Make Model Maps Of A State

A model of a state is a simple way to teach children about geography, geology and state government. These maps, which are constructed with clay and show topographic features, cities, tourists attractions and state landmarks, can be made with modeling clay as well as pictures, figurines, marbles and other bits of brick-a-brack for visual interest. The more a child can contribute to the model map of the state, the more they will learn from this map.

Instructions

1. Roll a large quantity of clay into a basic pancake shape. Pinch the edges until the base shape resembles the state you are mapping. Take care to ensure that your base shape is perfectly flat.

2. Layer the state's elevations using a different color of modeling clay for every 1,000 feet of elevation. Use the topographic map as a reference for layers.

3. Use blue modeling clay to add bodies of water.

4. Add marbles to represent major cities. Use larger marbles for cities with bigger population, and smaller marbles for cities with fewer people.

5. Research various attractions around the state. Write an account of each attraction using your pen and paper. Information in your accounts may include tourist stops as well as fun facts about cities or landmarks. Attach a photo of the subject to your account. Place these around your state map.

6. Place brick-a-brac on your map representing these attractions. For example, a state map of New York might include a small plastic figurine of the Statue of Liberty, while a tiny, clear plastic jewel may represent the Crater of Diamonds national park in Arkansas. You may choose to use the Monopoly top hat to represent Lincoln's stovepipe hat in his home state of Illinois, or a salt-and-pepper shaker of Mt. St. Helens for Washington state.

7. Connect the attractions on your map to the information and photos of that subject using a length of string. Use push pins to secure the ends of the string from the map to the information.

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What Are Valleys Plateaus & Mountains

A topographical globe displays the physical landforms of the Earth.

Landforms are the gross physical shapes of the planet. Mountains, plateaus and valleys define various areas of the Earth as does the specific features of a face defines each person. These recognizable, naturally-formed elements include the large-scaled features of mountains and plateaus as well as the small-scale features that are valleys and canyons.

Valleys

Some valleys are nestled in between mountains.

A valley is a depression or large hollow that is able to be drained externally. It also can be a plain area such as the Mississippi valley. A stream or a river tend to lie at the bottom of the valley. The valley is created in a number of ways. First is by erosion from glaciers or water, such as the remaining river or stream. Another manner of creation is when the land is lowered through the activity of geological faults.

Plateaus

The Plateau at Monument Valley National Park, Utah.

Plateaus are found in the ocean and on land. They are similar to mountains in that they are projections of the ground with at least one side that is a steep slope. Unlike mountains, the summit of a plateau is relatively flat and has a greater mass area. It is possible to have basins and low areas within the plateau. Depending on the height of the plateau, the climate can vary differently from the surrounding area with a tendency to be dry and arid. Some plateaus are formed by a succession of lava flows.

Mountains

Many of the world's rivers are fed from a mountain source.

A mountain is a huge projection from the earth's surface. The slopes are steep and abrupt. A mountain is higher than a hill, that being a height greater than 2,000 feet. Mountains occur singularly or in ranges, such as the Appalachian or the Rockies mountain ranges in the United States. They are formed by volcanic activity, erosion or when two tectonic plates collide.

Canyons

Canyons are also known as gorges, ravines or chasms.

Canyons are deep valleys that exist below the rim of a landform, usually a plateau. A canyon is created over thousands of years as rain, ice, water and wind take their toll on the soil and ebb it away. According to Science Clarified, the depth of a canyon can be greater than its width.

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Determine Which Point To Use For A Hardness Tester

Understand your test material better and decide what hardness test to perform on it.

Hardness refers to a material's level of resistance when force or abrasion is applied. There isn't one singular measurement that represents the idea of hardness though because it isn't an intrinsic property of materials. Tests use different indentor points that are usually diamond tips or metal balls. These are pressed into the test material with force and the resulting indentation is measured. There are a number of different tests that use relative indentation scales to measure hardness levels. Knowing which type of material you have and its physical properties will determine the best indentor point to use.

Instructions

1. Determine the type of material you are using for the test. Even though you may not know the hardness measurement on a particular tested scale, you can still categorize the material into an expected range. If you aren't sure the exact type of material being used you can perform a Mohs hardness test to get a general range. Mohs uses different tools of relative hardness to scratch the surface of your test material. Talc is the lowest level on the 10-point scale and diamond is the highest. Use a Mohs tool kit to scratch your test material. Use each tool starting from Level 2, Gypsum, and move up until you find a tool that will scratch the surface of the test material. When scratched, the test material is softer than that tool and you can place it on the Mohs scale.

2. Use either the Mohs relative hardness level you determined earlier or the type of material to determine which hardness test to perform. For instance, the Rockwell B test is best for materials slightly softer than calcite to slightly softer than orthociase -- Levels 2 to 6 on the Mohs scale. This also corresponds to materials from brasses and aluminum alloys to easily machined steels. Likewise, the Rockwell C test starts at Mohs Level 4, flourite, and can be used for materials as hard as topaz. The Knoop hardness test can handle materials that are slightly softer than calcite to slightly softer than topaz and includes some aluminum alloys, easily machined steels and cutting tools. The Brinell test can be used on virtually all metals and even softer materials like wood, making it an option for fragile materials. This is because the metal or diamond points on other tests can crack more fragile materials, but the larger spherical point on the Brinell test distributes the load on a wider surface area.

3. Look at the different recommendations for points and load weight for the test you have chosen. Many materials can be tested on different scales and with different points, but the best one to use depends on the material itself. For instance, if you are using the Rockwell B scale on nonferrous metals you would use a 1.6 mm ball indentor with a load of 100 kg. Meanwhile, the Rockwell C scale calls for a diamond cone indentor point and a 150 kg load and is used for ferrous metals and steel tools

4. Determine potential surface area that can be tested. For instance, Rockwel steel ball indentors come in a variety of sizes such as 1/16, 1/8, ¼ and ½. The area measured from the center indentation point to the material edge should be a clean, flat surface that is perpendicular to the indentor point. Measure this diameter starting from the center point of the indentation to the edge of your material. This should be 2 1/2 times the diameter of your indentation. The larger the indentor point used, the more accurate the hardness test; however, make sure you have the width available.

5. Determine the thickness of your material. You want a depth of 10 times the indentation for diamond indentors and 15 times the depth for ball indentors. Be sure there are no known deformations in the material as this can affect the test results. Once you know the depth of your material, you will know the load that can be used and the indentor points that are possible.

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What Is Faunal Succession

Fossils are key to understanding the Law of Faunal Succession

Figuring out when things happened during the long expanse of the Earth's history became a lot easier when William Smith (1769-1839) discovered the law of faunal succession. The concept grew of out his work on the science of stratigraphy (which he pretty much invented). Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with rock layers and layering (stratification). It relates primarily to sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks.

Fossils

Smith saw that certain rock layers were likely to contain certain types of fossils. Fossils are the remains or traces of animals (fauna or faunal means "animal"), plants and other living things from long ago. Fossils occur in sedimentary rock, which is formed by compacting particles of sand, mud, decaying and other materials under pressure over long periods of time. (Igneous and metamorphic rock are formed under very hot conditions that usually destroy the distinguishable remains of organic material, so they generally do not contain any fossils.)

Sequence of Rock Layers

Based on the Law of Superposition discovered in the 17th century, which states that in a sample of sedimentary rock layers, each layer is older than the layer above it and younger than the layer below it, Smith figured out that the older the rock, based on how far down in the pile of layers it was, the more primitive were the fossils it contained.

Odd Fossil Out

Study of the fossils and the rock layers led Smith to be able to distinguish between strata of similar rocks by the assemblages (groups) of fossils that were present. Very similar looking rock strata might contain exactly the same fossils, except for one species. Depending on whether the odd species was simpler or more complex in structure than the fossils around it, Smith could assign the strata a place on a time line. Smith described his finding: "For it was the nice distinction which those similar rocks required, which led me to the discovery of organic remains peculiar to each Stratum."

A Definite Order

Smith's discovery became known as the "Law of Faunal Succession." It states that fossils occur in a definite, unchanging sequence in the geologic record. It is a concept used by all geologists today in their study of rocks, time lines and evolution. The U.S. Geological Survey summarizes the Law of Faunal Succession this way: "Fossils appear and disappear in a definite order."

