What Are Placer Ore Deposits

Many people still enjoy panning for placer gold today.

Throughout human history, placer deposits have been mined for treasures -- gold, platinum diamonds and other gems. The ancient Romans got most of the empire's gold from placer mines throughout the empire. Placer deposits were at the center of the great gold rushes of the nineteenth century in California, Alaska, the Yukon, South Africa and elsewhere. Being at or near the ground surface, placer deposits are easy to mine, do not require the complex and expensive machinery needed for other types of deposits and provide almost immediate rewards to the prospector.

Formation of Placers

Placer deposits consist of minerals broken off by weathering from the rocks in which they formed, and subsequently concentrated by gravity aided by a winnowing or sifting process. The source of the mechanical energy required for the sifting includes streams or rivers, ocean waves, wind or glaciers. The placer deposit may form very near the bedrock from which it originated, or it could be at a great distance. The deposit may either be buried or exposed, or it could even be fossilized, if it was formed in the geologic past.

Stream Placers

Stream placers usually originate at a mineral-containing exposure of bedrock on a hillside overlooking a river valley. The bedrock disintegrates by weathering, which initially forms placers adjacent to the bedrock called residual placers; these may creep further downhill and get trapped in a ravine part way down the hill to form eluvial placers. Finally, the placers reach the stream at the bottom of the valley to form stream placers, also known as alluvial placers; these are the most important type of placers.

Wind and Beach Placers

In arid regions where there is no water, placers known as eolian placers form by wind action. Material broken from the bedrock disintegrates and the wind blows away the lighter rock matrix, leaving behind the placer containing the mineral(s) of economic value. Shore currents and wave action concentrate placers along beaches, from ore-bearing material that has either fallen from nearby cliffs or brought in by streams discharging into the ocean.

Placer Minerals

The sifting and concentration by gravity is possible only when the mineral is heavier than the surrounding geologic medium, resilient and hard to break down as well as chemically inert in its current environment. Diamonds and gold satisfy these requirements and are the best-known placer minerals; others include monazite, platinum and ilmenite and lesser gems such as garnets. Thorium -- a possible alternate to uranium for fueling nuclear reactors -- occurs in monazite, whereas tin is produced from ilmenite.

Famous Placers Deposits

Gold producing placers are found in western North America -- California, Nevada, British Columbia and the Yukon. Diamonds have been found in placers in Alberta, Canada. Beach sands in Florida host heavy-metal placers. Beach sands in southern India contain vast reserves of thorium, whose energy content exceeds that of the country's uranium reserves. Wind produced placers are found in Australia. Gold placers were first discovered by Europeans in the great Witwatersrand gold mining district of South Africa in the 1850s.

Tags: Beach sands, bedrock disintegrates, have been, Placer deposits, placer deposits, placers found

Controversial Topics About Global Warming

Many scientists conclude that global warming affects the world by melting glaciers and ice sheets.

In 2006 former vice president Al Gore released the documentary "An Inconvenient Truth," which helped to draw the issue of global warming to the political forefront, along with a controversial division along partisan lines. On one side are those scientists and organizations that believe that the climate is undeniably changing and that the change is likely accelerated due to human activity. On the other are those scientists and political pundits who contend that global warming is a myth, based on the evidence readily available in current weather patterns.

Global Warming and Record Cold

With recent record low temperatures recorded in 2010 across regions such as far south as Florida, there are those who question if global warming is actually a myth or a hoax. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA,) this phenomenon was attributed to the short-term temperature variances that are typical of weather, despite an overall warming trend. Per its data, the NOAA concluded that global warming is "unequivocal," and that planet temperatures have risen on average of 1.3 degrees Fahrenheit over the span of the 20th century despite these temporary variances.

Human Effects vs. Mother Nature

The Greenhouse Effect refers to the natural phenomenon where most of the heat that comes from the sun to the earth is trapped in the atmosphere, courtesy of the clouds and greenhouse gases. These are gases that are produced by natural sources, such as water vapor and carbon dioxide, as well as human activities, such as burning fossil fuels. Because of this, the idea that human activity plays a predominant effect on global warming has been under fire by those who deny such a strong connection exists, due to the environmental nature of the greenhouse effect that has endured for millions of years. A report from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) noted that the level of greenhouse gases produced since 1750 has risen dramatically, especially methane, which has risen a whopping 148 percent. This is concurrent with the Industrial Revolution, the "eve" of which occurred in 1760.

Sea Levels and Melting Glaciers

One of the more frightening predictions of global warming is the effect on the world's glaciers and ice sheets. Every continent other than Australia has glaciers or ice sheets that can be affected by the climate change, sometimes very dramatically. Africa's Mount Kilimanjaro has lost ice by 82 percent from 1912 and 2000. The danger of this effect is twofold. According to the National Snow and Ice Data Center, glaciers hold 75 percent of the world's fresh water. The ice melting also threatens to make sea levels rise, and the director of the Institute for the Study of Planet Earth at the University of Arizona in Tucson, Jonathan Overpeck, predicts that even a small rise could threaten nations and cultures that have endured for thousands of years. However, according to a 2009 article in the UK's "Telegraph," Nils-Axel Mörner, the Swedish geologist and physicist who formerly chaired the INQUA International Commission on Sea Level Change, maintains the sea levels have not risen in 50 years.

Natural Pros and Cons

The scientific debate on whether global warming is man-made or natural rages on, thanks to conflicting theories, which fuel the bigger debate on whether changes in human activity can alter nature's course. Whether or not this is the earth's natural way of evolving, then cultures, humans and animals must evolve along with it to survive. If predictions are to be believed, this will be an impossibility for some. The polar bear, for instance, faces extinction due to the negative effects on its environment. According to a 2005 report in "Wired," some benefits include a positive environmental shift for those who face higher mortality rates due to severe cold temperatures. Because of more accommodating temperatures, the economy could be positively affected by longer growing seasons. Fewer frosts and more precipitation are also cited as positive effects.

Tags: global warming, glaciers sheets, human activity, that global, that global warming, According National, along with

What Is The Difference Between Real Gold & Fools Gold

A man panhandling by a stream.

People throughout history have been deceived into thinking they've found gold when they've actually found pyrite, or fool's gold. Even Captain John Smith was fooled; in the early 1600s he sent an entire shipload of pyrite to London thinking it was gold, according to the Utah Geological Survey site. Eventually professional and amateur panhandlers learned to look for certain signs to tell whether they had a fortune on their hands -- or a handful of fool's gold.

Color Depth

Three large gold-colored rocks.

Gold is a metal; pyrite is a mineral, and while they are visually similar, there are significant differences if you know where to look, and test them. Visual clues give the first hint of the authenticity of the nuggets or flakes. Both gold and pyrite are a yellowish, metallic color, but real gold ranges from a golden color to a silvery yellow hue. The yellow of pyrite, on the other hand, is more brassy whether it is a pale or deeper yellow.

Shape and Size

Hands holding a large, golden-colored nugget.

Gold nuggets are not usually very large. It is very rare that cubic gold crystals are found. Octahedral (two pyramids with bases joined) gold crystals are also a rarity. Most often, if it's real gold, you'll find just little flakes or shapeless grains. Pyrite crystals do form cubes, octahedrons and other shapes more often, and sometime have small striations running through them. However, pyrite also can appear as shapeless grains, so there are other methods to test whether you have true or fool's gold.

Smell Test

Pyrite has a sulfurous odor, which smells like rotten eggs. Rub the metal vigorously with something hard, then smell it. If it has an odor, it is probably pyrite. Gold has no odor at all, even after it is rubbed. Pyrite will also give off this sulfurous odor when it is shattered, or thrown against a rock.

Hardness Test

Gold is a soft metal and lacks the hardness of pyrite. You can test which you have by scratching the surface of the mineral with a knife or other sharp surface and then observing. If it it has scratches, you likely have gold. Pyrite does not scratch. The Utah Geological Survey cautions, however, that there is another, very brassy mineral called chalcopyrite that is similar to pyrite -- but is softer and can be cut. Your other tests will weed that mineral out, though. Because gold is soft, it will flatten out or alter its shape when you hit it with a hammer, but it will not break. Pyrite is much harder and your hammer will likely strike sparks from the mineral when you do this test, because of its high iron content.

