, cutlery, dentistry and photography. Silver is also used to make mirrors because it has high reflectivity.

Tags: also used, also found, also used make, most commonly, presents itself, used make

List Of Missouri'S Natural Resources

Many of Missouri's natural resources are produced in open-pit mines such as this one.

The Missouri Department of Natural Resources manages the state's wildlife, water, parks and other natural resources. Besides the state's rich flora and fauna and its system of public parks and recreation areas, the Department also oversees extractive resources either directly or through the Division of Geology and Land Survey. Extractive resources include those substances that are dug, mined, quarried or removed by drilling.

Oil and Gas

Small amounts of oil and gas have been and continue to be produced from a few counties along the state's border with Kansas, a portion of the Forrest City Basin. There is also very limited oil production near the Mississippi River. There are no known hydrocarbon accumulations throughout the majority of the state.

Lead and Zinc

Lead mines have operated in Missouri since the early 18th century. The state leads all other U.S. states in lead production, with almost 20 million tons mined to date. The majority of lead in the state is produced in the southeast corner, in the Ste. Genevieve area. Zinc is produced as a byproduct of lead mining.

Iron

Iron has not been mined in Missouri since 2000, although the state Geological Survey estimates significant reserves remain. Most historic mining took place in the southeastern part of the state, where large deposits of sedimentary iron remain.

Other Metals

Gold, silver, copper, tungsten, and cobalt have been produced in limited amounts. These metals are all associated with lead-zinc deposits and are not found elsewhere in significant quantities.

Barite

Barite, a mineral containing barium, is found in two regions: southwest of St. Louis and near the center of the state. Barite was mined in Missouri from 1872 to 1998, mainly from large open-pit mines. Mining peaked in the 1950s, when Missouri was the leading U.S. producer of the mineral.

Stone

Missouri limestone was at one time a prized building stone, though most limestone now produced in the state is used for aggregate (gravel) in roadbeds and for cement production. Limestone quarries can be found in 94 of the state's 114 counties.

Coal

Economically-viable coal deposits are found all across the northern half of the state, in particular in the northeastern and northwestern corners. Missouri coal production remains limited, as coal deposits are relatively small, particularly when compared to those in neighboring Illinois. The bulk of coal produced within the state is used locally in coal-fired power plants.

Industrial Minerals

Clay, sand, and gravel are quarried or dug from pits over the entire state and used in various industries. Small amounts of granite are quarried in southeastern Missouri for crushed stone and building stone. Limited amounts of tripoli, a mild abrasive, are found in Newton County in far western Missouri.

Tags: state used, building stone, coal deposits, deposits found, have been, mined Missouri

Make Crystals At Home

Make Crystals at Home

Growing crystals is a simple project for homeschooling families or to alleviate summer boredom. There are commercially available crystal making kits available, but most revolve around a simple spice found at most well-stocked grocery stores. Save money and make your own crystals with your children instead.

Instructions

1. Mix alum and water in the pot. Heat over medium heat while stirring constantly until the alum is completely dissolved.

2. Pour the mixture into the jar and allow it to set for at least 24 hours. This will allow the mixture to cure quickly, and by the next day the bottom of the jar will be filled with many small crystals.

3. To make larger crystals, after pouring the liquid into the jar, place it in the ice chest so that it will cool more slowly. Wait the 24 hours, then open the ice chest. You should have 3 to 5 larger crystals. You can also set the jar in a bowl of hot water inside the ice chest to slow the cooling even further.

Tags: Crystals Home, larger crystals, Make Crystals, Make Crystals Home

The Average Salary Of Hydrogeologists

Hydrogeologists study water sources.

Hydrogeology is the study of groundwater and how it flows through soil, rocks and the earth. A hydrogeologist is a professional who determines whether groundwater is safe and available for use. The work includes studying and inspecting water sources such as wells and water sanitation facilities, overseeing the cleanup of contaminated water supplies and assisting in finding new, safe water supplies.