History of the World

Using the Law of Faunal Succession and rock samples from around the world, geologists have been able to form a detailed history of the Earth and build a geologic time scale going at least as far back as the Cambrian Period (543 to 490 million years ago), when most of the major groups of fossil animals appear in the geological record.

Tags: Faunal Succession, rock layers, sedimentary rock, similar rocks, states that, than layer

About Flooding & Natural Disasters

Flooding costs Americans billions of dollars each year.

Each year, flooding and natural disasters cost Americans billions of dollars in property damage and loss of business. Hundreds of human lives are lost. Any area can potentially be impacted by a natural disaster. Some events such as flash flooding can occur with little or no warning.

Types

Of all the types of natural disasters, flooding is the most common, according to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Floods, like most natural disasters, can potentially affect any area, with some areas deemed at a greater risk than others. On the opposite end of the spectrum, droughts have plagued the U.S. every year from 1896 to 1995, according to the Drought Mitigation Center. The center further reports that in their worst years, over 18 percent of the nation can be affected by droughts.

Significance

According to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), flooding alone takes 140 lives each year and accounts for over three-quarters of declared federal disasters. Flooding has many causes, not the least of which is storm events. According to the Storm Prediction Center, approximately 1,000 tornadoes occur in the U.S. each year, causing on average 60 deaths. Hurricanes are equally as devastating with a staggering amount of property damage. For example, over $20 billion of property damage occurred in 2005, the year of Hurricane Katrina, according to the USGS.

Risk Factors

Several factors play a role in how natural disasters will impact humans. First, there is the population which lives in vulnerable areas. According to the USGS, more than half of Americans live within 50 miles of U.S. coastal waters. Not only are these areas at risk of experiencing hurricanes, but the very land on which they live is eroding up to 3 feet each year, according to FEMA. This land lost will affect landowners, but it also sets up a scenario for even greater impacts of storm surges as coastal wetlands are lost. These wetlands absorb the brunt of tropical storms. Their loss can cause even greater land loss due to erosion.

Vulnerability

Areas at the greatest risk have been identified by agencies such as FEMA and the USGS. FEMA created the flood zone maps to assess flood risk. The USGS identified southern California as one area of the U.S. that is especially vulnerable to natural disasters such as flooding and landslides.

Prevention/Solution

It is not possible to prevent all floods or other natural disasters. The role of government and communities is to increase awareness about the risks of natural disasters. It is almost impossible to believe that at one time the Weather Bureau forbade the use of the word "tornado" in a weather statement for fear of how the public would react. Today, sophisticated weather monitoring helps scientists predict not only the occurrence, but the path of storms. Advances in seismic monitoring systems allow scientists to identify potential natural disasters caused by earthquakes and volcano eruptions.

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The History Of Badlands National Park

Badlands National Park, located in South Dakota, contains over 244,000 acres of land. Most visitors come in the months of June through August. The landscape is a mixture of peaks, gullies and wide prairies. The earliest people known to come to this area were hunters.

History

The Badlands was declared a national monument by President Franklin Roosevelt in 1929 to protect the land and resources. In the 1960s, over 130,000 acres owned by the Ogala Sioux Indians was set up to be managed by the National Park Service. It was made a national park in 1978 by Congress.

Time Frame

The earliest people in the area were mammoth hunters and nomadic tribes. The first tribe to have inhabited the White River area hunted bison. They were followed by fur trappers, soldiers, miners and cattle farmers.

Function

Bison were replaced by cattle in the Badlands, and wheat fields eventually replaced the prairies where farming took place. The Pine Ridge Reservation, which makes up 50 percent of the Badlands, is where the Lakota Indians live.

Features

Early fossil hunters came to the Badlands in between 1840 and 1860. They marked the beginning of the study of vertebrae paleontology, or fossils. The Badlands Park provides education in four areas: fossil study, geology, prairie land study and history.

Identification

The White River of the Badlands contributed to the study of fossils. It has one of the oldest fossil beds, dating back 23 to 35 million years. The evolution of some animals can be studied in the Badlands rock formations.

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The Top Five Cities In Arizona

Arizona offers many cities with outdoor, cultural or historical attractions.

Known for its desert climate and the Grand Canyon, Arizona offers many recreational options. The state features historical attractions and stunning geological formations. Arizona also provides many cultural opportunities as well through museums, music and theater. Many cities in Arizona offer attractions for both residents and visitors.

Phoenix

As the largest city in Arizona and the fifth largest city in the United States, Phoenix features diverse activities and attractions for tourists and residents. Phoenix offers many outdoor recreational opportunities including hiking, biking and golfing. The city also features upscale shopping and dining, professional sports, and several resorts and spas. To get a feel of the southwestern desert, visit the Desert Botanical Garden, which covers more than 145 acres and includes exhibits highlighting native desert plants. Located in downtown Phoenix, the Heard Museum includes American Indian art and cultural exhibits. In the center of Phoenix, you will find Papago Park, which features large sandstone formations with miles of hiking and biking trails.

Tucson

Located in the southeastern part of Arizona, Tucson is one of the oldest cities in the United States and the second largest in Arizona. With the Saguaro National Park on one side and the Santa Catalina Mountains on another, Tucson embodies the southwest desert. Tucson also offers premier golf courses, art galleries and upscale shopping. For a slice of Tucson history, you can tour the San Xavier del Bac Mission. The mission was established in 1692; its existing church was built in 1797 and is one of the oldest buildings in Arizona. The mission offers tours daily and also features a museum detailing its history.

Scottsdale

Rated in Money Magazine as one of the country's best places to live, Scottsdale features numerous golf courses, eclectic restaurants and an active nightlife. Some of the area's premier resorts are located in Scottsdale including the Phoenician, Fairmont and Four Seasons. Old Scottsdale offers upscale shopping, art galleries and fine dining. Also located in Scottsdale is Taliesin West, the winter home of famed architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Tours of the large home are available daily and include visits to such features as the Cabaret Theater, Music Pavilion and Wright's personal office and studio.

Sedona

Often referred to as "Red Rock Country," Sedona is surrounded by tall red rock formations, mountains and national forest. A popular tourist destination, Sedona offers many opportunities for hiking, mountain biking and horseback riding and includes such outdoor attractions as Oak Creek Canyon and Cathedral Rock. Hundreds of artists reside in Sedona, and the city contains more than 40 art galleries featuring work from local artists. In addition, some people visit Sedona to experience vortex meditation sites. The vortex sites have inspired many metaphysical healers and spiritual guides to call Sedona home.

Flagstaff

Located in northern Arizona, Flagstaff was named in Kiplinger's best 10 cities list. Situated at almost 7,000 feet and surrounded by mountains and the Coconino National Forest, Flagstaff offers four distinct seasons--unlike cities in the central and southern portions of the state that offer warm temperatures year-round. Flagstaff offers many outdoor recreational opportunities including skiing, hiking, camping and biking. Flagstaff also provides easy access to nearby attractions like the Sunset Crater National Monument and Wupatki National Monument. Flagstaff is also home to Northern Arizona University and the Lowell Observatory. Flagstaff also serves as a gateway to the Grand Canyon, which is just over 80 miles away.

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How Are Beaches Formed

How Are Beaches Formed?

How is a Beach Born?

A day at the beach is one of the most relaxing and enjoyable things in the world. Since prehistoric times people have been drawn to the sandy coastlines for both sustenance and recreation, and for an undoubtedly equally long period they have wondered how a beach comes to be in the first place. If you've ever looked at a grain of sand up close, you may have though that it resembled a tiny rock. As it turns out, that's all a grain of sand really is.

Erosion and Deposition

Beaches are a prime example of what is called a deposition landform, meaning they are built up over time by the addition of sediment. Sediment is a term for particles of rock or earth produced from larger particles over time. The weathering of rocks by wind, rain, ice and geological processes causes their breakdown into smaller units, which then undergo a process known as erosion.

When erosion occurs, sediment is transported from one place to another by gravity, wind, glacier movement or flowing water. Certain causes of erosion, such as a river, tend to transport a large amount of their sediment to a common location, such as the point where the river joins a larger body of water. Over time the sediment may accumulate and produce a new land form, such as a dune, sand bar or beach.