Tags: fool gold, Geological Survey, gold crystals, hammer will, real gold, shapeless grains

Types Of Rocks In The Rock Cycle

Rocks are everywhere in our world. They're used for buildings, sidewalks, pool decks, landscaping, in jewelry and in nature to create some of the most astoundingly beautiful natural features in the world. We might think of one rock existing in its current state into infinity. In truth, rocks form part of an endless cycle controlled by the Earth's forces of weather, compression, melting and exposure to chemical compounds. Rocks travel through a rock cycle that takes the newest rocks in the Earth in liquid form, transforms them into what we see above the surface and reabsorbs these rocks back into liquid form again.

Liquid Rock

Volcanoes contain liquid rock called magma. This liquid rock moves beneath the earth's surface in areas of convergence of oceanic plates. These areas typically represent areas of high volcanic activity. When pressure increases, an eruption causes magma to flow upward and out onto the Earth's surface. Lava refers to liquid rock at the Earth's surface. Lava can harden as it's exposed to the cooling air to form igneous rock.

Igneous Rock

Igneous rock forms from cooling magma. This type of rock can cool and form beneath the surface as well as above ground. The intense pressure and heat beneath the earth causes the formation of these rocks that often feature fine-grained volcanic rock or open-pored rocks such as pumice. Igneous rock can become the precursor for both sedimentary and metamorphic rocks in the rock cycle due to the forces of weathering, erosion, heating and compression.

Sediments

Despite our impression that rock is a very hard substance, it's subjected to the extreme forces of nature. An integral part of the rock cycle occurs in the sediment phase where igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock break down into smaller fragments. These fragments face weathering, erosion and the extreme forces of compression to form new rocks and land features.

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks form from the millions of fragments of rock sediment that pile at the base of rivers and streams over time. Layers form with repeated additions of all types of rocks, including metamorphic and igneous rocks. As wind and water carry these particles, erosion occurs to the rock itself. Deposition at a final resting-place results in layered rocks such as those seen on the cliff faces of river gorges. Sedimentary rocks aren't always smooth and can contain a variety of shapes and sizes of fragments embedded in the stone. According to the University Corporation of Atmospheric Research, 75 percent of the rocks at the Earth's surface are sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks can change into igneous or metamorphic rock.

Metamorphic Rocks

The rock cycle continuously breaks up, moves and reuses rock fragments. Metamorphic rocks represent the part of the rock cycle involved with intense heat and high pressure. This environment actually changes the mineral composition of a rock to form new crystals. Metamorphic rocks can contain the same substances before heating or can have new minerals added during this stage. Both igneous and sedimentary rocks can be subjected to heat and pressure to make metamorphic rocks.

Tags: rock cycle, Earth surface, liquid rock, Sedimentary rocks, beneath earth, Earth surface Lava

Projects On Floods

Extreme flooding can result in massive property damage.

A flood occurs when land that is not normally covered by water becomes covered. Floods occur due to breaches or overflows in barriers meant to keep water in a contained area. They can also be caused by fluctuation in precipitation and snowmelt. A flash flood is a sudden rising of water that occurs with little warning due to several hours of intense precipitation. Floods can be dangerous and destructive. Projects involving floods can help students begin understanding how floods behave and keep safe in a flood.

Famous Floods

Hurricane Katrina caused one of the most destructive floods in United States history.

Identify a major flood that has occurred in the past 25 years. Research what caused it and the destruction it brought. Look at how local, state, and federal governments responded to the disaster. Find an example of neighbor-to-neighbor aid. Next research how or if the affected community has rebuilt. Note any long-term consequences of the flood and whether the community has made changes so the same thing does not happen again. Prepare a presentation of your research that includes charts, graphs, and pictures. This could be done on a display board or as a slide show on a computer.

Create A Flood

A few toys and a sand table can show students how destructive a flood can be.

Fill a large tray with sand. Form a river channel that winds through the tray. Use clay, small toys, and twigs to form houses, parks, schools, and people along the river. Slightly tip one end of the tray by placing a book under it. Slowly pour water into the channel. Observe how the water behaves. Discuss the concept of water erosion. Now simulate a flood by pouring a large amount of water into the channel quickly. Discuss which structures and people are in jeopardy. Discuss how the people in this town could be protected from floods.

Safety Poster

A flood safety poster can teach children information that may one day save their lives.

Create a safety poster about floods. Divide the poster into four sections and illustrate each one with a safety tip. Use dark markers to print the safety tip below each illustration. Include a key at the bottom of the poster that tells the difference between a flood watch, flash flood watch, flood warning and flash flood warning. Use the back of the poster to write interesting facts or information about floods (for example, flash floods are the number one cause of weather-related death in the United States). These facts can add interest when the poster is being presented to others.

Be Prepared

A first aid kit is an essential part of any emergency kit.

Put together two Emergency Preparedness Kits---one for the home and one for the car. This kit could be used for floods and other emergencies that could result in an extended period of time without power, clean water or access to food. The kit should include a first aid kit, canned food, a can opener, bottled water, a battery-operated radio, a flashlight, matches, and protective clothing. For the car kit, include instructions on what to do in case you are caught in a car during a flood. For the home kit, include instructions for turning off electricity, gas and water.

Tags: flash flood, about floods, flood warning, flood watch, include instructions, into channel

For What Are Index Fossils Used

Fossils are the remains of prehistoric plants or animals that are embedded in rock. These fossils provide scientists with information about each layer of rock where the fossils were found. This information includes the age of the rock or clues to the environment at the time the rock was formed. Geologists and paleontologists use index fossils to compare rocks from different locations as well as to learn the history of life and the Earth. Index fossils can also be called type, key, guide, zonal, diagnostic or characteristic fossils.

Information

Index fossils can provide scientists with specific information. If a fossil lived only during a specific period in history or in certain environments, the scientist can date or characterize when the rock was formed. Index fossils can help determine if types of rock that may appear identical in different locations are parts of the same rock layer or formed during different time periods.

Physical Characteristics

Index fossils that lived in a relatively short time, are extinct or have a distinct evolution line are used for making a time indicator for a rock layer. If the evolutionary process is well documented, the time period can be even more specifically determined.

Geographic Characteristics

Index fossils that lived in more than one location can help scientists to make connections between rock layers found in different locations. The fossils are best if they are fossilized in many different rock types; they are usually types of swimming or floating marine life-forms.

Discovery of Index Fossils

William Smith, a geologist from Britain active in the early 1800s, was the first person to discover index fossils. He realized that rock layer identification was not as reliable when made from rock type. Studying the fossils, he discovered that he was seeing the same fossils in the same order as well as in large geographic areas. His discoveries become known as the principle of faunal and floral succession.

Uses

Scientists can use Smith's principle to detect a sequence of events within rock layers. Fossils can provide a relatively accurate portrayal of the rock formation. For an exact age of a rock, however, a more advanced method of dating such as radiometric dating, where rocks are examined for the exact rate of radioactive decay, must be used.

Tags: different locations, rock layer, Characteristics Index, Characteristics Index fossils, fossils provide, fossils provide scientists

Leisure Railroad Travel In The Western Us

Leisurely railway travel provides a fine opportunity to see notable western locales with more immediacy than air travel affords. Several tours run regularly through portions of the western United States, each with particular attractions for the leisure traveler.

Tour Types

Leisure railway tours that explore portions of the American West come in two basic formats: tours that focus on one particular location of interest and those that focus on various different destinations with a common theme. Most railway tours of the western United States use current-day railroad vehicles but at least one western tour uses refurbished vintage rail cars.

Colorado

"The Train Across Colorado" eight-day railway tour, as described at the Vactionsbyrail website, includes visits to Mesa Verde National Park and the Colorado National Monument. The tour originates in Denver, stopping at Grand Junction, Durango, Alamosa and Colorado Springs. The Train Across Colorado tour uses four scenic railways on historic routes: the Pikes Peak Cog Railway, the Royal Gorge Route Railroad, the Cumbres & Toltec Scenic Railroad and the Durango & Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad, which was judged among the "Top Ten Most Exciting Train Journeys in the World."

Five National Parks

Amtrak offers a "Best of the West--Five Great National Parks" 14-day railway tour. On the Best of the West tour, passengers have the opportunity to visit Glacier National Park, Yellowstone, Grand Teton, Arches and Canyonlands National Park, as described at the Vacationsbyrail website. The tour originates in Chicago, Seattle or Portland on the "Empire Builder." On the 13th day, travelers transfer to the "California Zephr" for a ride through the Colorado Rockies, described by the BBC as "one of the top ten train rides in the world."

