What Landforms Come From A Continental Glacier

A glacier found on land is called a continental glacier.

During the Ice Ages that occurred in Earth's history, ice and snow covered huge swaths of the land and ocean before retreating once more toward the poles. Sometimes this happened more than once in a lot of places. There are parts of the world, such as Greenland, that are still covered with glaciers. When they happen on land, they're called continental glaciers. When they move, they produce depositional landforms such as moraines, eskers, kettle ponds, drumlins and outwash plains. They also produce erosional features.

Moraines

Moraines are the scientific term for all the rocks and debris left behind when a glacier has either moved on, or melted back. There are eight kinds, but only six of them remain once the glacier is gone to make up landforms. Those six are ground, lateral, medial, push, recessional and terminal. Ground moraine is simply where stuff gets washed out from under the ice, where it meets the ground. Lateral moraine is found at the sides of the glacier where it has broken up the earth as it has advanced or retreated, like a finger drawn in the sand. When two glaciers meet, they can sometimes get a dark stripe down the middle; this is called a medial moraine, and it's caused by two laterals combining. If a glacier retreats and then advances again, that is the only way to get a push moraine, and you can usually tell by the way the rocks have been pushed up from being horizontal. Recessional moraines form at the very ends of the still-retreating glacier because it's paused for long enough to let the debris pile up. The same method is used to produce a terminal moraine, but with this type, the glacier didn't move again -- it's the furthest extent of the ice.

Outwash Plains

The outwash plain is the usually flat land located beyond the terminal moraine. As the glacier melts, it produces a lot of water. This water flows across the ground between the ice and the earth, picking up debris as it goes along. Usually this debris is sand and silt, small stones, and the like. It gets washed out from beneath the glacier and across what is called the outwash plain. In many places where glaciers still exist, this sandy soil is used for specialized farming. One of the best places to see this type of formation in the U.S. is in Michigan.

Drumlins

Drumlin creation is still debated amongst geologists and geographers today, but several theories do exist. They all have to do with glaciers. A drumlin is a streamlined hill that can be found behind large moraine complexes, like an inverted spoon with the blunt end facing toward where the glacier has come from. There can be many of them, and they tend to form on slightly rounded or flat land, but not always. They are parallel to the direction the glacier is going, but perpendicular to the ice margin itself. The best place to see them is in Ireland; however, there are plenty of drumlins in Canada, New York and even North Dakota.

Eskers and Kettle Ponds

Eskers are ridges of gravel and sand that occur whenever a continental glacier melts away. Often, these glaciers have valleys or rivers running through them; however, instead of their bottoms and banks being the earth, they're all ice. When the ice melts, it leaves behind the long ridges and piles of sediment. North Dakota has one of the best-known eskers in North America: the Dahlen Esker. Another formation is the kettle pond. If a large block or chunk of ice from the glacier happens to break off and bury itself in the sediments the ice has kicked up, it will later melt and leave a large hole. Usually, water will then fill it to create a small lake.

Erosional Landforms

Not all landforms are depositional. Erosional landforms are created by the glacier's process of erosion as it pushes on and scrapes across the earth. These can include striations, cirques, glacial horns, aretes, U-shaped valleys and hanging valleys. The cirque is the headwater of the glacier; where it begins. As the glacier moves, it cuts out striations, or scrapes, on the bedrock that can be seen today. If more than one glacier erodes the same mountain, it will create a horn, or pyramid-shaped peak. Aretes are related to horns in that two glaciers erode the same peak, only they give it a very steep-sided and sharp-edged ridge. If a glacier moves through where a river has already carved out a V-shaped trough, it will widen the bottom out to a U-shape, thus creating a U-shaped valley or glacial trough. Hanging valleys happen when a much larger glacier creates a deep valley (as the size of one determines how deep it can carve out stuff), but a smaller glacier joins it and can only create a smaller one higher up.

Tags: called continental, continental glacier, flat land, gets washed, gets washed from, glacier melts, glacier moves

Identify Silver

Silver has been used to make coins for thousands of years.

Silver is a naturally occurring metal, exhibiting a white brilliancy and high electrical and the highest thermal conductivity. Silver is most often found in a gold alloy ore and is also extracted as a byproduct in the processing of copper, nickel and zinc. Silver is commonly used in currency, jewelry and silverware. The pure metal is combined with copper to decrease ductility. However, the alloy must contain at least 92.5 percent silver to be labeled as such.

Instructions

1. Sterling silver jewelry and silverware should be stamped with the words "sterling," "ster," "sterling silver," or "925." Look on the clasp or underside of item to find these markings. If the piece does not have any of these markings, it is likely silver plated.

2. Apply a magnet to the suspected silver. If the magnet sticks, the piece contains high amounts of iron and is not silver.

3. Silver develops silver sulfide on its surface from exposure to hydrogen sulfide in the air. If the suspected silver appears to have this tarnish, rub it with a cloth or clean the tarnish with a baking soda paste, such as toothpaste. You should see a fine luster appear and the cloth used to clean it should exhibit black marks if it is true silver.