Waves, Deltas and Beach Formation

In the case of the beach, ocean waves are usually responsible for most of the deposition. Offshore rocks and coral reefs gradually erode due to the action of currents, producing sediment which is deposited when the waves crash into the shoreline. However, this sediment is not always in the form of sand. Gravel, pebbles and shell fragments are just a few of the other types of sediment often deposited on a shoreline. Human recreation tends to focus on the sandier sites, but there are other types of beaches as well.

Rivers may also be involved in this process. The point where a river drains into an ocean is called a delta, and at these places deposition can occur on a massive scale. Deltas are often extremely fertile farmland because of this, and for the same reason they are also home to many of the world's most popular beaches.

The sand at such sites may have been moved thousands of miles from the interior of a continent by a river's current, until it was lain on top of sand drawn up from the dark depths of the ocean.

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Facts On The Columbia Plateau Region

Portland, Orgeon, is situated on the Columbia River, within the Columbia Plateau region.

Spread throughout Washington, Oregon, Idaho and the Canadian province of British Columbia, the Columbia Plateau is the main geographic feature of the interior Columbia River Basin. Within an area composed mainly of mountains and steep valleys, the Columbia Plateau is characterized by flat land and low hills that are occasionally cut by the river canyons of the Columbia River and is tributaries.

Geographical Features

The Columbia River Basin is a triangular area measuring approximately 250 miles on each side. On its fringes the elevation of the plateau is about 4,000 feet (1,219 m) above sea level, and at its lowest point it is about 400 feet (122 m). The plateau was formed somewhere between 6 million and 16 million years ago. Its northern border is marked by the Columbia River and the mouth of the Okanagon River. On its south, the plateau extends to Oregon. On the east, the plateau includes the Camas Prairie of central Idaho and on the west extends all the way to the foothills of the Cascade Mountains in Washington.

Geology

Most of the plateau is underlain by lava deposits, some as thick as 10,000 feet in some places. Sedimentary rock is embedded within the lava, which is primarily basalt. Older rocks can be seen in outcrops in the Blue and Wallowa mountains, while younger lavas, cinder cones and volcanic ash are characteristics found to the south of the plateau. Older, decayed lavas occur in the northern part of the basin. Coulees --- dry river canyons --- and scablands --- eroded basalt surfaces --- were both carved by glacial melting and are among the region's geologic features.

Discovery

The first mention of the Columbia River Plateau is in the journals of famed American explorers Lewis and Clark. In the entry for September 18, 1805, Clark wrote, "from the top of a high part of the mountains . . . I had a view of an emence Plain and leavel country to the SW. & West." In the journal entry for the following day, he noted that the sight of the plain "greatly relieved the spirits of the party" after the difficulty the group experienced traversing the Bitterroot Mountains.

Development

Although humans have lived along the Columbia River for more than 10,000 years, modern engineering since the Industrial Revolution has altered the region's environment. In fact, the Columbia River Plateau is home to the most hydroelectrically developed river system in the world, with more than 400 dams located along the Columbia River. More than 21 million kw of electricity is generated by these dams, which include the Rock Island Dam, the Bonneville Dam and the massive Grand Coulee Dam.

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Arcview Vs Arcmap

Software helps construction rendering on a computer.

Land surveyors use complex data collection devices on a job site to assemble a plan for building a variety of items, such as aqueducts and buildings. Software, such as ArcView and ArcMap, allow users to manipulate the data.

Function

ArcView and ArcMap are part of a software package called ArcGIS. A geographic information system (GIS), is the study of geography and how it relates to what needs to be built for construction purposes.

Features

ArcView software encompasses basic data manipulation, such as spreadsheets, for coordinates set from the field information. ArcMap is the map portion of ArcView, allowing visualization of the land, from elevations to curves, to set a plan for grading the land for construction.

Significance

By combining the data analysis of ArcView and the mapping power of ArcMap, a land surveyor can accurately plan for a large construction job, saving money by avoiding mistakes that are more prevalent with manual data analysis.

Tags: data analysis

Salary Of A Geologist In The Usa

Geologists can expect faster than average job growth over the next several years.

Scientists have been fascinated with our planet and its physical qualities for generations. Geologists are the scientific specialists that focus on the study of Earth and its composition and history. They commonly study rocks to discover when and how they were formed by using physics and chemistry. They may also make discoveries about the life of the earth by studying plants and animals, soil, mountains and rivers. Geologists in the USA can work in many different scientific scenarios, and salaries can vary widely.

Average Wages in the United States

Based on data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, in May of 2010, geologists earned a nationwide average salary of $93,380 a year. This figure represents an estimated 30,830 geoscientists, most of whom fell into the middle 50 percent of wages and made between $57,820 and $115,460 a year. Some geologists reported annual salaries of less than $43,820 a year, comprising of the bottom 10th percentile. However, those at the top of their field made their way into the top 10th percentile, earning more than $160,910 annually.

Around the Country

The BLS data demonstrate how significantly location influenced salaries for geologists. In fact, Colorado was the only state with a figure similar to the national average, $96,610 a year. Geologists in Pennsylvania reported an annual mean wage of just $67,860, and those in California made $84,480 a year on average. On the other side of the pay scale, geologists made a little over $100,000 a year in Washington, D.C., Massachusetts and Alaska, and those in Texas earned $125,070 a year on average. However, Oklahoma was the highest paying state in the U.S. in 2010, boasting an annual mean wage of $129,870.

Employer Pay

Geologists saw employment opportunities in many industries in 2010, but the largest number of them worked in architectural and engineering service firms for an annual mean wage of $80,460. Lower paying positions were found with state government, averaging $62,880 a year, or with management, scientific and technical consulting firms, averaging $73,990 annually. However, geologists working for petroleum and coal products manufacturers earned $118,910 a year on average, and financial investment companies paid $125,570 a year. The second largest employers of geoscientists, oil and gas extraction companies, provided an annual mean wage of $132,210, the highest of any industry.

Qualifications

Most geologists and geoscientists must posses a master's degree, but positions primarily based in research or post secondary education will demand a Ph.D. During formal training, geologists commonly study multiple areas of geoscience, including petrology, mineralogy and structural geology, as well as physics, chemistry and biology. Geologists also often need knowledge and skills related to modern computer and GPS equipment. Geologists who provide services that directly affect the public are required to obtain a license in many states.

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Composite Volcano Facts For Kids

Mount Fuji is a composite volcano featured in many ancient works of art.

Volcanoes are formed when a vent in the earth reaches all the way down into pockets of molten rock called magma. This magma escapes from the vent and builds up a mound around the vent when it cools off and hardens. This mound might be the size of a small hill, or it could grow to be a giant mountain. There are different types of volcanoes, each formed by different types of eruptions. Of all the different types of volcanoes, the most complex is the composite volcano, also called the stratovolcano.

Composition

Composite volcanoes are composite in three ways. They are composites of multiple eruptions. The eruptions that build up a composite volcano may be separated by hundreds of thousands of years. They are also composites of multiple materials. The eruptions that form these volcanoes lay down alternating layers of lava, ash and cinders. Thirdly, while this type of volcano might have only one vent, it also might be a composite of several vents.

Size

Composite volcanoes have steep slopes and tend to be symmetrical in shape. They can be very tall, up to 8,000 feet in height. That's over a mile and a half. They can become so tall that their steep slopes become unstable and collapse underneath their own weight. These volcanoes can become very wide as well, up to approximately five miles across.

How They are Formed

Composite volcanoes are formed by viscous lava, which is relatively thick. Viscous is the opposite of runny. After this lava flows for a while, the eruption changes and starts ejecting ash and cinder that falls near the summit of the mountain, which is why these volcanoes have such steep sides. The eruption then changes back to lava, which cements the ash and cinder.

Destruction

When composite volcanoes go dormant and stop erupting, they are sometimes worn away by erosion until there is almost nothing left of them. They are also destroyed when further eruptions blast apart the volcano cone. The depressions that are left after erosion and explosions are known as calderas.

Chains

Most composite volcanoes occur in chains, rather than singly. The volcanoes that make up these chains can be separated by dozens of miles. These chains can form anywhere on earth, but are most numerous around the rim of the Pacific ocean, which is known as the "Rim of Fire" because of all the volcanoes that form there.