West Coast

Amtrak offers a vacation package as a non-escorted tour to explore the West Coast, starting in Seattle and stopping in San Francisco and Los Angeles. The "West Coast Spectacular" departs daily and incorporates a 10-day itinerary; on certain days travel to the Napa Valley wine country can be included. The California Wine Country tour can be substituted if the Napa Valley tour is not available on a particular day. The package can be extended to visit San Diego or the Grand Canyon.

Grand Canyon

The Grand Canyon Railway Tour travels from Williams, Arizona to the south rim of the Grand Canyon and back, a 130-mile trip. It allows for a three-hour, 45-minute stay at the canyon. This tour enhances the traveling experience by using refurbished vintage railway cars. Guides aboard the vintage train provide visitors with historical and other information on the area and on the Grand Canyon itself, as described at the Arizona-leisure website.

Tags: Grand Canyon, National Park, West Coast, Across Colorado, Amtrak offers, Canyon Grand

Conserve Natural Resources

The progress of modern civilization has had a profound impact on our planet's natural resources. Thankfully, there are many simple steps you can take to conserve water, oil and trees. Does this Spark an idea?

Instructions

Take Steps to Conserve Water

1. Exercise restraint when watering your lawn. A lawn sprinkler system can spray thousands of gallons of water into your yard in the average month. Instead of planting a garden that requires constant maintenance, consider using plants that are native to your natural environment.

2. Wash your car with a bucket of soapy water instead of a garden hose. A hose can waste as much as 150 gallons each time it's used to wash a car. That can add up quickly when you consider the number of vehicles owned by the average American family.

3. Conserve one of our most precious natural resources by installing energy-efficient showerheads and faucets. These spouts help to restrict the flow of water and can greatly reduce the amount used in a month. To conserve even more water, consider taking showers instead of baths.

Conserve Oil With Your Car

4. Attend to all of your vehicle's scheduled maintenance needs. Work with a trusted mechanic to keep your vehicle running smoothly and efficiently. While you may have to invest in modest amounts of oil, coolants or other automotive fluids, the costs and energy expenditures associated with major car repairs are far greater.

5. Use motor oils that boast a low multi-grade rating. Consult your vehicle's owner manual for detailed information on the recommended kinds of motor oils. Your owner's manual will detail a range of acceptable multi-grade oils.

6. Switch to environmentally friendly hybrid vehicles. The continued depletion of our planet's natural resources has made hybrid cars a viable choice for suburban moms and hippie environmentalists alike.

Help to Conserve the Planet's Forests

7. Participate in your community's recycling programs. Implement a recycling program at your office too.

8. Buy products manufactured with recycled paper. Many companies use their reputation as recyclers to attract business from eco-conscious customers.

9. Reuse junk mail and scraps of paper whenever possible. Instead of pitching old envelopes, use them to keep notes or make grocery lists.

Tags: natural resources, your vehicle, motor oils, owner manual, planet natural

Earth Science & Geology Projects

Studying geology allows you to do projects on the earth.

Earth science and geology go hand in hand, because earth science includes the various formations and specifications of the earth and land, and geology is about rock formations, the earth's crust and the natural elements of earth. In fact, depending on your curriculum and what you are asked to teach, earth science and geology might contain the same information. There are several projects you can do that incorporate both earth science and geology.

Research your Area

Your area has a unique geology in terms of the physical makeup of the area in which you live. Is it swamp land? A forest? A desert? Are there mountains or trees or valleys? Research the unique geological makeup of your area and discuss it in a paper or presentation. Discuss aspects of the land, including your elevation; the rivers, lakes and streams; and your ecosystem. You can also make a poster that lists the various types of landforms and ecosystems in your area.

Mapping Areas

Pick a specific area of the earth and research the geology of the area, and then choose a second specific area that is vastly different and research it as well. Create a relief map of both areas using different colors or designs for different landscapes, elevations and types of earth elements. Display the two maps to show your class. Write a short paper on the two landscapes and how they differ. You can also find ways that they are similar and discuss those as well. You might choose a desert and a mountain, or a valley and a forest, but explore the differences in the areas while doing the project.

Historical Time Periods and Changes

At many times during the earth's history, geological changes have occurred that have changed the makeup of the earth. Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and shifting of the earth's plates have created differences in all areas of the earth. Choose a specific time period and research the geology of that time. Discuss important events, even if they are speculated events, in a project form. For instance, you might create a map of what scientists estimate the earth looked like during the time of Pangaea, and then explore the changes that would have had to take place to break apart the continents. Or, you might look at a specific volcano, such as Pompeii, and create a project that is a map of what the area looked like before and after the volcano erupted.

Effects on the Earth

Humans have an effect on the science and geology of the earth. Things such as pollution and deforestation can change ecosystems and areas of the earth. Do a project on one of these human elements, and research what the effect of that on the earth really is. For instance, create a display board that lists the effects of deforestation in a particular area.

Tags: science geology, earth science, areas earth, differences areas, earth science geology, looked like, research geology

What Are Six Properties Of The Earth

Earth is the only planet with liquid water on the surface.

The third planet from the sun, Earth has countless properties that make it unique from the other planets and planetary bodies within the solar system and within the Milky Way galaxy. It's one of four rocky planets along with Venus, Mercury and Mars and is the fifth largest planet behind Neptune, Uranus, Saturn and the largest, Jupiter.

Composition

Earth is the densest major body in the solar system at 5.52 grams per cubic inch. It's composed of 34.6 percent iron, 29.5 percent oxygen, 15.2 percent silicon, 12.7 percent magnesium, 2.4 percent nickel, 1.9 percent sulfur and 0.05 percent titanium.

Solar System Placement

Earth is positioned within the "habitable zone" of the solar system at 92,957,130 miles, making Earth unique within this solar system. This zone is defined as the distance from the sun where water can be found in solid and liquid form. If Earth were in Mercury or Venus' position, its atmosphere and water would evaporate. If Earth were pushed out to the position of Mars or further out near the gas giants, it would be too cold to sustain liquid water or life.

Dimensions

Around the equator, Earth is 7,926 miles in diameter and 24,902 miles in circumference. From pole to pole or along the Meridional axis, Earth is slightly smaller at a diameter of 7,899 miles and with a 24,860-mile circumference. This is due to the Earth's rotation, which causes the Earth to bulge at the equator and flatten at the poles, creating a shape called an oblate spheroid.

Rotational Properties

Earth leans on a 23.5-degree angle from vertical, rotating on that axis once every 24 hours at 1,000 miles per hour.

Surface Properties

Earth's surface is covered with 71 percent water. This liquid water is essential for life and is also responsible for the erosion experienced on Earth's land masses. The effects of erosion and tectonic plate movement have rendered Earth's surface younger than the actual age of the planet by about 500,000,000 million years. In other words, the Earth is believed to be 4.5 to 4.6 billion years old; however, the oldest known rocks are four billion years old, with rocks older than three billion years being rare.

Earth's Layers

Earth's layers comprise five unique zones called the crust, upper mantle, transition region, lower mantle and the core. The crust reaches down 24 miles and is composed primarily of quartz. The upper mantle, where 4.043 of the Earth's 5.52 gram per cubic centimeter mass is held, is 224 miles thick and is composed of olivene and pyroxene (iron/magnesium silicates). The transition zone is 250 miles thick and is the region where liquid magma begins to harden while subducted mantle rock melts into magma. At 403 miles below the surface, the lower mantel is composed of mostly silicon, magnesium and oxygen with trace amounts of iron, calcium and aluminum. Found at a depth of 2,167 miles, the core is composed of iron with some nickel and is the source of Earth's magnetic field due to its churning.

Tags: solar system, billion years, liquid water, Properties Earth, diameter miles

Christmas Cabins In Wisconsin Dells

Celebrate Christmas in a cozy cabin.

Wisconsin Dells, located just an hour northwest of the state capitol of Madison, is known for its indoor and outdoor water parks, shopping, restaurants, golf as well as three area state parks. However, this popular tourist destination is also a winter wonderland that offers skiing, indoor amusement parks and ample winter lodging for couples or families celebrating Christmas away from home.

Christmas Mountain Village

Christmas Mountain Village is a family vacation spot in a secluded and heavily wooded countryside. A ski hill is nearby. Tubing and cross-country skiing is plentiful. Guests can choose from several cabins, all featuring amenities such as fireplaces, hot tubs, full kitchens, televisions and DVD players. Cabins sleep anywhere from four to eight guests, and families can cook their own meals or walk to Mulligans, the on-site restaurant. Special accommodations can be satisfied for families looking to celebrate the holidays together.