4. Put on protective gloves and place a drop of nitric acid on the piece. If the spot becomes green, it has a high copper content and is not silver.

Tags: jewelry silverware, suspected silver, tarnish with, these markings

Why Is Water An Important Molecule To Living Things

Water has unique properties that allow it to sustain life.

Water is an essential molecule of life. One molecule of water contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The molecule is polar, meaning that it has negative and positive poles. Since oxygen has a high affinity for electrons, the end of the water molecule with the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge while the side with the hydrogen atoms has a slight positive charge. Water molecules are used by all sources of life for different purposes, as its polarity gives it many unique and useful properties.

Cellular Respiration

Water is a product of cellular respiration. In the mitochondria of cells, energized electrons travel down a cascade of proteins called the electron transport chain. The energy is stripped from the electrons and used to actively transport hydrogen ions, or protons, out of the mitochondria. The protons then reenter the mitochondria through an ATP (adenosine triphosphate) synthase, creating energy for the cell. The electrons that traveled through the electron transport chain are accepted by oxygen gas molecules, which then attract hydrogen ions inside the mitochondria to form water.

Photosynthesis

Water is a necessity in photosynthesis. Water enters plants through the stomata, which are microscopic openings found at the bottom of the plant's leaves. In the process of photosynthesis, plants energize electrons by absorbing light before sending them down an electron transport chain to create adenosine triphosphate. Plants take electrons from water to replenish their stocks of electron particles. The adenosine triphosphate is required to produce glucose. Without water, plants would not have an influx of adenosine triphosphate to fuel photosynthesis.

Body Temperature

Thermoregulation is the body's system to mitigate large and quick temperature shifts and control body temperature. The main tool the body employs in thermoregulation is water. The high specific heat of water provides insulation. Enormous amounts of heat are needed to significantly shift the temperature of water. Since the human body is 60 percent water, people have the ability to live in a wider range of climates. Furthermore, sweating in high temperatures also cools the body down, as evaporating water helps release body heat.

Weather

Water helps regulate global temperatures. The high specific heat of water coupled with the 70 percent water composition of Earth gives the planet a very wide and stable range of temperatures. As water evaporates and condenses, it helps to regulate the temperature of certain regions of Earth. When water evaporates, heat is transferred from the surface to the atmosphere. When water condenses, it rains and can transfer the heat from the atmosphere back to the surface of Earth.

Tags: adenosine triphosphate, electron transport, electron transport chain, transport chain, heat water, helps regulate, high specific

What Is A Skilled Technical On The Asvab

Skilled Technical is an Army line score for the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB). The ASVAB test is made of nine sub-tests, and line scores reflect the total scores for specific groups of sub-tests. For example, the Skilled Technical line score is the sum of the general science, verbal expression, mathematical knowledge and mechanical comprehension scores. High ST line scores are required for enlistees interested positions such as aviation operations specialist, civil affairs specialist or information systems operator.

General Science

This section tests basic knowledge in the life, earth and physical sciences. Some key topics covered include nutrition, the human body, genetics, geology, astronomy, physics and chemistry. A review of basic high-school science textbooks should help you earn a strong score.

Word Knowledge

Upon entering the Army, soldiers have to absorb huge amounts of written information quickly and accurately. For this reason, the word knowledge and paragraph comprehension scores ( which are combined together to create the verbal expression score) are weighted double in the Armed Forces Qualification Score (AFQT), which determines overall eligibility for acceptance into military service.

The key to scoring well on the word knowledge portion of the test is to build up the vocabulary by reading books and magazines as much as possible and always keeping a dictionary nearby. Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) vocabulary flash cards are also helpful.

Paragraph Comprehension

The paragraph comprehension section tests the enlistee's ability to read a passage, recall relevant information and then answer questions on the passage. As with the word knowledge sub-test, the best preparation is reading. Reading comprehension is like a muscle: its ability withers away without practice. SAT verbal test prep guides can help build reading comprehension skills.

Mathematical Knowledge

Most technical trades require a solid foundation in mathematics. The mathematical knowledge sub-test draws upon math skills learned in middle school and high school. Enlistees should review concepts such as equations, inequalities, probabilities, word problems and both plane and solid geometry. This information is accessible through high school texts or SAT math preparation books.

Mechanical Comprehension

Finally, test takers must have a thorough understanding of mechanical concepts if they want a high Skilled Technical score. To move successfully though training for technical jobs, soldiers should familiarize themselves with Newton's three laws of motion, the concept of force, the difference between weight and mass, mechanical advantage, simple machines, friction and hydraulics.

Tags: Skilled Technical, word knowledge, comprehension scores, high school, knowledge sub-test, line score

What Are Some Natural Disasters

Tornado alley sees many twisters every year.

Natural disasters are usually described as the events causing widespread destruction of property or life caused by the natural functions of the planet. Weather and geological forces cause natural disasters. If a disaster strikes in a place that is heavily populated, such as when Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans or when the major earthquake struck Japan in 2011, the results can be catastrophic.