Qualifications

Jobs for hydrogeologists require at least a bachelor's degree, but some employers require a master's degree. Salaries increase with advanced degrees. Payscale reports that hydrogeologists with a bachelor's degree in geology earned average salaries ranging from $42,000 to $67,000 per year, as of 2010, while a master's degree in geology provided average salaries ranging from $54,912 to $85,000 per year. Many states offer a licensing exam for hydrogeologists to receive a professional geologist license. Average salaries with the professional geologist credential ranged from $53,725 to $106,500 per year.

Bonuses

Hydrogeologists may earn a base salary plus bonuses and profit sharing. As of November 2010, Payscale reports the average base salary ranges from $48,792 to $74,368 per year. Average bonuses ranged from $1,006 to $5,028 per year, and average profit sharing payments ranged from $989 to $3,250 per year. The total compensation ranged from $47,746 to $75,195 per year.

Industries

Hydrogeologists work for state and local governments, as well as environmental, engineering, science and water conservation organizations. Payscale reports the highest wages in the water conservation and management industry, where hydrogeologists earned average salaries ranging from $50,165 to $74,276 per year. The environmental consulting industry paid average salaries ranging from $46,007 to $67,225 per year, while the science and engineering services industry paid average salaries ranging from $48,984 to $73,923 per year.

Professional Experience

Like many professionals, hydrogeologists increase their salaries as they gain professional experience. Those with one to four years of experience earned average salaries ranging from $40,626 to $53,194 per year as of 2010. Those with five to nine years of experience earned average salaries ranging from $50,000 to $66,112 per year, and those with over 10 years of experience earned average salaries ranging from $59,284 up to $106,496 per year for 20 or more years of experience.

Tags: from year, average salaries ranging, ranging from, ranging from year, salaries ranging, salaries ranging from, average salaries

Transportation Engineering Scholarships

Transportation engineering, typically classified under civil or environmental engineering, is the application of engineering principles to transportation systems such as highways and railroads. Many transportation engineering majors graduate and go on to help build, maintain and improve the nation's transportation and transit systems. There are a number of scholarships to help transportation engineering students get through college and join the workforce.

ALSITE Scholarships

The Harold M. Rayner ALSITE Scholarships, Inc. Foundation offers two scholarships to transportation engineering students in Alabama. The Charles E. Alexander Memorial Transportation Engineering Scholarship is awarded in the amount of $4,000, as of 2011. The Billy Jones Memorial Traffic Engineering Scholarship is awarded in the amount of $2500. To be eligible, a student must be attending college in Alabama, must be of at least junior standing, must be able to demonstrate financial need, and must obtain a recommendation from either a faculty member or a member of ALSITE. The annual deadline for application is March 1.

ITE Fellowships for Graduate Study in Transportation

The Institute of Transportation Engineering offers two Fellowships for Graduate Study in Transportation. The Western District Fellowship is available to residents of Alaska, Arizona, California, Idaho, Colorado, Hawaii, Montana, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Washington, or Wyoming. The Texas District Fellowship is available to a resident of Texas. To be eligible, a student must be planning to pursue a master's degree; Ph.D. candidates are not eligible. The annual deadline for application is April 1.

SWE Civil and Environmental Engineering Scholarships

The Society for Women Engineers offers several scholarships to female Civil and Environmental Engineering students, including transportation engineering majors. For instance, the Elizabeth McLean Memorial Scholarship is available to civil engineering majors of sophomore, junior or senior standing who have a GPA of 3.0 or higher. The ITT Scholarship is available to junior, senior and graduate-level civil and environmental engineering majors who have a cumulative GPA of 3.5 or better.

NDSU Transportation Engineering Scholarship

Transportation engineering students at North Dakota State University are eligible for scholarship assistance through the Mountain-Plains Consortium Transportation Engineering Scholarship. To be eligible, a student must be a transportation engineering major or have an interest in transportation as a field of study. He must be an undergraduate junior or senior, and must be a citizen of the United States. Recipients are selected on the basis of academic performance and leadership skills. The annual deadline for application falls in April.

Tags: engineering majors, Engineering Scholarship, transportation engineering, annual deadline, annual deadline application, deadline application, eligible student

Geology Science Project Ideas

Geologists study the interesting characteristics of rocks.