Christmas Mountain Village

S944 Christmas Mountain Road

Wisconsin Dells, WI 53965

608-253-1000

christmasmountainvillage.com/index.cfm

Spring Brook

Spring Brook offers vacation homes set on 360 acres of wooded land. Guests can choose among fully furnished cabins that feature one to six bedrooms and, depending on the cabin, can sleep up to 14 guests. The cabins feature various amenities such as fireplaces, washers and dryers and whirlpool tubs. Families can even find pet friendly accommodations. Winter visitors can enjoy community amenities such as the indoor pool, whirlpool, game and recreation center, tanning bed, fitness studio and the Northwoods Bar & Grille which is located on-site and features a dining room with a fireplace. Cross-country skiing and snowmobile trails are located on the property.

Spring Brook

242 Lake Shore Drive

Wisconsin Dells, WI 53965

877-228-8686

spring-brook.com/

No Boundaries Resort

The No Boundaries Resort features several fully furnished cabins, with a total property capacity of 28. Some cabins are connected by wooded trails to accommodate larger families. Some cabins feature game rooms, fireplaces, hot tubs and free Wi-Fi. Christmas lights adorn these picturesque log homes during the holiday season. Visitors can enjoy skiing or snowmobile rentals as well as hiking trails. The resort is a short drive from downhill skiing at Cascade Mountain, bowling, shopping and restaurants.

No Boundaries Resort

County Road G

Oxford, WI 53952

608-577-2570

noboundariesresort.com/home.html

Tags: Christmas Mountain, Wisconsin Dells, amenities such, Boundaries Resort, Christmas Mountain Village, Mountain Village

Use Apologia

Apologia Science courses provide home-schooled students with science curriculum based on Christian doctrine.

Apologia stems from the word "apologetics," which means to defend one's faith and Christian doctrine. Apologia refers to the teaching strategies, specifically in the area of science, geared toward students educated in the home. The purpose of the Apologia science curriculum is to give students a scientific education of the world around them based on Christian principles, as a means of learning to defend their faith.

Instructions

Teaching and Applying Apologia

1. Purchase course curriculum from an Apologia Science provider (see Resources), selecting a curriculum that covers several areas in scientific study, such as archaeology, geology, astronomy, botany, zoology, biology, chemistry and others.

2. Choose courses for your child that meet credit requirements in preparation for higher education. For example, Apologia Physical Science typically meets the requirements for an eighth grade course. Most curriculum providers will notify you of what credits a course meets.

3. Progress the curriculum at your child's pace for learning. Many Apologia programs omit a course schedule to accommodate a child's individual learning process. If you choose to implement a study schedule yourself, programs providers such as Apologia Education Ministries have 16 modules in each course book and recommend two study weeks for each module. They recommend students use days one through seven for the reading, "on your own problems" and experiments, followed by spending days eight and nine on the study guide and taking the test on day 10.

4. Keep track of your child's progress through the lessons. Keep in mind that many Apologia providers design the courses for independent study, writing the text as if a teacher is providing instructions and lesson details conversationally, including the outlined experiments. The purpose of this process with Apologia Science is to give parents the ability to teach the courses even if they lack a knowledge on scientific methods based on biblical doctrine.

5. Read the Apologia curriculum yourself to understand the lessons and how they apply to your belief system. Ask your child questions that someone outside of your belief system might ask and help your child develop responses based upon the things he learns through Apologia course work and experiments in order to defend the Christian doctrine.

6. Grade your child's course work according to the grading scale and instructions provided in the teacher section of the Apologia curriculum.

Tags: your child, Christian doctrine, Apologia curriculum, Apologia Science, based Christian

Uses Of Satellites In Disaster Management

Uses of Satellites in Disaster Management

Prevention

The uses of satellites in disaster management are becoming more integral to reducing reaction time and providing accurate information to rescue and disaster control operations. Satellites are used in disasters for communications, remote sensing and mapping. Meteorological and storm warning satellite technology can help with predicting disasters and setting up precautionary activities. U.S. Landsat Earth-observation satellites collect data in conjunction with NASA and the Department of the Interior's U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to forecast weather-related disasters, manage floods, monitor large fires and determine which areas are at risk for landslides. They can analyze climate changes and map areas for relief operations with the data collected from the satellites.

Communications

Satellite communications are increasingly used to transmit information back and forth in remote areas that do not receive cell phone reception. Government agencies and relief organizations can receive up-to-the-minute reports to send help where it's needed most. In disasters that destroy local infrastructure, satellite communications are the only option for getting information out quickly. Satellite phones are easy to carry and make good portable communications devices. Mobile satellite terminals can easily be set up in disaster zones to facilitate good coverage. The International Telecommunications Union is a division of the United Nations that makes satellite technology available to countries that experience mass disasters and need immediate links set up at the disaster sites.

Internet

High-speed Internet access can be switched to satellites in the event of a disaster. Many businesses are incorporating back-up systems that would rely on satellites in the event of a major disaster. First responders can react to communications sent out by a firm that is hooked up to satellite Internet sources. Emergency crews can utilize satellite Internet options when their communications systems are down as a result of a major catastrophe if they are prepared. Real-time audio and visual capabilities can help relief crews locate and respond to emergencies with the proper equipment and resources. Local and state emergency operations should incorporate a back-up satellite program for disasters. As a free public service, the Satellite Industry Association provides public safety and first responder organizations with a guide to using satellite technology in disasters, the equipment needed to set up solid satellite Internet solutions and training in the language and use of the latest equipment. In addition, emergency applications can be integrated into everyday use if the costs are too prohibitive to keep the equipment solely as a back up. High-speed satellite connections can be incorporated into any business or government agency, providing access to the technology when it's needed most.

Tags: satellite Internet, satellite technology, Disaster Management, needed most, Satellites Disaster, satellites event, Uses Satellites

Oil Rig Jobs & Salaries

Offshore oil rig jobs require workers to live on-site for weeks at a time.

On-shore and offshore oil rigs are some of the largest structures in the world. Oil rigs are installed on land or in large bodies of water to drill and collect petroleum. Oil rig operators, geologists, drillers, engineers and project managers all work together to ensure that the machines and equipment used to extract crude oil from the earth and ocean floor run efficiently and with minimal error.

Work Environment

The work environment for oil rig workers varies depending on their role. Engineers usually split their work days between the office and well sites. Drillers and construction workers responsible for oil extraction work on-site in unusual and sometimes dangerous work conditions. For example, some oil wells are located offshore in seas or oceans, requiring workers to live on work sites for weeks at a time. Drilling jobs can be demanding and require workers to climb, lift heavy objects and operate hand and power tools. Also because these jobs are located outside, oil rig workers are exposed to extreme and unfavorable weather conditions.

Types

Some of the job titles that fall under oil rigs include oil well drillers, project managers, petroleum engineers and estimators. Drillers fall under heavy labor and trade roles, while engineers and geologists analyze the statistics and research needed for locating oil wells. Administrative and professional roles usually include project managers and executives who manage and oversee exploration projects.

Educational Requirements

Most employers prefer drillers and other extraction workers with high school diplomas or vocational training. However, a formal degree or certification are usually not required for these positions. Oil rig employees who focus on construction and repair work must have completed vocational training or possess previous work experience on oil rigs. Professional positions such as geologists, engineers and corporate occupations require at least a bachelor's degree in engineering, geology or one of the physical sciences.

Average Salary

According to a December 2010 PayScale.com survey, oil well drillers made an average salary of $126,700 per year. In comparison test hole drillers earned $47,166, construction estimators earned $39,305 and petroleum engineers earned $78,250 annually. The same report stated that project engineers made an average salary of $72,867 during the same time period.

Job Outlook

The Bureau of Labor Statistics' Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010-11 Edition, predicted that mining jobs, which include oil rig workers, will decline 14 percent from 2008 to 2018. The BLS attributed this drop to factors such as fluctuating market prices for raw materials, which are closely linked to job growth. Emerging economies -- particularly China and India -- will likely experience increasing demands for oil, gas and other natural resources to satisfy their growing populations. Also, more sophisticated technological and drilling methods will increase productivity levels and decrease employers' need to hire additional workers.