Tornado

Tornadoes involve intense winds springing from a funnel cloud in the sky. When a physical wind twister descends from the funnel cloud to wreak havoc on the ground, it is called a tornado. Essentially, an intense low-pressure area forms and then the winds whip around it at incredibly high speeds. Within a tornado, wind speeds reach between 300 and 500 miles per hour. "Tornado Alley" is a strip in the central United States that sees some of the most frequent and deadly tornadoes in the world every year. It stretches southward from South Dakota to Northern Texas.

Hurricanes

Hurricanes are intense storms that combine high winds, rough oceans and torrential rains. In the United States, hurricanes occur all along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts. Approximately five hurricanes strike in a normal three-year range. Like a tornado, a hurricane is formed by a low-pressure system. Hurricanes typically appear in tropical regions. Tropical storms are a lesser grade storm than a hurricane and are upgraded to hurricane status when wind severity increases. Hurricanes are named from a predetermined naming list. The most infamous hurricane in the first decade of the 21st century was Katrina, which devastated the city of New Orleans.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes are caused by the motion of the tectonic plates that form the crust of the Earth. These plates have a natural motion that is impeded by the rough edges of the plates grinding against each other. Pressure builds from that natural force until the plates finally slip. The pressure created is released in the form of an earthquake, which results in the shaking of the ground itself. Earthquakes are measured on the Richter scale, which rates earthquake intensity by a number from 1 to 10. The earthquake that struck Japan in March of 2011 measured a 9.0 on the scale.

Volcanoes

Volcanoes are another natural disaster caused by geological forces under the crust of the earth. Volcanoes are the points in the earth where the molten magma of the earth's core reaches the surface. If the magma is too thick, the gas that naturally tries to release through the liquid cannot, and causes a pressure build up. When the pressure builds too much, a massive explosion results. This causes landslides, explosions of lava and massive clouds of dust in the air.

Tags: every year, from funnel, from funnel cloud, funnel cloud, geological forces

Create A College Lesson Plan For Forensic Science

Forensic science can be related to almost any college course.

Forensic science is the application of science to the solving of crimes. Any science, whether it's chemistry, botany or even geology can be turned into a forensic science. College professors should be sure to educate students on the potential uses of their focus subjects by coming up with lesson plans that illustrate forensic applications of science to students. Unless the class is specifically a forensic science class, though, a lesson or two will suffice to drive the point home.

Instructions

1. Decide how you're going to relate forensic science to your class. For instance, a biology class could cover how blood left at a crime scene can be analyzed to help identify the person who left it there at a later date. A physics class could discuss ballistics and reconstruct the path of a bullet based on evidence left behind at the scene. Even geologists can identify the soil and rocks left wedged in a tire's treads to see if they're indigenous to the area that the vehicle was found in, and if not, where they could have come from.

2. Outline the lesson. Just like a paper, you should outline the lesson to make sure you hit all of the important points before getting down to the details. Explain what forensic science is, how it relates to your field and give some examples of what forensic scientists do in your field. There should be an introduction, a body and a closing, just like an essay.

3. Fill in the details. Treat the lesson plan as if it was a speech that you were going to give to your class, and you want to make sure you have all the points down and all your grammar straight. Also, decide if you want to have an educational activity to give the class a hands-on feeling. As an example, an art class could have students pair up and have one student describe a person who committed a crime. This gives the students a chance to recreate a face like a police sketch artist. Alternatively, you could stage a crime scene and ask the students to collect evidence and based on what they find, recreate the crime.

Tags: class could, forensic science, could have, crime scene, Forensic science

What Kind Of Landforms Did Glaciers Make In Michigan

Western Michigan's beach dunes attract summer tourists.

Most of the topography in the entire state of Michigan was formed by glacial activity that began nearly two million years ago. The state features diverse landforms, from low mountains in the north to sand dunes along the western shore to fertile farmlands in the southern part of the state. Long before geologists interpreted Michigan's glacial history, American Indians spun their own stories about some of Michigan's more dramatic glacial landforms.

The Sleeping Bear Legend

The Sleeping Bear Dunes captivate visitors with their beauty, but an Indian legend weaves a magical spell and commemorates the reason for the park's name. Long ago, a mother bear and two baby cubs were driven into Lake Michigan by a raging fire on the Wisconsin shore. After swimming for hours, the bear cubs fell behind. When the mother bear reached land, she climbed a bluff on the Michigan shore and anxiously watched for her cubs to arrive. The mother bear fell asleep while she waited, and the cubs drowned in sight of the shore. The Great Spirit, Manitou, marked their watery graves with two islands, and the giant dune overlooking the islands covers the sleeping mother bear.

Wisconsin Glacial Age

Folklore gave way to geologic study. Scientists now know that most of Michigan's land formations occurred during the Wisconsin Glacial Age between 9,500 and 15,000 years ago. Glacial ice functioned like a semi-plastic medium, deforming and flowing under pressure. Picking up rocks along the way, the glacial flows formed hills, plains and coastal dunes. The rock movement carved out the Great Lakes basins and blocked normal river drainage. The Wisconsin ice dramatically changed the face of Michigan's landforms.