Geology is the branch of science concerned with the earth's physical structure and the processes that act upon it. There are plenty of project ideas based on geology, which allow you to witness different aspects of geology in action before your eyes. Be sure to follow health and safety procedure and wear protective clothing when conducting geology experiments.

Water Movement and Erosion

Use this basic geology project to demonstrate that the movement of water alone can cause erosion. Line up three identical plastic drinking cups and place three small, same-colored candy-coated chocolates in the bottom of each cup. Fill two of your cups half way up with distilled water, labeling one "movement," and the other "still." Place only a piece of candy in the third cup. Start the experiment by swirling the movement cup for 15 seconds. Repeat this swirling motion once every 15 minutes for two hours, then observe the levels of erosion in each cup. ocean striking cliff faces, and why this leads to erosion.

Forming Fossils

A simple fossil learning project can replicate the conditions under which fossils form in mud. Start with a large leaf that you will use as a mold for your project. Then, find a piece of cardboard that is larger than that leaf, such as the lid from a shoebox. Mix Plaster of Paris until it forms a smooth paste, then smear that paste across the entirety of the shoebox lid into an inch-deep layer. Cover the leaf in petroleum jelly, then place it carefully on the surface of the wet plaster. Once the plaster hardens, you will have created what amounts to a fossil replica. Use this to teach students about how fossils are formed.

Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering is the impact that weather conditions, particularly rain and snow, have on various landscapes and buildings. Polluted precipitation is often highly acidic. To demonstrate the effects of weather erosion, demonstrate what happens when various of acidic solutions come into prolonged contact with ordinary chalk. Place equal-sized sticks of white chalk in the bottom of several beakers. Add water to one, and different concentrations of water and vinegar to the others. Observe the chalk once every 10 minutes for an hour before drawing a conclusion about acidity and chemical weathering.

Soil Type and Liquefaction

Soil liquefaction is a geological phenomenon that is nearly universal, and is easily demonstrated with a simple series of buckets. Set an ordinary brick on the top of pails filled with sand, clay and loam. Keeping track of time with a stopwatch, add 100ml of water to each bucket every two minutes. When the brick starts sinking, the soil has begun liquefying. Calculate the amount of water required to liquefy each of the soils and consider how soil liquefaction is a problem for large buildings built on soil.

Tags: every minutes, once every, once every minutes

Colorado River Paddling Trails

Some portions of the Colorado River contain an abundance of silt, making it important to carry your own drinking water.

The Colorado River is the seventh longest river in the United States. It flows through Utah, Nevada, Arizona, California and Texas and is more than 1,400 miles in length, according to the U.S. Geological Survey. There are numerous paddling trails along the river that range in length and difficulty. A paddling trail is a frequently used paddling route along a river. Maps of these trails can be found online at the U.S. Department of Boating and Waterways.

Paddling

You can paddle the Colorado River by raft, kayak or canoe. Deciding which sort of paddling interests you most will help determine which paddling trail is right for you. If you are inexperienced, rafting is probably the best choice.

Rafting the Grand Canyon gives you the opportunity to appreciate the Canyon's stunning geology. These rafting trips range in length from one to six days.

Canoeing is best for fishermen looking to travel along gentle Class I trails, and kayaking is ideal if you want to practice shooting whitewater solo. Canoes and kayaks are rented by outfitters like the Willow Beach Marina and Colorado Sports Rentals.

Whitewater

When picking a paddling trail, find one that fits your ability level. Class I or Class II are suitable whitewater levels for beginners, while Class III and IV should only be attempted by paddlers with significant experience.

The paddling trail from Dotsero to Bair Ranch is 5.75 miles in length and is rated as Class I, making it suitable for beginner paddlers, although it is recommended that beginners take a whitewater training course before paddling without a guide. Courses are offered throughout the United States by the U.S. National Whitewater center.

Experienced paddlers might be interested in trails like the one from Grizzly Creek to Two Rivers Park, which features Class II and III whitewater or the trail from Shoshone Power plant to Grizzly Creek, which features Class III and IV whitewater. The Gore Canyon trail and the Barrel Springs trail feature a range from Class I to Class V whitewater and should only be attempted by professionals.