Tags: project managers, fall under, made average, made average salary, petroleum engineers, require workers, vocational training

Identify Texas Rocks

There are various kinds of rocks found in Texas, such as sandstone and the Texas holey rock. Texas also has plenty of sedimentary rocks that can be found on the surface while others take some digging in the ground. If you go to the coast of Texas, you will be able to find many beautiful rock formations that were developed from the pressure of the water. Texas even has some rocks that have been in the ground for billions of years. Here are several types of rocks you can find while in Texas.

Instructions

1. Search in the southeastern region of Texas such as Brownsville or Corpus Christi to find sandstone rock. This is a sedimentary rock that is found on the surface and is one of the most common of rocks. Sandstone is composed of rock grains and minerals. It has about 50 percent quartz and feldspar. Common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, gray and white.

2. Look in the western region of Texas such as Midland or Odessa to find agate rocks: moss agate, bouquet agate slabs, marfa bouquet black skin, and moonlight gemstone to name a few. These are recognized as agates by their brightness in color and their fine grainy texture. They can be considered volcanic rock or metamorphic rock. To locate this kind of rock requires some digging.

3. Search for non-foliate rocks in the desert area of Texas such as the Chihuahua desert, which is located in far southwest Texas. These rocks are smooth and do not have layers. Hornfels and marble are two rocks that are non-foliated, yet completely different from each other. Hornfel is gray and can easily be overlooked due to its bland color while marble has an outstanding crystal-like appearance. It is white and composed of calcium carbonate.

4. Search for layered foliated rocks near the ocean, rivers, and lakes throughout Texas. Look in Galveston by the beach located in the southeast region of the state or near rivers or lakes such as Lewisville Lake or Lake Ray Hubbard in the northern region of Texas. You can even go to the Brazos River, which is located in northern Texas. Phyllite and gneiss are examples of foliated rocks. Phyllite is a metamorphic rock made up of fine-grained mica. Gneiss has a sanded appearance and is made up of granula mineral grains. It has quartz and feldspar minerals in it and has an elegant look with a white and black or gray coloring

5. Search in north central Texas (Dallas or Fort Worth) to find blue quartz, or the llanite rock. It has light blue cores or spots on the dark blue surface. It is one of the heaviest rocks around. Granite can also be found in this hilly area--it has a coarse texture with various colors such as pink, dark gray or black.

6. Look in fish tanks and you will find the Texas holey rock. This rock is made up of limestone and dolomite that has carbonate minerals and calcite. This rock was developed from minerals that were deposited on top of each other over thousands of years. It developed holes when the earth moved and fractured it. Water was then able to flow through the cracks, developing holes as it dissolved the limestone. They appear like a honeycomb and have a soft smooth texture. The Texas holey rock can be found near the waters of Corpus Christi in the southeastern region of the state.

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Set Foundation Into Bedrock

Bedrock is the firmest material for your foundation.

There is no better foundation for a building than bedrock, which is simply the solid rock that makes up the earth's crust. It is typically found under other materials such as sediment, soil and vegetation, or seen exposed on hilltops. Although it is not as common for building directly upon as soil, bedrock is relatively simple to build on safely, and will no doubt hold up better and longer than materials more vulnerable to time and the elements. Does this Spark an idea?

Instructions

1. Sweep away any loose sediment over the entire area to be enclosed and covered by the foundation, and plot out the shape of the foundation on the bedrock with the measuring tape and permanent marker. Make marks every 1 to 2 feet with the marker along the perimeter. These will be for the steel rods to go into the bedrock

2. Drill about 3 feet into the marks on the bedrock, and use the air compressor to clear the holes of dust and debris. This will allow for a better bond between the rods and the cement.

3. Place the ICFs along the entire perimeter. Use the utility knife to cut the foam to fit along the shapes of the bedrock surface. Use the level to make sure the ICFs are cut correctly. Move the ICFs temporarily back off the perimeter so you can set the rods into the bedrock.

4. Set the 6-foot rods into the 3-foot holes and fill the areas around the rods with the anchoring cement. Place the ICFs back over the perimeter so that the rods stick up between the foam walls.

5. Tie the rods securely with twine to the reinforcement framework within the ICFs. Tie them so that they lift up just a little in the holes to help create a solid bond all the way around them in the holes. This will also help to keep them in place while the concrete is being poured.

6. Fill any gaps between the bedrock and the ICFs with the quick setting expanding foam. Once the anchoring concrete and expanding foam are dry, you are ready for concrete to be poured into the ICFs and over your foundation.

Tags: rods into, cement Place, cement Place ICFs, expanding foam, into bedrock

Universities & Colleges In Fort Worth Texas

Fort Worth, Texas is home to nine colleges and universities.

As of 2011, nine colleges and universities are located in Fort Worth, Texas. Several of them offer full undergraduate and graduate programs, while other institutions that use the word "college" are actually career-preparation schools that offer certificate or diploma programs. Some of the schools offer distance learning or study-abroad programs.

The College of Saint Thomas More

The College of Saint Thomas More is a liberal arts college in the Roman Catholic tradition. Founded in 1981, the college offers bachelor's degrees in theology, philosophy, literature and classical studies. The curriculum is based on the "great books" tradition, and includes study trips to some of the "great places" of Western intellectual tradition: Oxford, Greece and Rome.

Texas Wesleyan University

Operated by the United Methodist Church, Texas Wesleyan University has been offering a traditional liberal arts education since 1890. Its campus is located minutes from downtown Fort Worth. Students can earn bachelor's degrees in general business, mass communications, political science and sociology. Graduate degrees are offered in business administration, education and health science.

Texas Christian University

Founded in 1873, Texas Christian University enrolls around 9,000 students each year in 118 different undergraduate areas of study as well as 56 master's programs and 21 doctoral programs. Undergraduate degrees include aerospace sciences, child development, neuroscience, secondary education and sports broadcasting. Students can also choose to study abroad in London, Florence or Seville.

Westwood College

Focusing on practical education, Westwood College provides each student with a team that can help her choose a career path and reach her goals. The campus offers diplomas and bachelor's degrees, plus an accelerated bachelor's program that allows a student to complete the program within three years. Some of the available degree programs include graphic design and multimedia, information technology, criminal justice, business administration and medical assisting.

DeVry University

DeVry University's Fort Worth campus is located inside the DR Horton Tower in downtown Sundance Square. Students can choose to take classes on campus, online or both. Bachelor's and master's degrees are offered in business and science. Bachelor's degree options include accounting, criminal justice, operations management, computer forensics and web-game programming. Master's degrees can be earned in business administration and project management at DeVry's Keller Graduate School of Management.

Tarrant County College

With an enrollment of about 45,000 students, Tarrant County College is the sixth largest Texas college. It offers two-year associate's degrees and continuing education programs for those already in the workforce. Degree programs include music, chemistry, geology, journalism, history, nursing, psychology and culinary arts.

Remington College

Located along the East Loop 820, Remington College offers students career-focused training. The college offers several degree programs that can be completed in a year or less, such as medical assisting, pharmacy technician and medical coding and billing. Two-year associate degrees are also offered in criminal justice, digital graphic art, and computer and network administration. Some classes may be taken online.

Kaplan College

Offering flexible schedules to its students, Kaplan College grants career-related diplomas in dental assisting, medical assisting, and medical office specialist, as well as an associate's degree in criminal justice. Classes can be taken during the day or at night, with some available online.

Everest College

Located close to downtown Fort Worth, Everest College awards associate's degrees in business and for its dental assistant, medical assistant and paralegal programs. Counselors are committed to assisting graduates with interview skills and resume preparation.

Tags: Fort Worth, criminal justice, associate degrees, bachelor degrees, business administration, college offers

Ways To Minimize Earthquake Damage

Although you cannot prevent an earthquake, you can get ready for it.

According to the U.S. Geological Survey, there are more than 3,000 earthquakes per year worldwide that are a magnitude 5.0 or stronger, which is strong enough to cause widespread damage. Hundreds of thousands of smaller earthquakes mostly go undetected. Even a low-magnitude earthquake can damage your home. Simple steps can make your home less likely to be damaged during an earthquake. Most, too, can be done in a weekend.

Secure Your Water Heater

An upended hot water tank causes extensive water damage and increases risk of fire. Secure your water heater to the wall using long metal straps called retrofit water heater brackets, the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency, or FEMA, advises. Attach one strap near the top and one at the bottom of the heater. Secure the straps to studs in the wall. If your water tank is gas-powered, have a flexible gas supply line instead of a rigid one that can snap during the movement of an earthquake.