Glacial Landforms

Five major landforms emerged after the glacier's receded. Till plains of fertile soil form a gentle, rolling landscapes. Lake clay plains prevail in southeastern Michigan and feature rich, clay soil. Northern Michigan's outwash plains consist of poor soil. The upper peninsula features many rock outcrops, forming hills and mountains in the western Upper Peninsula and the flat limestone features of the eastern upper peninsula. Throughout northern Michigan, hills, streams and lakes shape Michigan's private and public recreational land. Sand plains stretch along the state's entire western shoreline, creating numerous sandy beaches that rival Hawaii's famous Waikiki Beach.

Back to Sleeping Bear

The Sleeping Bear Dunes manifest one of more dramatic types of sand dunes left by glaciers. Called a perched dune, the Sleeping Bear sand mass rests high on a plateau and overlooks Lake Michigan and the Manitou Islands. The lakes, lowlands and bays prevalent in nearby counties help make tourism Michigan's second largest industry. As the glaciers retreated from Michigan, the land rose up and formed the undulating forests and lakes typical to the area. Some of Michigan's dune lands continue to shift, covering live forests and then uncovering them again, leaving barren ghost forests scattered throughout a constantly changing landscape.

Tags: Sleeping Bear, mother bear, Bear Dunes, Lake Michigan, Michigan land, more dramatic

Get Gps Coordinates From A Topo Map

GPS units are handy for all sorts of outdoor activities.

For decades topographic maps have been the gold standard in location information for hiking and other outdoor sports. In the past decade, however, hand-held GPS (Global Positioning System) units have become far more widely available and have replaced paper maps for many users.

In an area without roads or other landmarks, however, finding specific points on the ground with GPS may require calculating coordinates from a paper map. Once you know the a map point's coordinates, finding that same point with a GPS becomes a matter of comparing the GPS coordinates of your current position with those of the target.

Instructions

1. Accurate location of the target point is essential.

Locate the target point on the topographic map.

2. Locate the latitude-longitude coordinates of the map, which are printed on the corners (example: 95°15'). Latitude is printed even with top and bottom edges of a map and longitude is printed centered on left and right edges.

3. Locate latitude-longitude ticks on the map edges. These are short lines projecting outward from the map border. Ticks are labeled with latitude (left and right edges) or longitude (top and bottom edges). The degrees value is commonly omitted, so only minutes and seconds values are used (example: 12'30'').

4. Locate internal latitude-longitude ticks, which are small crosses, within the body of the map. These mark points where latitude lines drawn between tick marks of equal latitude cross longitude lines. Make a box around the target point by connecting the four closest tick marks.

5. Determine box width in seconds of longitude. A degree of longitude has 60 minutes, and each minute has 60 seconds. Example: one edge of the box is at 94°12'30'' and the other is 94°15' so the box is 150 seconds wide. It is also 150 seconds of latitude tall.

6. Measure the width of the box with a ruler and record. Measure the distance from one edge of the box to the target point and record. Divide the second number by the first: the answer must be less than one. Example: box is five inches wide and target is 1.5 inches from edge; the answer is 0.30

7. Multiply the answer times the box's width in seconds. Convert the product to minutes and seconds to obtain longitude difference in seconds--e.g., 150 seconds times 0.30 = 45 seconds. If you measured from the right edge, add 45 seconds to the longitude of the right edge. If measurement was from the left edge, subtract 45 seconds from the longitude of the left edge. Record the point's longitude.

8. Repeat the process to obtain the point's latitude. If you measure from the bottom to the target, add the latitude difference to the latitude of the bottom edge; if measured from the top, subtract. Record the longitude.

9. Convert the minutes and seconds of each number to decimals. Divide the number of seconds by 3600 to do this. Example: for 95°5'17''divide 317 (5 minutes times 60 seconds plus 17 seconds) by 3600. The decimal equivalent is 95.088055° (record at least five decimal places).

10. Enter latitude and longitude of target location in GPS unit.

Tags: target point, minutes seconds, bottom edges, edges longitude, from edge, latitude-longitude ticks, left edge

What Types Of Crystals Are There

Types of Crystals Vary by Shape

The discipline is called crystallography, but the beautiful shapes and colors have been prized by collectors for centuries. Crystals are minerals with repeated and organized structure that are classified according to color, symmetry and shape. Some shapes are familiar, such as cubes and rectangles, but geologists organize crystals by the symmetry of their axes in order to classify unfamiliar shapes that are difficult to describe without a picture.

An Introduction to Axes

Three axes, all perpendicular, all the same length.

A cube has three axes, all perpendicular to each other and all the same length. A rectangle, on the other hand, is defined by three axes, all perpendicular, but only two are the same length. If this is a little difficult to visualize, the best descriptions and drawings of three-dimensional shapes are found in geometry books.

Isometric

Salt is an example of an isometric crystal.

Isometric crystals are cube-shaped and are the most symmetrical of the six crystal types, making them easy to identify. However, a cube-shaped crystal may be modified and still be considered cube-shaped. For example, a cube whose corners are all neatly shaved off is still a cube.

Hexagonal

Two hexagonal crystals

Hexagonal crystals are longer than they are wide and have six sides all the same length. Sapphire is a hexagonal crystal. Hexagonal crystals are also easy to recognize and among the most prized for pendants and decorating chandeliers.