Famous Composite Volcanoes

Mount Rainier, in Washington state, is a composite volcano. So is Mount Fuji in Japan; the Mayon Volcano, in the Philippines; and Mount Vesuvius in Italy.

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Explore Lava Beds National Monument

Lava Beds National Monument is a land of both geological and historical turmoil. Over the last half-million years, volcanic eruptions on the Medicine Lake shield volcano have created a rugged landscape dotted with volcanic features. More than 700 caves, Native American rock art, historic battlefields and campsites and a high desert wilderness experience await you.

Instructions

1. See two types of rock art, or rock imagery; carved petroglyphs and painted pictographs. All of the monument’s rock art and painting is located in the traditional territory of the Modoc people and their ancestors. It is possible that some of these images at Lava Beds were made more than 6,000 years ago. Some of the geometric patterns found in the rock imagery here appear on household items up to 5,000 years old from nearby Nightfire Island. This site is one of the most extensive representations of American Indian rock art in California. Excellent examples of pictographs can be seen at Symbol Bridge and Big Painted Cave on boulders along the trail and walls around the entrances.

2. See painted markings left in lava tube caves by early explorers and even a few Japanese characters carved into the boulders at Petroglyph Point by interned Japanese-Americans during World War II.

3. See the caves. Explore dozens of developed caves of varying difficulties on your own at Lava Beds. You can also find tours in summer. Don’t go alone. Exploring as a group makes caving safer. Use bump hats, sold at the Visitors Center to protect your head. Cave temperatures are about 55 degrees F all year round, so dress appropriately. Always protect the bats.If you see bats, shine your flashlight beam away from them and leave the area. Mushpot Cave (770 feet) is recommended as an introductory cave. Indian Well Cave (300 feet) has easy access on a wooden walkway, a high ceiling and unusual ice formations in winter.

4. Spelunk in the upstream section of the Catacombs tube system. Smooth floors and ceiling heights exceeding 7 feet are found throughout this cave. As you enter Golden Dome Cave (2,229 feet), beware of "headache rock" when entering and exiting the cave via the ladder. The downstream portion of this cave requires some stooping. The back section where the "Golden Dome" is located is a figure-8. Take note of your location so you don't go around in circles.

5. If you are an experienced cave explorer, try one of the most challenging caves. These caves require duck-walking orcrawling. Helmets,kneepads, and gloves are a must in these areas. Labyrinth Cave (1,239 feet) and Lava Brook Cave (859 feet) are near the Visitor Center and are connected by a segment requiring crawling and twisting. Ceiling heights vary but tend to be low throughout. Hopkins Chocolate Cave (1,405 feet) is named for the rich brown color of lava coating the ceiling and walls. Stooping is required in a couple of places, and there is one passage with a ceiling height of three feet that requires duck-walking.

Tags: Cave feet, Lava Beds, Beds National, Beds National Monument, Golden Dome, Lava Beds National, National Monument

Acetate Peel Technique

Acetate peels are used in many different fields. They are most often used are in museums for the study of bones and fossils, and in dentistry for the examination of teeth and dentures. Technicians use certain techniques to make the process of acetate peeling easier and to prevent any problems, such as damage to the fossil or tooth.

Uses

The man-made material acetate is formed from wood pulp and other ingredients. Acetate peels are used to gather impressions of objects so they can be studied, copied and even modified.

Acetate peels are not the only use of acetate. With certain modifications to the base structure, acetate can be formed into thread, used as an adhesive and even used for photography film. Another, less concentrated, form of acetate peel is used on skin face for exfoliation. Acetate peels are often used on fossils in museums to study the bone structures of ancient animals.

Process

The process of creating an acetate peel is delicate and complicated. It is important that only trained professionals attempt the peels because a high concentrations of the material can cause damage to the skin and lungs.

First a fossil bone must be cut using a tool designed to cut through the hardest materials. A technician sands the fossil to help the acetate peel adhere to the surface better. He then polishes it on a specialized glass plate. An acid bath of hydrochloric acid is used to etch the fossil, which makes it easier to use the acetate peel. The bone is then dried.

Next the technician applies acetone to the etched surface and places a sheet of acetate ion the acetone. The sheet remains on the bone while it dries. When the sheet is removed, bone particles are removed with the acetate. This enables paleontologists to examine the fossil and its structure.

Techniques

It is important to wear gloves and a mask when working with acetate, acetone and acids of any kind. The acetone sheeting can be removed from the bone after 5 to 20 minutes. The best way to determine when to remove the sheet is by smell. If the acetone no longer has an odor, it is ready to remove.

More than one acetate sheet can be obtained from one fossil. The steps of acid bathing, rinsing and applying the acetone and acetate sheets must be repeated each time.

A paleontologists places acetate sheets between two glass slides for examination under a microscope or places them between two additional acetate sheets for projecting onto a wall with a projector.

Tags: Acetate peels, acetate sheets, acetate acetone, acetate formed, acetate peel

Make A 3d Region Map

Make a 3-D region map for students to explore.

3-D region maps are a great way to bring geography alive for children or students. Students love exploring 3-D globes with elevations and color coding to signify the geographical regions. Making a 3-D region map of a county or state or country is an excellent way to help engage the kinesthetic learning-style learners in the classroom which tend to be the highest proportion of students in the classroom yet sometimes the least likely to be reached by traditional visual (writing and images) and auditory (lecture) classroom methods.

Instructions

1. Select the region for the 3-D map. A teacher could distribute a unique country or state per student as an assignment or a world map could be created.

2. Draw an outline of the region on a piece of cardstock or poster board or cardboard.

3. Create a key for the 3-D region map displaying the color coding for the elevations or geographical topography.

4. Mark the geographic regions and elevations on the regional map outline using colors or symbols.

5. Mix up and/or distribute the material that will be used to give the region map the 3-D dimensions. Materials that work well include modeling clay, salt and flour clay, craft dough or paper mache.

6. Apply the material--clay, dough or paper mache--to the map to create the dimensions for the various elevations and geographical topography.

7. Paint the material--clay, dough or paper mache--if it was not pre-colored to match the key for the 3-D region map.

Tags: dough paper, color coding, elevations geographical, elevations geographical topography, geographical topography, material--clay dough, material--clay dough paper

Science Activities On Landforms

Have some fun with your own metamorphic rocks.

The study of landforms offers a wide variety of hands-on activities in which students can see geological processes at work. Used in conjunction with videos, textbooks and supplementary materials, hands-on geological activities will give students a thorough understanding of the nature of landforms and the processes that create and modify them.

Making Metamorphic Rock Pancakes

Heat and pressure combine to fuse differing types of rock together to create a new type: metamorphic rock. Students will remember this process when they create metamorphic rock pancakes. Use this activity as the culminating event of a unit on landforms. This is a suitable activity for elementary age students. The materials needed are a frying pan or griddle, spatula, oil, pancake batter, plates and napkins, chocolate chips, raisins, marshmallows and banana slices. Mix the pancake batter, pour it on the griddle and add the other ingredients to the batter. Students will see how heat is a factor in the process of making metamorphic rocks as well as how all the ingredients blend together to create a new object. Students will also be able to observe that some materials will melt and others will not. Eat the pancakes, then follow up with questions about how they can relate this activity to what they know about metamorphic rocks.

Papier Mache Landforms

This activity is very popular with students. Students from grade 2 and up can work individually or in groups. Students make a list of the landforms that they have studied and choose three to focus on. The main activity is making a papier mache model of one of the continents. Give each student a square of plywood about 12 inches by 12 inches. Students can photocopy the outline of a continent from an atlas, then trace the outline onto the plywood. They build the base of the continent first, then add three landforms from their list, such as mountains, rivers and peninsulas. Paint the landform after it dries. Label the landforms on a key, using colors. Research and explain what geological processes were involved in the creation of these landforms. For example, how were the Rockies formed? What processes were involved? How long did it take to create the Rockies? The results of the research can be presented in a variety of formats, such as a PowerPoint presentation.