Anchor Large Furniture

Attach large bookcases, china cabinets, desks and filing cabinets to the wall, FEMA suggests. Use anchor brackets screwed directly into wall studs to keep this furniture from tipping, damaging the contents and landing on other items below. Attach computers and other small appliances to desks and countertops.

Prevent Fires

The threat of fire is very real after an earthquake. Homes with gas appliances are especially at risk. Check your gas lines regularly for leaks and cracks. Use only flexible connections for all gas lines, the City of Pasadena, California, states. Brace propane tanks and gas cylinders using metal brackets or long straps. Store all chemicals and flammable products on low shelves and cabinets with latched doors. Secure your stove to the wall using an L-bracket on the back.

Additional Small Fixes

Install latches on cabinet doors, drawers and cupboards to keep them from opening and spilling their contents. Move heavy objects to lower shelves with latched doors. Hang all pictures and mirrors with a hook drilled into a wall stud and close the hook to secure. Mount a shelf guard or a small piece of wood strip along the front edge of shelves to keep items from sliding off. Confirm that all ceiling fans and lighting fixtures are mounted to ceiling joists, according to the City of Pasadena. Add additional bracing where needed. Hang heavy mirrors and pictures away from beds and sitting areas.

Tags: City Pasadena, into wall, latched doors, wall using, water heater, water tank, with latched

List Of Science Experiment Books For Kids

Science experiment books are fun for kids.

Science experiments help foster interest among children about science, from chemistry to physics to geology. There are a number of books that have lists of simple, safe experiments that kids can perform in their own homes or backyards using household items. Few of these require adult supervision and provide a method for parents and kids to do an educational activity together.

"365 Simple Science Experiments Book"

The "365 Simple Science Experiments Book" is the companion book to the popular "365 More Science Experiments," both of which fill an entire year with different science experiments that kids can do every day. Kids will learn basic scientific concepts, covering everything from nature to physics to time to chemistry. This book is recommended for kids 8 and up, as strong reading abilities are necessary to do many of these science experiments properly.

"Science in Seconds for Kids: Over 100 Experiments You Can Do in Ten Minutes or Less"

"Science in Seconds for Kids: Over 100 Experiments You Can Do in Ten Minutes or Less" is a collection of quick and simple science experiments using materials most kids can find around the house. The experiments are grouped into subject areas or chapters such as gravity, water, air and light. These are the themes of each experiment and instructions are easy to understand, helped by black and white drawings and clearly noted when adult help or supervision is needed. While the experiments in the book aren't always terribly exciting, they are definitely educational.

"The McGraw-Hill Big Book of Science Activities: Fun and Easy Experiments for Kids"

"The McGraw-Hill Big Book of Science Activities: Fun and Easy Experiments for Kids" is a fully illustrated, colorful book for kids and parents to do science experiments together with supplies they can find around the house. From making earthworm farms to launching plastic bottle rockets, there is a ton of science for kids (and adults) to learn in the 250 experiments outlined in this book. These experiments demonstrate real laws of chemistry and physics and the principals of plant biology, geology, meteorology and geology.

Tags: Activities Easy, Activities Easy Experiments, around house, Book Science, Book Science Activities, chemistry physics

Install Gale

Use Gale software to produce problem-solving geological models.

With Gale coding software, you can create two-dimensional and three-dimensional computer models to help solve problems related to plate tectonics and the movement of the Earth's crust. Gale is free, open source software, so you won't need to buy a license to use the program. After downloading and installing Gale on your computer, launch the program with the computer's Command Prompt tool.

Instructions

1. Launch your Web browser. Go to the Gale software download page at Geodynamics.org.

2. Click on the link to the latest release of Gale in the Binaries section.

3. Click the "Save" or "Save As" button in the download confirmation dialog box. Gale's executable files and program files are compressed in a ZIP archive file.

4. Go to the computer folder that contains the downloaded Gale ZIP file. On most PCs this is the "Downloads" library folder.

5. Right-click the ZIP file and then select "Extract All" from the context menu. Windows unpacks the contents of the ZIP file into a new folder with the same name as the downloaded file.

6. Click "Start," select "All Programs," "Accessories" and then "Command Prompt" to open the Command Prompt utility.

7. Type "Gale-2_0_0.exe input/cookbook/yielding.json" into the prompt and then press the "Enter" key on your computer's keyboard to launch the program.

Tags: Command Prompt, Gale software, launch program, your computer

College Requirements For A Marine Biologist

The college requirements for a marine biologist aren't that different than the requirements of any science, but they may be harder to find as not all locations are conducive to learning about the ocean and ocean life. Depending on your career choice, commercial or conservation, you will want to find a degree from associate's level to master's level, or possibly even a Ph.D.

Time Frame

If you want to major in marine biology in college, you need to start preparing in high school or even before. Keep a high GPA and take as many science and math classes as possible.

Potential

In order to become a marine biologist, you may need to go beyond a Bachelor's degree in science and complete a Master's degree as well. It may only be possible for you to take a general biology undergrad program and then specialize later on--that's okay.

Math

Calculus and statistics are important classes for you to take. Marine biologists need to focus on math just as much as science.

Science

Don't focus only on biology. While it is obviously important for you, physics, chemistry, ecology and geology are all sciences that relate to the field.

Internships

If at all possible, get a summer internship that is related to marine biology. It doesn't necessarily have to be out at sea. Instead, find a local aquarium and see what they need volunteers to do.

Warning

Slacking off in English classes to focus on math and science won't help you. A marine biologist needs to be able to communicate clearly and your writing skills will be judged just as critical to your success.

Misconceptions

Marine biology isn't all dolphins and whales. The marine ecosystem is complex and varied and you may not get what you expect. Do your research.

Tags: marine biologist, focus math, marine biology

Panning For Gems In Virginia

Amethyst crystals are just one of the many minerals that can be found in Virginia.

With over 400 minerals within its borders, the state of Virginia is a true playground for the avid rock and gem hunter. These minerals range in difficulty of recovery. Some may seem almost impossible to dig out of hard matrix rock. For those with more interest in finding Virginia's gemstones than power to wield a mallet and chisel, panning for gemstones is often a very welcome alternative method of hunting for many types of specimens.

Panning Gemstones

When people think of panning, they most often think of gold panning. You can do that in Virginia. There is a lot of gold in the tributary streams of the Potomac river. You can also pan many gemstones that can be found in the state as well, though. Some of the state's gemstones, such as halite, a sulfate, will dissolve in water. Those that do not dissolve, such as beryl or quartz, can have the crystal form worn down by the currents and necessitate other means than form to identify. Desirable gemstones such as sapphire and garnet are excellent gemstones to pan.

Panning Equipment

Panning equipment can be bought or easily made. You can buy classifiers that have any size grid you prefer. They can be purchased for around $10. You can build a screen sifter yourself by building a wood frame with a one or two-inch depth around a screen. Cut a thirteen-inch square of screen. Cut eight two by four lengths of screen. Four of the boards should be a foot long and four should be eleven inches. Frame the screen with the boards on all sides and over and under, pressing an inch of screen between them, then nail the top and bottom of the frame together. You will need a shovel to scoop material for panning.

Pan Gemstones

In a stream bed, dig material to pan, and put it in your screen or classifier, then submerge the screen and shake the dirt and debris from the pan. Sort through the cleaned material for gemstones. If you are in an area that the gemstones may be weathered from a rock outcrop or cliff, dig at the bas, and put the dirt in a bucket. Take the bucket to a creek, and pan through the material, just as you would if you had dug the material from a creek. If you want instruction on panning gems, you may want to visit a fee dig, such as the Morefield Gem mine in Amelia, Virginia.

Where to Hunt

Minerals can be panned in many areas of Virginia. Amethysts are found in Amherst County South of the town of Amherst. In Amelia County garnets, pyromorphite and topaz can be panned along with moonstone, beryl, tourmaline and quartz. In Sussex County, east of the fall line, petrified wood can be found in the gravel deposits of many of the rivers. Corundum (sapphire) is a favorite of Virginia gemstone panners. It can be found in the streams of Patrick, Henry, Campell and several other counties of the state. Remember to dig a little ways for sapphire, because it is heavy and will sink toward bedrock.

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Get A Good Job Working On An Offshore Oil Drilling Rig

Get a Good Job Working On An Offshore Oil Drilling Rig

The offshore oil and gas industry is booming right now as energy companies are required to drill in deeper and deeper waters to keep up with worldwide demand. High salaries can make up for the time spent away from home and there are more positions available than typical "roughneck" jobs.