Tetragonal

Tetragonal crystals are shaped like a three-dimensional rectangle. They have three axes, all perpendicular, but only two are of equal length. Apophyllite is an example of a tetragonal crystal.

Ortorhombic

Orthorhombic crystals look like a rectangle at first glance, but are different. They have three axes, all perpendicular, but all different lengths. Golden Topaz is an example of an orthorhombic crystal. Although its internal structure is orthorhombic, most jewelry made of Golden Topaz would be difficult to identify as such once it's cut into the familiar shapes of most rings and pendants.

Monoclinic and Triclinic Crystals

Monoclinic and triclinic crystals are the most difficult to describe by shape and axes, but examples are Gypsum and Orthoclase respectively. While many crystalline minerals are valued for their beauty and usefulness in jewelry-making, gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate) is used mostly for making plaster and drywall.

Tags: axes perpendicular, same length, three axes perpendicular, axes perpendicular only, difficult describe, Golden Topaz

Good Field Trip Ideas For Albuquerque New Mexico

Engage students in learning activities on a field trip in different places in Albuquerque.

The city of Albuquerque, named after the Duke of Albuquerque, viceroy of New Spain, is a historical, cultural and commercial center. Field trips to various Albuquerque attractions are suitable for students in all grade levels. These trips allow students to learn about different topics in a setting outside the classroom in the city nicknamed, "The Duke City."

ABQ BioPark

Take students on a self-guided field trip to the ABQ BioPark, (no website; 903 10th St. SW, Albuquerque; 505-764-6200) which is comprised of the Zoo, Aquarium and Botanic Garden. Students can learn about hundreds of animals from around the world in the 64-acre zoo; hold sea creatures in the touch pool and see both fresh- and salt-water dwellers in the aquarium; and learn about different kinds of plants ion 36 acres in the botanic garden. Students can eat lunch in the the BioPark's Cottonwood Park, Plaza or Festival Green. Public and private schools, day-care centers, home school groups, and university classes of at least 10 students are eligible for a group discount.

Explora Science Center

Go on a field trip to the Explora Science Center (explora.us), where students from pre-K through 12th grade can learn about science, technology and art. In the one- or two-hour Exhibit Exploration, an Explora educator will guide students as they explore hands-on exhibit activities. The hour-long Classroom Explorations give students a hands-on approach to learn about physical materials. Students can watch an educational play about science in the Explora Theater and ask the actors questions and explore the set after the performance. Programs are also available in Spanish. A chaperone is required for every six students, and if you need an extra chaperone, Explora can provide one for an additional fee.

New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science

Use your own materials or museum-designed scavenger hunts or worksheets during a field trip to the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science (nmnaturalhistory.org). The museum has a chaperone-led dinosaur scavenger hunt for elementary students to help them learn about the dinosaurs in the museum. Museum Hall worksheets are available for elementary and middle school students and teach kids about the permanent exhibits in the museum. "Biology in the Museum" is an activity for middle school and high school students to use their observation skills to write down what they learned about biology from the museum's exhibits. A chaperone is required for every six students.

Open Space

Students will learn about the importance of major public open space land and protecting the environment through outdoor programs offered by various parks. On a field trip, to the Open Space Visitor Center (no website; 6500 Coors Blvd. NW; Albuquerque; 505-897-8831), students can see interpretive displays and participate in guided educational programs. The Elena Gallegos Picnic Area and Albert G. Simms Park (no website; 3615 Los Picaros SE; Albuquerque; 505-452-5200) offer guided interpretive walks for schools year-round and service projects where kids can learn about the environment, including trail maintenance and trash cleanup. Guided educational programs in the 138-acre Los Poblanos Field (no website; west of 4th Street on Montano Road and north on Tierra Viva Road; 505-345-4580) teach students about maintaining agriculture. Students learn about geologic and cultural history in Boca Negra Canyon (nps.gov) through interpretive talks and service projects, such as trash pickup and trail work.

Tags: learn about, field trip, about different, about science, chaperone required, chaperone required every, educational programs

The Causes Of Chemical Weathering

Rust on rocks weathered by oxidation.

As rocks and minerals shift and move from the Earth's womb to the surface, the subjection of the surface environment that causes the breakdown and alteration of these rocks and minerals results in weathering. A springboard for other geomorphic and biochemical processes, weathering provides an important impact on the Earth's surface. Chemical weathering, in particular, causes changes in the chemical and mineralogical make up of different materials. Essential environmental factors for weathering lie in temperature and climate.

Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis, according to the "Encyclopedia of Earth," happens when water and rocks and minerals meet. The reaction that occurs between the two forms a solution that decomposes the original material. In this process, new compounds form and pH increases through the release of hydroxide ions. Silicate and aluminosilicate minerals prove especially susceptible to this cause of chemical weathering due to the presence of electrically charged crystal exteriors. When the silicate mineral, potassium feldspar, undergoes hydrolysis, it forms into a clay mineral.