Guided Paddling

Travel with a guide if you are interested in paddling the Colorado mainly as a fishing or sightseeing trip. Guides will plan and arrange logistics, like securing permits, deciding where to camp and packing what to eat, so you can spend more time taking photos or exploring. Outfitters like Rocky Mountain Adventures and Western River expeditions offer guided paddling trips on the Colorado river.

Permits

If you are planning your own padding trip, you must secure permits in advance. Permit requirements vary depending on which states you will be traveling through and on trip length. If you plan to paddle the Grand Canyon, you must enter a spring lottery for a permit. Entrance into the lottery costs $25.

Tags: paddling trail, Class whitewater, Colorado River, along river, Class Class

Earth Science Games For Kids

Teach children use clouds to predict the weather.

Earth science is the study of the earth, including geology, geography, physics, astronomy and geomorphology, and its physical structure and properties. Using games to teach children about the different aspects of earth science will both educate and engage a child, both at home and in the classroom.

Find the Rock

Hand the child a large dish or jar and instruct him to walk through the neighborhood or local park and look for certain types of rocks. The child can either be given a lesson about the various types of rocks, which are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic, or the whole family can sift through the rocks at home and identify them after the walk. The child will then be instructed to divide all of the rocks into the three different types of rocks as quickly as possible. He receives one point for each type of rock that successfully identified and placed into the correct pile.

Locate the Country

Place a map of the world onto a wall in the home or classroom. Write several of the well-known countries of the world, such as the United States, Canada, France and China, onto small pieces of paper. Line up all of the students and place the pieces of paper into a bowl or paper bag and instruct the child to pick out one of the paper. The child then has 15 seconds to locate the country on the map. If he does not successfully locate the country in time, the child must sit down and the person that is next in line is given the opportunity to find the country. The game continues until there are two children remaining. A more difficult to locate country is then called out and the child that locates it on the map first wins.

Forecast the Weather

Teach children about forecasting the weather without the help of television, the Internet or technology. Give the child a piece of paper and instruct him about all the different ways the weather can be predicted by using the tools found in nature. For instance, flies will more readily bite when there is rain on the way, bees and birds will not visit flower beds they regularly frequent when there is rain coming and dark, low clouds are a sign of rain. The child will then use all of these tools to make a weather prediction.

Falling Objects

Use different objects that the child is accustomed to, such as pencils, paper and crayons, to teach her about gravity and physics. Instruct the child to hold a piece of paper and a crayon at the same height and drop them. Ask the child to predict which one will hit the ground first. If the child guesses the correct answer, which is the crayon, she receives a point. Then tightly wad up the paper and instruct the child to once again answer the question. If the child guesses correctly, which is they will reach the ground at about the same time, she receives a point. Explain to the child that the flat piece of paper is met with air resistance that is lost when it is made into a wad. The game can be made more messy (and fun) by using objects such as eggs and water balloons.

Tags: locate country, paper instruct, piece paper, receives point, types rocks, about different

Gem Ore Identification

There are a handful of ways to identify gemstone ores.

Gems are the result of minerals developing over time, creating specific clear or colorful formations. There are different types of gems, including precious and semi-precious gemstones. Some gems offer distinct colors or appearances, while others are more difficult to properly identify.

Tools

There are a handful of tools that can prove to be beneficial in gem ore identification. Arm yourself with a specific gravity testing kit, microscope and slides, streak chart, cleavage chart, ceramic plate, hardness kit and a rock hammer for the best chance at gemstone identification. Each of these tools can help narrow down the type of gemstone you are dealing with. A gemstone identification field guide will also aid in the identification process.

Identifying Characteristics

Gemstones have a variety of distinct properties that lend themselves well to gemstone ore identification. Gemstones can be identified based on their colors, hardness, fracture and cleavage, diaphaneity, luster, specific gravity and other visual and tactile qualities. For example, talc has a greasy feel and flakes off when you rub it. Calcite has double refraction and breaks in rhombic-shaped pieces. Fluorite often has a fluorescent effect and a vitreous luster. Note every detail and characteristic that you see and feel, then use these details to identify the gemstone in question.