Instructions

1. First learn about the industry as a whole. It is cyclical and hiring for oil and gas jobs is sporadic. Even as the economy recovers the offshore oil and gas business continues to grow as companies such as Noble and Transocean drill in deeper and deeper waters around the globe to meet growing demands for oil and natural gas. Hiring has slacked off a bit but some offshore drilling companies are still advertising.

Find your niche in the industry. There are many layers of companies and individual skills that come together on a single rig. In many cases the rig is owned by one company and is under contract to a large company such as Chevron-Texaco or medium sized oil companies such as Chesapeake that has hired it. The rig in turn, contracts everything from boats to cooking and laundry services to keep it going, while the oil company has to hire service companies such as Halliburton or Schlumberger to perform such services as pumping cement in the well, sending probes down hole to analyze rock formations for oil and gas, etc. Determine what jobs suit you and prepare a well written resume.

2. Prepare your family for the change an oilfield job will bring. It cannot be stated enough that a person needs to be either single or have a stable home life before taking a job in the drilling industry that can potentially keep them away from home sixty days or more in extreme cases. Typically an oilfield worker that is working for the rig itself can expect to work a rotation of one to two or more weeks "on" and a week or more "off" on most jobs. On the rig shifts are typically in 8 to 12 hour "tours" pronounced strangely enough "towers". Service companies may or may not remain on the rig for the duration of the well. A mud - logger, who collects and analyzes the cuttings that come up from the drill bit, may remain on the rig for the duration of the well, while a wire line operator for a company like Schlumberger, (pronounced slum ber jay) may be called to the well at specific points during the drilling to inspect rock layers for oil and gas after they have been drilled.

3. Consider offshore oil rig jobs as well. If you are mechanically or technically inclined and don't mind hard work and travel there are numerous employment positions offshore. Persons with engineering or science degrees may find it easier to start out higher on the salary scale for a service company such as Halliburton but even if you only have a skill such as automotive maintenance there are jobs on the rig that a person could get without prior experience. Usually a person working on the rig crew (without any prior oil field experience) will have to start out at the bottom of the scale as a roustabout. A roustabout does whatever odd jobs around the rig he is directed to by the "tool pusher" or rig boss or by the driller or other higher ranking crew member. He may be asked to paint, sandblast, carry bags of drilling mud, all the lowest jobs. Any new crew member with no experience starts out as a "worm". Don't be offended, everyone on the rig was once a worm themselves.

4. Be prepared to eat humble pie for several months. From "worm" the crew member can work his way up the ladder, even to the top job of tool pusher with many more years of experience. The tool pusher, or rig boss, has usually held every position on a rig crew at least once in his life. For a mechanically inclined person the job of motorman is to keep all the motors and equipment maintained and running.

Prospective oilfield workers need to read up on the industry and get a feel for where they may belong. boods such as " A Primer of Oil Well Drilling" are a good start. While rig crews, rougnecks, are still mostly a men's only club, there are exceptions. Today there are a few women employed working for service companies such as Baker Hughes, Halliburton, Weatherford and Schlumberger. Try and find the area where your skills will match the position. If you are a technical geek who also doesn't mind getting his hands dirty then there are technical jobs keeping up rig electronics and operation well logging and mud logging equipment.

Sites such as rigzone.com have job postings. Entry level jobs that can get you in the door with minimal skills are jobs such as mud logger trainee, sample catcher, roustabout, galley hand, etc. Jobs for those with chemistry experience are those such as the mud engineer for a company such as Newpark Drilling Fluids. He is responsible for making large batches of drilling fluid in tanks, formulating it for the needs of the hole depth, etc, using chemistry skills and equipment. Almost any job working on an offshore oil drilling rig, from rig electronic technician to mud engineer will require manual labor and heavy lifting.

5. Prepare to relocate upon getting hired. At first you will probably need to move to where there is a hub of offshore activity, and a concentration of drilling companies, such as the Louisiana, Mississippi or Texas Coast. Companies are usually not willing to pay service hands to fly to home but rougnecks and drillers working directly for the rig, as they work up the career ladder and become more valuable, may be able to claim transportation to a home that is somewhere far inland. It is different for Service hands employed by companies that provide essential services to rigs such as well logging, they are usually "on call" 24-7 and will need to have a travel bag ready and be able to be at the dock or heliport with very short notice. There are American oilfield workers working in every corner of the globe and job postings on rigzone.com in countries from Russia and India to Brazil. A rig overseas may have workers from a couple dozen countries onboard. Experienced workers who have worked their way up the ladder may enjoy thirty days off for working thirty days, effectively making salaries of $150,000 or more for half a years work. Avoid oilfield employment agencies. There are many ripoffs out there and you will end up giving a large chunk of your pay for several months to them. Cold calling on service and drilling companies works and so does sending tons of resumes that indicate you are willing to do whatever it takes, travel, working from the bottom up, etc to become a valuable employee. This is not an industry for lazy people so if you are looking for a cushy job where you can put you feet on a desk, this is not it.

For more oilfield employment resources and job postings see the sites in the resource section below.

Tags: companies such, company such, crew member, drilling companies, tool pusher, away from, away from home

Gems Of Oregon

Agate is a banded gemstone.

Stop into any jeweler and the choices of gemstones are almost unlimited. But before gemstones make it to the glass case they are mined and polished. The United States has many gemstone mining sites, one of which is Oregon. Oregon is home to sunstone, agate and jasper. Oregon also has a large obsidian flow due to the volcanic activity in the area.

Sunstone

Sunstone can be either yellow or red. Sunstone's color comes from the amount of copper in the ground. Yellow sunstone has only 20 parts of copper per million parts. Red sunstone has 10 times that amount at 200 parts per million. Sunstone comes from weathered lava. It is also the state gem of Oregon.

Agate

Agate is a semi-precious stone that occurs worldwide. It comes in different shades of white, gray, brown, green and blue. Agate is a porous rock that is easily dyed, which makes its colors more vibrant. Agate's colors are usually banded, similar to tree rings. Agate is in the same family as jasper.

Jasper

Jasper is a semi-precious stone and a type of quartz. It comes in red, brown and green, and also comes in different patterns. Patterns and colors vary depending on where the jasper is found. These variations are so drastic that each type of jasper is named according to where it is found. Oregon is one of the main suppliers for jasper.

Obsidian

Obsidian is a type of volcanic glass. It does not have any crystal structure. Obsidian is formed when lava is cooled quickly, usually when lava meets a water source. Obsidian comes in several colors, such as black, red, green and variations of gold. It can also come with multiple colors, known as rainbow obsidian. Snowflake obsidian has small, white particles inside the rock.

Tags: brown green, comes different, comes from, semi-precious stone, when lava

5th Grade Science Experiments About Rocks

Teach students about how the Earth is formed of rock layers.

Earth science is a key part of the fifth grade curriculum, and students are often asked to participate in various projects to learn more effectively. The study of minerals and rocks opens a door to a number of interactive projects and experiments. These hands-on projects will help students learn the basics of what rocks and minerals are essential for in their lives.

Discover a Meteorite

Have students collect an assortment of rocks and excite them with the possibility of finding a meteorite. Instruct them to look for rocks that have a thin black rind. Meteorites are sometimes very shiny or sometimes matte black. Make students aware that the exterior features of a meteorite make up what is called a fusion crust. Students can use a magnifying glass to look closely at the rocks for what appears to be thumb shaped indentations that are created when meteorites melt while entering the Earth's atmosphere. Meteorites are also known to have iron in them and that can be tested by passing magnets over them. Advise students that if the magnet attracts the rock that there is metal in the rock sample.

Test Mineral Hardness

Equip students with a penny, iron nail and a metal file. Have students study a variety of rocks and educate them on determine the hardness of each sample by using The Mohs Scale of Mineral Hardness. Explain that this scale was developed by German scientist, Frederich Mohs and is often used by prospectors to test the hardness of minerals that they find. For instance, if a prospector finds what appears to be gold, it could be just iron pyrite or "fools gold." Hardness can be tested by scratching the rock with the various tools. Gold would be much softer than the pyrite in this case. Download and print a chart like the one featured in the list of references titled, "Mohs Scale of Mineral Hardness." Use the chart to help students classify their samples based on the scale.