Oxidation

Another cause of chemical weathering, oxidation transpires between compounds and oxygen. According to the University of Wisconsin Department of Geology and Geography, oxygen dissolved in water then combines with metallic elements. The formation of rust in red to brownish streaks on materials denotes the one outcome of oxidation. As oxygen reacts and combines with iron, it becomes the iron oxide hematite.

Hydration

Like hydrolysis, hydration involves water. However, instead of forming a solution, materials absorb the water and then create a new product. An example of hydration occurs when the ions H+ and OH- attach to hematite materials and change them to limonite. In addition, according to the "Encyclopedia of Earth," hydration can accelerate other weathering reactions by expanding the crystal lattice of materials to allow for a wider surface area to form and become subject to decomposing.

Carbonation

The causation of chemical weathering through the process of carbonation happens when carbonate and bicarbonate ions react with minerals and produce a new product. Often, other chemical processes encourage the development of a carbonate reaction due to formation of additional carbonates.

Also, environments high in carbon dioxide encourage this process to take place, as the existence of carbonic acid has a huge impact on the decomposition of rocks and minerals. Rainwater, for instance, mixes with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to form carbonic acid that then fall to the Earth to mix and react with materials found there. According to the University of Wisconsin Department of Geology and Geography, as carbonic acid comes into contact with calcite, a mineral found in limestone, the resulting chemical reaction causes calcium and bicarbonate ions to separate.

Tags: rocks minerals, carbonic acid, according Encyclopedia, according Encyclopedia Earth, According University

Use A Richter Scale

Seismogram of an earthquake recorded in Japan.

The Richter scale is a mathematical tool to estimate the strength of earthquakes. Ground vibrations caused by earthquakes are recorded as a wave-like trace, a seismogram, on a worldwide network of sensitive instruments called seismographs. These seismograms depict ground motion on the vertical scale against time on the horizontal scale. In 1934, American seismologist Charles Richter developed an equation relating the amplitude of the largest wave recorded by a seismograph during an individual earthquake to its magnitude, a measure of the earthquake's strength.

Instructions

1. Lay out the seismogram on a table. Study the seismogram from left to right. The very gentle wiggles are microseisms. These are recordings of ground movements due to heavy traffic or wind that the seismograph records continuously but that are too gentle for humans to notice. Identify the first sharp wiggle that rises clearly higher than the microseisms. This is the primary, or P-wave. Note its arrival time on the horizontal scale of the seismogram. Identify the next sharp wiggle that rises clearly higher than the P-wave. This is the secondary, or S-wave. Note its arrival time.

2. Subtract the P-wave arrival time from the S-wave arrival time. This is the S-P time difference. Download the S-P time versus distance graph from a university, such as Concord, that teach the basics of earthquakes within a geology or geophysics course, or from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) website. Note where the S-P time difference intersects this graph and read the distance on its horizontal scale. This is the distance between the earthquake epicenter and the seismograph that recorded it.

3. Note the maximum amplitude of any wave recorded on the seismogram. This is the vertical distance of the trace from the zero horizontal axis. Download the Richter nomogram from Concord University or another university geology or geophysics department's website, or from USGS. It is a graphical device that shows the relationship between earthquake distance, maximum amplitude and earthquake magnitude according to the Richter scale.

4. Note the value for earthquake distance on one scale and the maximum amplitude on the second scale. Draw a line between these two points and read where they intersect the third scale. That intersection point is the magnitude of the earthquake on the Richter scale. The Richter scale is logarithmic, meaning that for each whole number increase in magnitude, the wave amplitude increases 10 times.

Tags: arrival time, horizontal scale, maximum amplitude, between earthquake, clearly higher

Insect Fossils In Tree Bark

Fossilization preserves the structure of organic materials.

Fossilization is the process of preserving an organic object like a plant, animal or insect in a substance that traps it and keeps its shape. The resin that emerges from many types of tree bark, called amber, can fossilize insects. Does this Spark an idea?

Amber

Amber is the name given to the resin that emerges from trees. The resin moves quickly and catches organisms in its path as it leaks from the tree. Insects trapped in the resin when it hardens can become fossilized.

Detail

Amber, because it is fast-drying and traps insects intact, retains their whole structure for millions of years. This structure includes elements like wings, soft tissue and musculature.

Age

Resin that becomes amber is itself fossilized, a process that takes millions of years to accomplish. Most insect fossils found in amber come from the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods.

Tags: emerges from, millions years, resin that, resin that emerges, that emerges

Learn About The Rock Cycle

Lava rocks form when magma flows over the Earth's surface and cools in a process called "extrusion."

Geology and earth sciences often involve learning about cycles. One such cycle is the rock cycle. The rock cycle explains how rocks form and how rocks change over time. The Earth's weather and geological composition both factor into the rock cycle. Complex processes such as intrusive crystallization also occur. These terms and processes may be unfamiliar at first. When learning about the rock cycle, it may be best to first acclimate yourself to the process and then to use quizzes or activities to further cement your knowledge.