Hardness

Use the Moh's hardness scale to determine the gemstone's hardness. A hardness kit will simplify this process by containing minerals representing each of the Moh's hardness scale levels. Attempt to scratch the unidentified gemstone using each of the test minerals until the gemstone is successfully scratched, indicating its hardness level. Emerald has a hardness of between 7.5 and 8, for example, and diamond has a hardness of 10.

Cleavage

Crystals and gemstones have a tendency to break in specific ways, which is known as cleavage. Look for cleavage in your gemstone, or strike it with a hammer and examine the subsequent breakage. Compare these details with the details of a cleavage chart to help narrow down its identification. The cleavage in mica is a perfect basal cleavage, while an emerald's cleavage is imperfect.

Ceramic Test

You can use a streak chart and ceramic tile to help identify your gemstone ore. Rub the gemstone on a ceramic plate and compare the resulting streak to a streak chart. Not all gemstones will leave such a streak, but many can. Obtain a streak testing kit from a geology supply store to get the right ceramic plate and an identification chart.

Tags: ceramic plate, gemstone identification, streak chart, chart ceramic, cleavage chart, hardness scale

Region'S Geography Impact Its Economic System

How Does a Region's Geography Impact its Economic System?

Geography plays a major component in the development of a country's economic systems. Economic geography, a subset of human geography, is based on the study of a country's resources, climate, politics, physical geography and population, as they relate to a country's economy.

Physical Geography and Location

A country's physical geography and location defines soil type, agriculture, resources and climate, which are all components in economic growth, stability and ability.

Natural Resources

A country's natural resources can make or break a country's economy. For example, a country rich in natural gas or oil reserves relies on the export of the commodity to generate revenue or for self-sustenance.

Climate

Climate regulates a country's ability to grow certain agricultural products. In turn, the availability and type of agricultural resource either inhibits or prohibits the export of goods.

Politics

A country's political ideology and regime is one of the greatest economic influences. For instance, a political regime may create trade zones, tax regulations or trade embargoes with other countries, thereby placing geographic boundaries on economic influence.

Population

A country's working-age population dictates the amount of processed services and goods created. The separation of a country's population by physical barriers, such as bodies of water or mountains, affects the trade of goods and services.

Tags: country economy, Economic System, Geography Impact, Geography Impact Economic, Impact Economic, Impact Economic System, physical geography

Make A Mountain Scenery Craft

You can make realistic-looking mountain scenery from plaster.

Model trains, table top games, plays, school projects and home movies can all use mountain scenery. But no matter the purpose, the process for making the scenery is the same. The only difference between small and large mountain crafts is the scale. This project will take several days, so allow yourself plenty of time to construct the scenery.

Instructions

1. Make the base shape for the mountain scenery with a grease pencil. Outline on the base board what final size and shape you want the mountains to have. If you are building the scenery for a train set, draw the lines onto the train board. For plays or other projects where you will need scenery, cut out the shapes from cardboard.

2. Crumple up pieces of newspaper into tight balls. Use tape if necessary to hold the balls together. Make fist-sized balls for train scenery and basketball sized balls for larger scenery.

3. Stack the newspaper up to create the mountain shapes. Fold or flatten the paper as desired to create the shape you desire. Use more tape to hold the mountain scenery base in place.

4. Cut the plaster bandages into 12-inch long strips for train scenery, or 36 inch strips for larger scenery. Soak the bandages in water to activate the plaster. Squeeze out the excess water and lay it over the mountain shapes. Try to retain the shape of the mountain as much as possible. Allow the plaster to dry for 24 hours.

5. Mix the dental plaster with enough water to create a thin paste. Apply the paste over the mountain shapes with a putty knife. Leave the plaster rough, to give the scenery a more realistic appearance. Allow the paste to dry for 24 hours.

6. Paint the mountain scenery with acrylic paints to make it look like a mountain range. Add any synthetic grass or rubble to the mountain scenery as desired. Use spray adhesive to hold these elements in place.

Tags: mountain scenery, mountain shapes, larger scenery, mountain scenery with, over mountain, over mountain shapes