Temperature Change and Weathering

Students enjoy this activity because they get to burn marbles in the name of science. It is important to follow safety procedures; these should be discussed at the start of this activity. Materials needed for this activity are one can of Sterno for each group, matches, aluminum cups, one marble per student, one bowl of ice water, goggles and safety tongs. Divide the students into groups. Assign a job to each student. Appropriate jobs are the materials manager, who takes care of gathering all the materials; the safety manager, who gets the goggles for each group and makes sure safety procedures are followed; the recorder, who writes down and takes photos of the process; and the principal investigator, who is the leader and makes sure everyone does his job. Students gather all the materials. Older students can light the Sterno can themselves; teachers may want to do this for younger students. Burn the marbles for five minutes in an aluminum can. Hold the can with the safety tongs. Dump the marbles into ice water. Record the size and structure of the cracks that appear in the marbles. Students can take photos of the marbles after they crack or make detailed drawings. Ask students to relate this activity to the heating and cooling of rocks in nature. Students can do a short writing exercise after this activity that demonstrates their understanding of how heat and cold work in the weathering of landforms.

Tags: this activity, metamorphic rocks, Students will, each group, each student, geological processes

The Salary Of A Structural Geologist

Structural geologists study the evidence of major geological shifts on rock.

Rock comprises the majority of our planet. Structural geologists analyze this element of the Earth, investigating its structural elements, uncovering the past by studying the stratification of rock geometry and the dynamics of different rock structures as well as the substances contained within them, such as oil and minerals. They are geoscientists who seek to understand the structural evolution of a particular area through the pattern of its underlying rock formations. Salary levels for the occupation depend upon where and for whom a geologist works.

Average Salary

In May 2010 the Bureau of Labor Statistics analyzed employment trends throughout the United States. It classified structural geologists alongside other geologists, as well as geoscientists such as crystallographers, mineralogists and volcanologists. It concluded that the average annual wage across the category was $93,380, equivalent to $44.89 an hour, $1,796 a week and $7,782 a month. Pay comparison website Indeed.com listed the average yearly wage for a structural geologist, at the time of writing, as $85,000.

Salary by Industry

Like other geoscientists, most structural geologists work within either architectural, engineering and related services or oil and gas extraction. The bureau listed the average annual wages within these sectors as $80,460 and $132,210, respectively. Geologists working as consultants earned an average of $73,990, a higher rate than that paid to individuals working for state government bodies -- $62,880 -- but less than the amount paid to those employed by the federal executive branch -- $95,580.

Salary by Geography

SalaryExpert.com conducted a survey of salary levels for structural geologists based in certain large U.S. metropolitan areas. At the time of writing, it found that pay rates were highest in Texas, with Houston averaging $120,807 and Dallas listed at $96,169. This may be due to the large concentration of the oil industry in the state. New York and Chicago had comparable wage levels -- $60,278 and $59,999 -- while Atlanta was reported just $51,075. The bureau listed Oklahoma as the most lucrative state for a geoscientist to work in, averaging $129,870. In contrast, Pennsylvania was reported at $67,860.

Outlook

Across the geoscience field, which includes experts in geology, geography and hydrology, the Bureau of Labor Statistics expects the employment market to grow by around 18 percent over the decade from 2008 to 2018. This outstrips the growth rate expected of the whole country, which is not predicted to exceed 13 percent. Growing demand for environmental management and further exploration for oil and gas will motivate this growth, meaning salary levels for the professions, including for structural geologists, should remain very competitive.

Tags: average annual, Bureau Labor, Bureau Labor Statistics, bureau listed, Labor Statistics, listed average

Jobs For Oceanography

Oceanography jobs apply knowledge of the ocean to a number of career fields.

Oceanography is a broad research field divided into four general disciplines: geological oceanography, chemical oceanography, physical oceanography and biological oceanography. Most oceanographers end up studying information that relates to all of these fields, but may only go into a career studying one of them. While a career as a research scientist is one way to go, there are other careers as well for those who studied oceanography.

Marine Biologist

Biological scientists study living organisms and the ways they interact with the environment. Marine biographers who study oceanography have a specific interest in saltwater organisms. This mainly focuses on molecular biology. Marine biologists study the biochemical processes inside living cells for their unique characteristics that allow organisms to function in the world's oceans. These scientists also study larger organisms, from saltwater crustaceans like lobsters and crabs to dolphins and wales, along with marine ecosystems, including coral reefs.

Physical Oceonography

Studying oceanography not only includes the study of biological organisms in the oceans, but also the physical characteristics of the oceans and seas. This knowledge can lead to careers in geology and hydrology. Oceanographers who become geoscientists study the physical features of the earth under the ocean's surface, as well as features above the surface affected by ocean waters. Oceanographers can also become hydrologists, scientists who study the properties and characteristics of ocean water.

Ocean Engineering

Ocean engineers combine knowledge of oceanography theories and practices with mechanical, electrical, civil, acoustical and chemical engineering skills. These individuals design instruments used by other oceanographers. Such instruments include sediment traps, underwater vehicles, seismometers and satellite-linked buoys. These devices allow scientists to study the oceans and their inhabitants quickly and easily. A specialty in this field is coastal engineering, which applies engineering innovations to buildings and communities along the coast to allow them to function properly without harming the oceans, such as in the case of waste disposal.

Marine Policy Experts

Marine policy experts not only specialize in oceanography, they also have knowledge of social sciences, law and/or business. Those who go into this career act as lobbyists or consultants to companies, non-governmental organizations or governmental bodies that work with the ocean. They mainly assure that a particular organization's practices do not harm the sea. They develop guidelines and policies for the humane and beneficial use of ocean and coastal resources in reference to maritime and environmental laws.

Tags: scientists study

Read Gps Coordinates

The 27 (24 active and 3 backups) satellites making up the GPS network over earth send microwave signals at light speed to communicate positions. For years, the military has used GPS coordinates to locate people, targets, set navigation and establish meeting places. Today, people use GPS for hiking, driving, SCUBA diving, golf and other applications where specific locations are needed. Many hand-held GPS units are accurate to within 12 inches or less. You can learn to read GPS coordinates to better understand GPS devices.

Instructions

1. Imagine the Prime Meridian and International Date Line as an equator splitting the earth into east and west. The Americas are located in the west and most of Africa, Europe and Asia are in the east when you read GPS coordinates.

2. Divide the earth into the northern and southern hemispheres for the first number when you read GPS coordinates. For example, N 20 degrees stands for the imaginary latitude line 20 degrees North of the equator. The coordinates S 75 05.235' represent a line slightly more than 75 degrees South of the equator. Sometimes, South is represented by a minus sign.

3. Split the earth into an imaginary east and west along the Prime Meridian. The Prime Meridian runs from the North Pole to the South pole through the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Algeria, Mali, Burkina Faso, Togo, Ghana and Antarctica. The 180th meridian (half of 360 degrees, which represents a full circle) is the International Date Line and helps to establish east and west.

4. Read the second set of numbers in the GPS coordinates to determine the east or west line. For example, W 60 degrees stands for 60 degrees west of the Prime Meridian for a location in the western hemisphere. The coordinates E 15 degrees 07.55' relates to just over 15 degrees to the east of the Prime Meridian at a location in Europe or Africa. Sometimes, West is shown by a minus sign.

5. Find the point where the two numbers (for North/South and East/West) intersect to establish the GPS location. For example, the coordinates N 37 degrees 43.69, W 97 degrees 28.39 point to Wichita, Kansas. GPS coordinates can be specific down to about 30 cm.

Tags: Prime Meridian, earth into, east west, coordinates degrees, Date Line, degrees stands

Fun Educational Activities For 9th Grade

Learning is fun with interactive experiments and educational activities.

Exciting educational activities from NASA and the USGS teach ninth-graders about gravity, plate tectonics, planets, radiation, volcanoes and ground water. Discovery Education has lesson plans to teach about cultural stereotyping and how technology works, and CoolMath's Algebra Crunchers generates an endless stream of algebra problems for teens to solve. Scholastic teaches kids become effective storytellers and Quizlet has over 2,000 interactive flash card sets, with audio, for ninth graders.

Design Your Own Planet and Make a Space Podcast Using Tools From NASA

NASA has a game that teaches 9th graders graph radiation levels.

Learn about gravity, mass, acceleration and buildings in space from the The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). NASA has a 9th-grade student area with videos, a gallery of planet photos and an interactive game, Extreme Planet Makeover, which allows students to make their own planet, choosing its distance from other stars, planet size and age and star type. NASA's Educators' section has ninth-grade resources such as a do-it-yourself podcast project using NASA videos and audio recordings, a math project about radiation levels and design competitions.