Instructions

1. Draw a rock at the top of a piece of paper. This rock represents rocks at the Earth's surface.

2. Draw an arrow down to the right and draw a picture of rock chunks and dust; label this "Sediment." Write "Weathering, Erosion and Deposition." Over time, weather erodes and breaks down rocks and forms sediment. Factors such as water and gravity carry the sediment and deposit them into the ground.

3. Draw an arrow from the "Weathering, Erosion and Deposition" picture downward and toward the left. Draw a picture of sedimentary rock, rocks with layers. At this stage, the rocks become compacted and form layers in the Earth's crust.

4. Draw an arrow from the "Sedimentary Rock" slightly upward and toward the left. Draw a picture representing metamorphic rock. Over time, sedimentary rock, due to pressure and heat, changes and becomes metamorphic rock.

5. Draw an arrow from the "Metamorphic Rock" upward and to the left. Draw hot magma. Again, the Earth's pressure and heat changes the rock to magma, a viscous form of rock.

6. Draw two arrows from the "Magma." Label one picture "Extrusion" and the other "Intrusive Crystallization." At the magma stage, rocks have two options: to reach the surface of the earth and harden (during a volcanic eruption) or to form pockets of magma which, over time, crystallize and harden (intrusive crystallization).

7. Draw an arrow from the extrusion rock to the first picture in your cycle, the rock at the Earth's surface. Draw arrows from the metamorphic rock, sedimentary rock and intrusive crystallization rocks to the rock at the Earth's surface. Write "Uplift" next to these arrows. A rock does not always undergo each cycle phase; sometimes, due to pressure and other factors such as earthquakes, rocks in certain phases (such as sedimentary rocks) are pushed upward to the surface where the cycle begins again.

Tags: Draw arrow, arrow from, Draw arrow from, Earth surface, cycle rock, intrusive crystallization

Permian Period Fossils

Ammonites are among many types of Permian Period fossils.

The Permian Period is the most recent period of the Paleozoic Era, extending from 290 million years ago to 248 million years ago. During the Permian Period, marine life flourished and began to specialize. Many of the Permian Period fossils that are found today are corals, fresh-water fish skeletons and ammonites. Land fossils include conifers, beetles and reptiles.

The Climate of the Permian Period

During the Permian Period, all of the landmasses on Earth collided to form a single supercontinent. Named Pangea, this supercontinent consisted of most of the modern continental masses. It crossed the equator and nearly reached both poles. Pangea was surrounded by the Panthalassa Ocean and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. The supercontinent slowly drifted northward. During the early Permian Period, the climate cooled and became more humid, then warmed and dried out. Deserts formed, sea levels fell and the carboniferous swamps dried up.

Land Animal Fossils

The early Permian Period saw the rise of large reptiles such as Dimetrodon. These very successful animals included both carnivores and herbivores. Permian Period fossils include reptile skeletons such as Dimetrodon gigantis and amphibians such as Apateon pedestris and Eryops megacephalus. In the late Permian Period, smaller reptiles appeared. Fossils of these animals include therapsids, animals that had mammalian traits, as well as numerous types of dragonflies and species of beetles.

Land Plant Fossils

As the early Permian Period climate cooled and grew more humid, plants such as ferns and conifers became widespread. Later, as the climate warmed and dried out, plants that were adapted to dry conditions became successful, and plants that produced seeds became very common. Permian Period plant fossils include ginkgo leaves. The gingko appeared during the Permian and occurred in several forms, including Gingko baiera and Gingko digitata. The plant's descendants are still with us today, giving the modern plant the nickname "living fossil."

Marine Animal Fossils

Ammonites are mollusks that belonged to the cephalopod family and are perhaps the most widely recognized fossil. They are fossilized shells that are shaped like a ram's horn. Ammonite fossils are found on every continent and range from under an inch to over 6 feet long. Permian ammonites can be identified by the geometric patterns on their shells; earlier species had saw-toothed or rounded shapes. Permian fish fossils include species such as Acanthodes gracilis. Shark's teeth are also common Permian fossils and include those from freshwater shark species such as Xenacanthus platypterus.

The Permian Extinction

The end of the Permian Period was marked by a mass extinction over about 1 million years when an estimated 95 to 99 percent of marine species died out. Trilobites and rugose corals were among the species forced into extinction. Other species, such as brachiopods and ammonoids, suffered dramatic reductions in population. Land plants also faced extinction, and most trees disappeared. According to Hillel J. Hoffman, writing for National Geographic magazine, the theories for the extinction include glaciation, volcanic eruptions and an asteroid impact.

Tags: Permian Period, fossils include, early Permian, early Permian Period, million years, Period fossils

About Plate Tectonics

Plate tectonics is the geological study of the Earth's ever-shifting surface. The study of plate tectonics is also the study of the three most major geological effects of these shifting plates; mountains, earthquakes, and volcanoes. The study of plate tectonics may help geologists discover the cause of many of the large scale extinctions that have occurred in pre-human history on Earth.

Features

Plate tectonics is the science of the Earth surface. While the surface of our planet appears to be solid, it is actually made up of overlapping series of plates. These plates are in a constant state of slow motion. As magma leaks to the surface of the planet, new plates are formed even as they are melting and covering the plates that already exist.