Focus on the Earth

To help students better understand the layers of rocks and minerals that make up the core of the Earth, have them build models that focus on the geological process that compacts materials together. Provide students with layers of aluminum foil, loose materials such as sand or bits of powdered graphite, two boards and a hammer so that they can create models of the various layers of the Earth between the sheets of tin foil. Once the layers are formed, have the students place the layers between boards and hammer them downward to mimic the pressure of the Earth. Have the students record what takes place when the hammering action occurs.

Experiment with Texture

Procure a rock tumbler if possible and use it to offer an example of how rocks become smooth over time with the effects of the environment. Challenge students to make a tumbler of their own by providing them with empty coffee cans or paint cans with lids on them. Have the students fill their containers with enough sand to fill one quarter of the container and enough water to fill three quarters of the container and then add a handful of rocks to the mix. Make it a daily activity for the children to vigorously shake their containers for one week. At the end of the week have the children record and share their results.

Tags: Have students, help students, Mineral Hardness, boards hammer, layers Earth

What Does Nonfoliated Mean

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks, such as marble, lack bands or layers.

Metamorphic rocks form beneath the earth's crust, where they experience high temperatures and pressures as well as ongoing chemical processes. There are two types of metamorphic rocks: foliated and non-foliated.

Non-Foliated Rocks

Metamorphic rocks such as quartzite, amphibolite, hornfels and marble are examples of non-foliated rocks. They have a non-banded and non-layered appearance.

Foliated Rocks

Schist, gneiss, slate and phyllite are examples of foliated rocks, which have a banded or layered appearance.

Formation

Non-foliated rocks form through recrystallization of single-mineral sedimentary rocks, usually those that have been touched by magma. This happens beneath the earth's crust, usually less than 20 kilometers deep. Foliated rocks can occur on the earth's surface due to weathering or uplift.

Characteristics

Non-foliated rocks are usually hard and dense. They can possess swirls of color due to impurities in the original sedimentary rock that did not participate in the recrystallization.

Occurrence

A non-foliated rock usually occurs near deposits of its parent, sedimentary rock. For instance, marble is a non-foliated metamorphosed version of limestone and usually occurs near limestone deposits. Similarly, quartzite typically occurs near quartz sandstone, and hornfels is often found near shale.

Tags: occurs near, beneath earth, beneath earth crust, earth crust, metamorphic rocks, Metamorphic rocks

Find Planets In The Night Sky

You can track planets based on which constellation they are near.

The night sky is filled with constellations, clusters of stars, the moon and planets. It provides an opportunity for star- and planet-gazers to observe celestial objects millions of light years away using locator tools and the naked eye. Since scientists and astronomers have accurately mapped the movements of all the planets we see in the sky, online websites provide free tools to identify a planet's location in the sky during the nighttime hours.

Instructions

1. Use longitude and latitude coordinates to pinpoint a planet's current position in the night sky. Depending on your location on Earth, the planet's position will differ. Use an online planet coordinator to help you identity the planet's position from your current location.

2. Visit the Planets in the Sky website, which offers printouts as a map to the night sky. The guide allows you to find constellations and any visible planets at that time. The information from "Planets in the Sky" also tracks the right ascension along with the exact coordinates of a planet. The right ascension, or RA, represents the planet's distance and direction -- north or south -- from the celestial equator.

3. Find an interactive sky charts website. Select the constellation that contains the planet. Using the constellation map provided by the website, track the dot that represents the planet. Go outside on a clear, dark night and hold up your map relative to the north direction and look for the planets.

4. Look for planets with your naked eye. Planets are closer than stars and will generally be brighter in the night sky. According to Martin Powell, author of "The Naked Eye Planets," Uranus was visible to the naked eye during the months of January, October, November and December 2010, while Mercury wasn't visible at all. Online astronomy forums and news offer information regarding which planets can be seen in the upcoming months. So just stand outside, look up and seek out a shiny, bright planet that closely resembles a star.

Tags: planet position, represents planet, right ascension

Birthday Card Ideas For Science Teachers

Give your science teacher a birthday card to show your appreciation.

A birthday card for a science teacher can provide a thoughtful way to show your appreciation. Be creative, and try to focus your card's theme on the particular kind of science in which the teacher specializes; use your knowledge if the teacher's sense of humor (or lack thereof) to determine whether or not you want to make the card funny or serious.

Chemistry

If your teacher specializes in chemistry, base your card's theme on that field. For instance, incorporate images and symbols that relate specifically to chemistry, uch as the periodic table, molecules, protons and neutrons, as well as lab equipment such as beakers and Bunsen burners. Use a clever statement for the inside of your card that shows you've been paying attention in class, such as "Holy mole-y, I can't believe it's your birthday!" or "I hope your birthday isn't a Bohr."

Biology

From the circulatory system to DNA strands to the study of amoebas, you can find plenty of sources for inspiration in the scientific field of biology, so you should be able to find a creative theme for your card. Draw a frog looking nervously at dissection tools and write, "Hope your day is 'hoppier' than this guy's!" Or draw a picture of a diagram of the parts of a flower and write, "You deserve to celebrate your birthday in 'style!'"

Physics

Use images and symbols from the field of physics to make a special card for a physics teacher; include famous physicists, concepts such as entropy and deceleration, or elementary particles such as quarks, depending on the material you've covered in class. For example, make an Einstein-themed card with a famous inspirational quote for a more serious tone, such as his famous quote "Intellectual growth should commence at birth and cease only at death." The inside message could read, "Here's to many more years of intellectual growth." For a funny card, write something to the effect of, "So how many light-years old does this make you?"

Geology

Make a geology-themed card for a teacher who's absolutely mad about the composition of the Earth. Base your card on geological subjects such as plate tectonics, volcanic eruptions and the different kinds of rocks and minerals. Write something like, "I hope your birthday rocks!" or "Have a gneiss birthday!" You could also draw a diagram of the Earth's internal structure and write, "Hope your birthday is hardcore!"

Tags: your birthday, your card, birthday card, card theme, hope your birthday

6th Grade Earth Science Projects

Earth science is the study of how the Earth works.

Earth science -- the study of the Earth -- involves disciplines such as meteorology, geology and oceanography. The composition of the various elements of the planet Earth are one of the main concerns of Earth science, a popular unit in elementary and middle school science classes. A variety of science projects are available for sixth-graders that allow them to explore and learn about the way the Earth works.

Volcano Model

Volcanoes are a source of fascination for children, and sixth-graders will love making their own erupting volcano model to demonstrate how layers of the Earth are created. This can be done easily by shaping modeling clay or dough around an empty plastic soda bottle or film canister. To reduce the mess, attach the volcano base to a cardboard box or a pie plate. If you're using dough, the model can be painted to resemble a real volcano once it dries. Add red food coloring to white vinegar to give it the appearance of lava before pouring it into the plastic crater. The volcano model will erupt with the addition of baking soda to the vinegar. Have children experiment with different amounts of vinegar and baking soda.

Earth Model

Another engaging project for sixth-graders is a model of the Earth. Have students research the characteristics of the different layers of the Earth before cutting a large Styrofoam ball in half. The Styrofoam ball represents the Earth and, being divided in half, will show the different layers, such as the crust and mantle. Students can then map out the layers of the Earth on the flat side of the Styrofoam ball as accurately as possible and paint each layer a different color. A black permanent marker can be used to label each layer.

Fossils

Students will enjoy studying the formation of fossils, which are evidence of previous life that has been preserved in areas of the Earth's surface. Have your sixth-graders make a modern-day example of a fossil that forms in mud. Items that can be used include leaves, seashells and snail shells. Mix some plaster with a small amount of water so that the mixture is relatively thick. Spread the mixture onto a sheet of cardboard or into the bottom of a shoe box so it is approximately an inch thick. Coat the items being used in petroleum jelly and press it down gently into the plaster. Allow the plaster to dry and remove the items to find fossils.

Fresh vs. Salt Water

The temperature at which water typically freezes is 0 degrees Celcius or 32 degrees Fahrenheit. However, according to The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, saltwater, such as ocean water, freezes at lower temperatures than freshwater. Sixth-graders can demonstrate this by filling two plastic cups with equal amounts of water and adding four spoonfuls of salt to one. The cup with the saltwater should be labeled appropriately. They then should place both cups in the freezer and monitor them once every hour for four hours before allowing them to sit overnight. A final observation should be made in the morning. Have students take notes regarding the differences between the cups; while the freshwater will freeze solid, the saltwater will not.

Tags: layers Earth, Styrofoam ball, baking soda, different layers, each layer, Earth science