Science, Technology, Health, Language and Math Tutorials at Discovery Education

Students learn how televisions work at Discovery Education.

Discovery Education has 9th-grade activities in the subjects of science, technology, social studies, health, math and language arts. Lesson plans teach teens how televisions work, about cultural stereotyping, solve algebra problems and analyze the poetry of Edgar Allan Poe. The site also has a Brain Booster library full of games that require logic and reasoning skills in addition to basic K-9 academic skills and printable worksheets. A student area on this site has homework help in all subjects, interactive games and step-by-step tutorials on their WebMath site.

Geomagnetism, Plate Tectonics, Earthquakes and Ground Water at USGS

The USGS has lesson plans about volcanic gas and its affects on the atmosphere.

The United States Geological Survey (USGS) has educational resources in the topics of ecosystems, biology, geography, geology and water. The lessons include classroom and computer lab activities. Simulate data collections of water quality in San Francisco, learn about desert geology and how volcanic gases affect the atmosphere. Study environmental impacts on birds, mammals and reptiles and learn read topographic maps. Geomagnetism, astronomy, plate tectonics, fossils, caves, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes and ground water are also topics covered in lessons and activities on this site.

Virtual Manipulatives, Multi-Subject Flash Cards and Math Games on the Web

Students learn to give news reports on Scholastic's website.

Quizlet has over 2,000 interactive and printable flash cards, worksheets and quizzes for the ninth grade. Term lists with audio pronunciations, quizzes that can be programmed regarding answer types, interactive and printable worksheets to review nearly any topic are easily navigated. The site's ninth-grade subject areas include arts, literature, languages, math, science, history and geography. The National Library of Manipulatives has dozens of interactive games for 9th graders, including tan-grams, multi-shaped dominoes, online spinners for probability games, histograms, tessellations and fractal art generators. CoolMath is an "amusement park of math," which includes algebra and geometry lessons, problem sets and an Algebra Crunchers game. Scholastic also has quality games, activities and lesson plans in the subjects of language arts, social studies, science and math. The site has special activities that teach kids be news reporters, and has a storytelling workshop online.

Tags: Discovery Education, lesson plans, about cultural, about cultural stereotyping, about gravity

Locate Water When Diy Water Well Drilling

Homeowners must find the water-bearing zone to ensure water production.

Homeowners install water wells on their property for both drinking water and irrigation. One of the biggest challenges in well installation is finding the water-bearing zone within the aquifer. The type of sediment present will present its own set of obstacles for locating the water. However, you can locate the water with a little patience and attention to the drilling activities. While many well installation activities involve a drilling rig, techniques for locating the water-bearing zone also work for wells installed by hand auger. Does this Spark an idea?

Instructions

1. Set the drill rig where you want to install the well and attach the lead auger and bit. Stage additional auger flights next to the drill rig. Measure the length of your augers to help you gauge the depth to water. Most augers are 5 feet long; however, they may vary depending on the brand. Wear safety equipment for drilling.

2. Start drilling the borehole for the well. As the augers rotate into the ground, soil cuttings will expel from around the outside of the augers. Watch the cuttings for a change in the soil from dry to wet. A capillary fringe is present on the top of the water table so you will likely see the cuttings change from dry to damp to wet as the augers pass from the unsaturated zone, into the capillary fringe and then finally into the water bearing aquifer. The capillary fringe is an area directly above the water table where water pulls water from the aquifer to the dry soil. This area contains damp soil.

3. Stop the drill rig when you begin to see damp and wet soil cuttings. Look into the borehole to signs of the top of the water table. You can use a flashlight to see the water or you can drop a pebble into the borehole and listen for a splash. You will notice the water in sandy soil before clay soil. If you are drilling in clay, you should let the augers sit for a few minutes when you think you are in water to give the water time to fill the borehole.

4. Drop the measuring tape into the borehole to measure the depth to the water. Lower the tape until you feel, hear or see the bottom of the tape intersect the water table and measure the depth of the water to the top of the auger. Subtract the length of the auger that is sticking out of the ground to calculate the depth of the water from the land surface.

Tags: depth water, water table, capillary fringe, into borehole, water-bearing zone, cuttings change, damp soil

Earth And Geology Science Projects For Kids

Science projects offer students an opportunity to delve into geology topics.

Geology is a type of earth science that involves the composition, processes and structure of the earth. It also includes studying the changes in the earth over time, as well as the organisms that inhabit the earth. The earth and geology activities in this article are appropriate for elementary school students.

Rocky Secrets: Hidden Oil?

For this project, you will need mineral oil; three paper plates; three samples each of sandstone, shale, and limestone; a camera; a magnifying glass; an eyedropper; a clock; and an observation notebook. On each plate, place a sample of each rock type. Try to choose rocks that are similar in size. Predict which rock type you think will absorb the most oil. Record the time in a notebook. Add three droppers of oil to each rock sample on all three plates. Take pictures and make notes of how the rocks look immediately after applying the oil. After 30 minutes, take more pictures and additional notes concerning the appearance of the rocks. Describe whether the oil has absorbed or if it is pooling atop the rocks. Repeat pictures and observations after one hour. Tell which rock absorbed the most oil. Compare this to the initial predictions.

Soil Porosity

Fill three beakers with 500 ml of water. Fill three additional beakers with 500 ml of soil. Use a different type of soil in each beaker: sand, topsoil and clay. Make a prediction concerning which soil type you think will hold more water. Use the first water beaker to add water to the sand. Pour until the water level meets the top of the soil level. Record how much water the sand holds. Using the second water beaker, add water to the topsoil until the water level meets the top of the soil level. Record the amount of water the topsoil holds. Add water from the third water beaker to the clay until the water level meets the top of the soil level. Record the amount of water the clay holds. Make a graph showing the difference in the amount of water each soil type holds. Compare your results to the initial hypothesis.

Geodes: Guess What's Inside

You will need six geodes that look different on the outside. Spread two paper towels on a table. Place the geodes on the towel and assign a number to each. Write the numbers beside the rocks on the paper towel. Examine the geodes and make notes concerning each one's appearance in a lab notebook. Make a prediction concerning the contents of each geode and write these predictions in a notebook. Crack open each geode with a hammer. Observe the contents. Write down the observations of the contents and note the differences from the initial predictions.

Testing Soil Compaction

For this project, you need a small spool, a metal knitting needle that will fit inside the spool, a rubber band, a metric ruler and a permanent marker. Slide the knitting needle inside the spool. Mark where the needle comes out of the top of the spool. This is the zero line. Wrap the rubber band tightly around the capped end of the needle. Choose eight locations to test for soil compaction. Number and describe the locations in your lab notebook. Hypothesize which location will have the most compacted soil. At each location, stick the need in the ground with the pointy side down. Push down until the needle stops moving. Push the rubber band down until it touches the top of the spool. Pull the needle out of the ground. Measure the distance from the rubber band to the line with the ruler. Record the measurement. Repeat the process at each location. Tell how the results compare to the initial hypothesis.

Tags: rubber band, amount water, level meets, level meets soil, level Record

Famous Landmarks In Utah

Utah is filled with geological wonders.

Utah is an area of rugged beauty and geological interest, famous for its unusual and colorful sandstone rock formations. The state is often photographed and used for movie and TV western locations. Its capital city of Salt Lake City has landmark monuments and churches built by the Mormons.

Delicate Arch

Delicate Arch is often the subject of photographs and postcards to encapsulate the natural splendor of Utah and its rock formations. Its image is also seen on the state's license plates. Many people go to the Arches National Park near Moab to hike to it and to see the hundreds of other sandstone arches. The park is unique in its subtle varieties of color and texture in the rock.

Delicate Arch

Arches National Park

Box 907

Moab, UT 84532

435-259-8161

Timpanogos Cave Trail

The roundtrip trail through Timpanogus Cave National Monument is approximately 3.5 miles. Three caverns make up the cave network in the Wasatch Mountains, each one with spectacular formations and spirals. The route is a reasonably easy hike with a guide, a paved trail, resting benches and lights. Interpretative signs explain the history of the local people and wildlife and a visitor center can provide you with further information.

Timpanogos Cave National Monument,

RR3 Box 200

American Fork, UT 84003

801-756-5239

Temple Square

Temple Square is an area in downtown Salt Lake City with strong associations with the Mormons (Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) who settled in the area. The landmarks include Salt Lake Temple, built between 1853 and 1893 in a neo-Gothic style. Both the building and its grounds are impressive. Visitors are welcome to walk the grounds, but only Mormon Church members are allowed inside the temple. Salt Lake Tabernacle is another famous building in the square and is praised for its architecture. It also has remarkable acoustics and the tabernacle's organ, which contains 11,623 pipes, is one of the world's largest organs.

This Is the Place Heritage Park

This Is the Place Heritage Park tells the story of the Mormon pioneers who came to Utah in 1847. Heritage Village recreates a 19th-century settlement within the park with shops and houses, both original and replica. Working craftspeople demonstrate their skills and children can try their hand at crafts. The park also features a miniature train, pony rides and a Visitors' Center where you can buy souvenirs. Settlers' Pond is a Native American village that looks at the history of the first people in Utah. "This is the place" refers to the This Is The Place Monument, which was erected in 1847 to commemorate the 1,300 miles that the Mormon settlers traveled. Other settlers also receive a tribute at the monument, including fur trappers, Spanish priests and Native Americans. The park also has features the National Pony Express Monument.

This Is the Place Heritage Park

2601 E. Sunnyside Ave. (800 South)

Salt Lake City, UT 84108-1453

801-582-1847

Tags: Salt Lake, Delicate Arch, Heritage Park, Lake City, Place Heritage

Find Some Gemstones In The Ozark Hills Of Northwest Arkansas

Find Some Gemstones in the Ozark Hills of Northwest Arkansas

Being a "rockhound" is a favored past-time for some people. They simply like the act of rooting around and finding a beautiful stone or fossil. Some make money from their adventures, while others just enjoy sifting through the various minerals and exploring the geology of the area. Many places in the Ozarks of Northwestern Arkansas offer people the opportunity to enjoy rock hunting. Enthusiasts can find gems ranging from quartz to diamonds.

Instructions

Location, location, location.

1. Diamonds

Location is the most important factor. Some places in Arkansas boast their abundance of quartz and some are better suited for diamond hunting.

2. Backpacks or tackle boxes are handy for carrying your equipment and gem finds.

3. Always wear your safety glasses to prevent any dirt or rock fragments from getting into your eyes as you work.

4. Use the shovel, rock hammer and chisel to get to the gem inside the dirt or rock.

Tags: dirt rock, Find Some, Find Some Gemstones, Gemstones Ozark, Gemstones Ozark Hills, Hills Northwest

Become A Physical Science Teacher In New York

There are many steps to becoming a science teacher in New York.

Becoming a science teacher in New York can be a rewarding career if you would like to change the lives of children. Science teachers encourage students to seek out answers to questions about life. They teach children to look at our world with curiosity and the desire to figure things out. A science teacher knows provide hands-on activities to not only teach children but show them how things work. Areas of science include biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy and marine science.

Instructions

1. Obtain the necessary degree at an accredited college. In order to teach middle or high school science you will need to obtain a Bachelor or a Master Degree of Science Education. A bachelor's degree usually takes four years to complete and a master's degree takes an additional two years beyond the bachelor's. Generally you will specialize in a specific field such as a major in biology. By obtaining a master's degree, you will eventually make more money as a science teacher.

2. Complete a teacher's certification program. You should apply for the initial teaching certificate, which is the entry level certificate for all classroom teachers in New York. This certificate will eventually lead to a Professional certificate and is valid for five years.

3. Apply for an internship in the school district in which you wish to teach. You will student teach for 40 days. At the end of 40 days, the school will give their evaluation/recommendation of your performance.

4. Sign up for and take the required examinations for certification. Science teachers must take the LAST (Liberal Arts and Science Test) exam. You will also be required to take the Secondary Assessment of Teaching Skills (ATS-W) and the CST (Content Specialty Test) for Earth Science. You must score a 220 or above on each test to pass.

5. Attend the workshops given by the Department of Education on Child Abuse and Violence. The workshops are two hours long. You can register at the New York Department of Education website.

6. Submit your fingerprints so that the Department of Education can perform a background check. This will clear you for teaching.

Tags: science teacher, Department Education, Science teachers, teach children, will eventually

Make A Model Of A Composite Volcano

Build a volcano model as a science project for school or at home.

Composite volcanoes, also known as stratovolcanoes, combine the defining characteristics of both cinder cone and shield volcanoes. Composite volcano eruptions produce both ash, like cinder cone volcanoes, and lava, like shield volcanoes. Due to these dual eruptions, composite volcanoes have a pointy cone shape like cinder cone volcanoes but have alternating layers of hardened lava and cinder, or ash. To make a model of a composite volcano you must produce these alternating layers of materials.

Instructions

1. Cut a section of cardboard to use as the base for your volcano model: Use a ruler and pencil to draw a 1-foot square onto a large piece of thick cardboard. Cut the square out using a utility knife.

2. Prepare the model lava layers by melting unscented white candles on medium heat in an old metal cook pot you do not care to ruin with wax remnants. Shave flakes off a black crayon using the utility knife to scrape the flakes into the pot with the melted candle wax. Continue stirring and adding flakes until the melted wax in the cook pot has a dark gray color.

3. Have an assistant hold a test tube upright in the middle of the cardboard piece. Place the test tube with the hole facing upward and prepare to start building up the layers of the composite volcano model.

4. Use an oven mitten to handle the hot cook pot and pour a small layer of wax around the bottom of the test tube and out onto the cardboard. Do not cover the entire cardboard square, but make a small dome around the test tube.

5. Set the cook pot back on the hot stove so the wax does not cool completely while you apply a layer of the black crafting sand. Apply this sand layer over the wax layer, extending the sand out a bit more in diameter and piling the sand up against the sides of the test tube.

6. Pour another layer of the gray wax onto the sand layer. Continue to alternate sand and wax layers until you reach the top of the test tube. You should have a pointy-shaped volcano model from doming the layers around the test tube. Build the layers up past the test tube opening but do not allow any wax or sand to fall into the test tube.

Tags: test tube, volcano model, cinder cone, alternating layers, around test, around test tube

What Are Uses For Gold Mining

Currency is a traditional use for gold mining.

Gold mining is the process of extracting gold from the earth. Gold is a naturally-occurring element that has value largely because of its scarcity. However, gold is also useful in a number of different applications, which only adds to its value and makes the process of mining gold more profitable. Does this Spark an idea?

Financial Applications

Gold remains a power international symbol of wealth. In the past, gold coins were standard, with a value based on their specific gold content, and later, gold served widely as the direct backing for paper money and non-gold coins. The U.S. is no longer on the gold standard, but the Treasury still maintains its legendary gold reserve at Fort Knox in Kentucky. Gold is a popular investment on the commodities market, its value often increasing dramatically during times of economic uncertainty.

Use as Jewelry

Another common use of gold is to produce jewelry. Gold jewelry has been around for thousands of years and has many different cultural, religious and aesthetic purposes. Gold wedding rings are a common example and gold is still the standard against which many other jewelry materials, like platinum and silver, are measured against.

Electronics Uses

Electronics manufacturers prize gold, which is malleable and easy to work with. It is also resistant to corrosion, extremely conductive and reflects infrared heat. According to Geology.com, gold is present in computer microprocessors to help digital information flow across the circuit board more efficiently. High-end audio and video equipment also uses gold-topped cables to ensure the most faithful transmission of sound and picture.

Medical Uses

Gold mining also supplies gold for the medical community. According to Geology.com, some doctors administer gold as a drug to treat arthritis. Radioactive gold isotopes are also used as a diagnostic tool or to treat certain types of cancer. As many dental patients know, gold is also commonly used for fillings and crowns.

Decorative Uses

Gold mining also provides the gold that ends up as a decorative element in artwork, architecture or other objects. Gold leaf is one way to apply gold as a decoration. This process involves the production of very thin sheets of gold, which can then be applied over a wooden or plaster surface such as at the top of an architectural column, on a picture frame or on the binding of a book.

Tags: Uses Gold, According Geology, gold also, Gold mining, Gold mining also, gold which, mining also

Identify Mineral Nodules

Mineral nodules often manifest as globular aggregates surrounded by sediments or other rock types.

A nodule often refers to a lumpy aggregate of mineral commonly found surrounded by unrelated layers of sediment or rock. You might find them just about anywhere; for example, you might turn up flint nodules in ancient seabeds, where silica derived from the skeletons of marine organisms such as diatoms and sponges. In areas affected by volcanic eruptions, you might discover striking "thundereggs," which sometimes form in beds of ash. Identifying such mineral clusters requires careful study and, very often, finding outside resources to aid in the process.

Instructions

1. Examine the nodule closely with a magnifying glass and attempt to identify it from diagnostic characteristics. Color and consistency are major features to observe. Chert and flint nodules often manifest as whitish or pale gray. Some oxide mineral nodules from the Hawaiian Islands that are found in ferruginous bauxitic soil have a dark iron-oxide shell with a lighter, gibbsite-based interior.

2. Identify geodes and so-called thundereggs by their striking crystalline cores. While some geodes are hollow in the center, many are fully massed inside with crystal growth. In Iowa, the well-known Keokuk geodes often have quartz dominating in their crystal centers. Thundereggs roughly resemble geodes, but derive from volcanic ash, forming from deposits of chalcedony.

3. Consult a field guide or other reference to hone your identification. Many books on minerals and mineralogy are available on the market, ranging from general introductory texts to highly technical treatments. The most useful for the amateur will be those featuring plenty of photographs for comparative purposes.

4. Find a guide dedicated to the region you discovered your nodule in, ideally. For example, if you're considering a thunderegg or other nodule from Washington or Oregon, you might seek out a regionally appropriate reference like "Guide to Rocks and Minerals of the Northwest" by Stan and Chris Leaming.

5. Bring the mineral formation in question to a museum or university to seek direct consultation from an expert. You may be able to ask a geologist or mineralogist directly at one of these institutions to examine your find and see if they can identify it. They may also be able to give you tips on what to look for in the future.

6. Peruse the rock and mineral sections of the museum, whether it's a stand-alone entity or one of the many fine geology and paleontology museums on university campuses, even if you can't directly talk to someone. Try to key into specimens similar to or matching yours.

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What Environments Do Crystals Form In

Diamonds form in igneous rocks called kimberlites.

Mineral crystals form in many ways throughout the world. You can find crystals in sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rock environments. Unique formations in geodes and caves include crystals of many colors, shapes and sizes. The environment in which a crystal forms tells of the special history of that part of the Earth.

Cave Crystals

Crystals, such as calcite, form in caves through precipitation. Caves form when rain and carbon dioxide mix to form an acid that dissolves underground limestone. As the limestone dissolves, it leaves open space for crystals to form. Calcite is the main mineral in limestone. Calcite crystals will form as the calcite-rich waters in the cave precipitate in the open space and form solid crystals. Cave crystals can form in many sizes and may be grouped together or form separate, perfect crystals.

Geode Crystals

Geodes are round or oblong rocks usually filled with crystals of quartz. Other varieties of quartz, such as amethyst and citrine, are also common in geodes. Geodes often form in open areas of sedimentary and igneous rocks. These open areas fill with silica-rich water that precipitates quartz in the open space. Often, layers of quartz agate initially line the opening. The agate may completely fill the void or large crystals will form on top of the agate, leaving some open space inside the geode.

Evaporite Crystals

Minerals, such as gypsum and halite, form from the evaporation of enclosed salt-water bodies such as lakes. As the water evaporates, crystals form in the lake bed. These crystals may form in wide, thick layers over the entire size of the lake.

Igneous Rock Formation

Medium to large mineral crystals form in intrusive igneous rocks. The magma from deep within the Earth moves upward into the surrounding rock and cools very slowly. This magma will form different types of igneous rocks based on the composition of the magma. The slow rate of cooling allows sufficient time for medium to large sized crystals to form in the rocks. Quartz, diamond, mica and feldspar are common igneous rock mineral crystals.

Metamorphic Rock Formation

Some mineral crystals form from metamorphic processes. Metamorphic rocks form when high heat and pressure changes one rock into another. These conditions occur as a rock is buried or moves close to a heat source. During this process, new mineral crystals may form within the rock. Kyanite, garnet and staurolite are common metamorphic crystals.

Tags: crystals form, crystals form, igneous rocks, open space, mineral crystals

Free Science Projects On The Solar System

Study of the solar system inspires the imagination and further investigation.

The study of our solar system --- its eight main planets, dwarf planets, comets, asteroids and moons --- continues to fascinate and inspire ongoing exploration. A variety of freely available, interdisciplinary and inquiry-based solar system science projects and other learning resources are available for elementary, middle and high school students.

Gravity Gauge

When you change direction or speed, the effect of gravitational forces --- "G-forces" --- changes as well. Astronauts experience these changes in G-forces upon takeoff, in orbit, and when re-entering the atmosphere. Students can build a gravity gauge to test and apply this concept, using simple, readily available and mostly free materials: a wax paper cardboard tube, three 1/2-oz. fishing sinkers, two rubber bands, cardboard, masking tape, scissors and a marking pen.

Cutting a 3/4-inch by 8-inch rectangular window out of the tube, students use rubber bands and fishing sinkers to mark the 1-G, 2-G and 3-G positions on the tube; the negative 1-G, 2-G and 3-G positions; and the 0-G position. To test the various G-forces, students hold their gauges upright and in front and perform activities such as jumping up and down, riding up and down in an elevator or taking a roller-coaster ride (see References).

Follow the Falling Meteorite

Developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the "Follow the Falling Meteorite" lesson is part of a larger, freely available interdisciplinary curriculum that explores the mysteries of meteorites. This lesson combines a study of meteorites and geometry, and teachers can modify it for upper-elementary through high-school-age students. Students learn and apply the basic geometric principle of triangulation to "hunt" and locate meteorites. This lesson covers the basics of triangulation and an activity that uses noisemakers to apply this concept. The second part of this lesson has students tracking a meteor's path using triangulation.

Mission to Mars

The Mission to Mars lesson plan --- appropriate for grades six through eight --- is part of Discovery Education's lesson plan library. After reviewing background videos and research, students form smaller planning committees/teams that cover a variety of topics and projects: designing a Mars exploration rover; debating the pros and cons of having a consortium of nations working toward a manned flight to Mars; the composition of the crew, and the ethics of spending for space exploration.

Introduction to Geological Processes: Team Presentations

After a review of the geological processes that affect the solar system's terrestrial planets and the Earth's Moon, students form teams to research and develop presentations. Based on charts and information available from the Hawaii Space Grant Consortium, these presentations creatively demonstrate --- perhaps through narrative, artwork and the projection of relevant Internet pages or prepared slides --- the geological processes of weathering, erosion, volcanism, impact cratering, gradation and tectonics.

Tags: apply this, apply this concept, available interdisciplinary, Falling Meteorite, fishing sinkers, Follow Falling, Follow Falling Meteorite

What Is A Flood Hydrograph

Hydrographs are visual representations of the variation in stream or river depth over time. These graphs can also be used to represent water discharge, which is a measure of flowing water volume per unit time, such as cubic feet per second.

Baseline Flow

The flow of a stream or river under normal weather conditions and patterns is called the base flow or baseline flow, and this water originates primarily from sub-surface groundwater flows. On a hydrograph, this is usually represented as a relatively straight horizontal line along the bottom of the graph. There is, however, natural variation in the base flow, and the line may appear higher or lower as needed.

Rain Events

The addition of water to a stream or river from rain events will cause the discharge to increase. These are often represented as peaks on hydrographs as they show large increases in a relatively short time period.

Stage Hydrograph

Stage hydrographs represent the depth of a stream over time. With floods, the depth naturally increases, causing a rise in the slope of the hydrograph line.

Floods

Flooding occurs when the depth (stage) of the stream exceeds the depth from the stream bank to the stream bottom. This depth is indicated on a hydrograph with a horizontal line, and when the depth line rises above the flood line, flooding occurs.

Uses

Flood hydrographs can provide researchers with estimates of flood frequencies and magnitudes. Understanding hydrological fluctuations and dynamics can help in designing bridges, culverts and flood protection structures, and assist in the management of flood plains.

Tags: stream river, base flow, horizontal line, over time, when depth