Function

The center of the Earth is red-hot and filled with liquid magma. The magma and plates create a cycle that is necessary for the continuation of our planet. Without the areas between plates, the pressure inside the Earth's core would have no way to release itself and instead would build up to dangerous levels. Without the constant expulsion of magma, the plates themselves would not exist.

Effects

There are three major geographic effects of plate tectonics- mountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes. Mountains are formed where the edges of plates rub together and collide. Volcanoes are hot spots where magma and pressure are released from the Earth's core. Earthquakes occur when the plates making up the world's surface shift under the continual pressure from the center of the Earth and from other plates.

Time Frame

The life cycle of a tectonic plate is about 100 million years, which means from the time a plate is created until the time it is eventually destroyed by a newly formed plate takes 100 million years.

Warning

Earthquakes are probably the biggest risk factor for humans because of plate tectonics. Technically, an earthquake can occur at any place at any time with little to no warning. However, some spots on Earth are well known to be earthquake hot spots. In the United States, California is well known for its likelihood of earthquakes. Most buildings in earthquake-prone zones are specifically built to withstand most mid-sized quakes. The largest damage to people and buildings occurs when earthquakes strike areas not used to the effects of the shaking earth.

Volcanoes are of lesser concern because most of the active volcanoes in the world have already been identified and we usually have some warning before they erupt. Volcanoes can affect the world's weather, though, as they can shoot enormous clouds of ash into the sky that can block the sun. It has been theorized that a large-scale volcanic eruption could have been the cause of several of the worldwide extinctions we know occurred over the course of our planets history. This theory is unproven, and probably is unprovable, but has a great deal of credence in the scientific community.

Tags: center Earth, Earth core, magma plates, million years, Plate tectonics, plate tectonics

Explore California'S Red Rock Canyon

Red Rock Canyon

A destination made popular by countless western cowboys and movie Indians, as well as the demise of Thelma and Louise, Red Rock Canyon State Park, in Southern California, is a popular destination for desert rats who like to experience raw desolate wilderness. Camping, off-roading, and rock climbing are popular here. Red rock cliffs are carved by wind into the hills and provide an amazing sight at sunset. From Los Angeles access to the canyon is relatively easier and much closer then Death Valley.

Instructions

1. Getting there: Located just over one hundred miles north of Los Angeles, the canyon is at the southern reaches of Owens Valley. From LAX, take Interstate 405 north. After joining Interstate 5, exit 161B toward Palmdale and Lancaster. State Highway 14 passes through these two cities and continues through Mojave. Red Rock Canyon is approximately 25 miles north of Mojave.

2. When to go: It is highly discouraged to visit the park in the heat of summer. Many locals have acclimated themselves to the climate, but note that this is the Mojave Desert and Death Valley is just over the ridge. The evenings and nights get deathly cold in the winter, leaving autumn and spring as the best choices for weather. During spring the desert blooms. Check with the visitor center for latest park information and weather/temperature updates.

3. Amenities: The Park offers picnicking and camping, nature trails and hiking trails. California City and Mojave are nearby with full dining and lodging accommodations, as well as many grocery options. Thirty miles north of the park is the Indian Wells Brewing Company (see Resources). Beware of the Lobotomy Bock brew.

4. Precautions: Read up on required drinking water preparedness. Many visitors bring a hydration pack that holds as much as two liters of water and is carried like a backpack. During any season but winter, plan to hike in the cool of the mornings. Know when sunrise is and be on the trail. Determine the forecast by noon and access the hiking distance.

5. Assistance: Be well versed on the park guidelines, rules, and regulations (see Resources). The park rangers are vital life support.

Tags: Rock Canyon, miles north, Death Valley, just over

What Are The Subdivisions Of The Physical Sciences

The physical sciences are those sciences that are concerned with the physical world. It is one of the two main divisions of science, the other being the life sciences. These are sciences that are concerned with living organisms. Physical sciences covers everything form sub-atomic particles to the workings of the universe.

Physics

Physics is perhaps the most fundamental of all the physical sciences. While other physical sciences describe aspects of the physical universe, like chemical reactions or the stars, physics describes the whole universe, including the very space and time such things as chemicals and stars exist in. Topics in physics include the laws of motion, such as those that describe projectiles and falling objects. They include the theory of relativity. They also include the laws that govern the fundamental forces, such as electricity, magnetism and gravity. They describe phenomena such as heat, light and energy, as well as principles on which all machines work. Other major areas of physics involve the study of subatomic matter, such as nuclear science and quantum mechanics.

Chemistry

Chemistry is the study of chemical reactions. It includes the study of creating compounds of chemicals that have particular properties and also the breaking down of compounds to find out what substances they are made out of. It describes the laws that govern how atoms join together to form molecules. It includes organic chemistry, or the study of the chemical processes found in living organisms.

Astronomy

Astronomy is the study of the other planets, the stars, galaxies and the whole universe outside Earth. It involves the mapping of the night sky, and this often involves the use of high-tech telescopes. Astronomy includes the study of cosmology, or the formation and nature of the universe. It describes the laws that caused Earth to form. It involves the study of pulsars, nebulae, black holes and other obscure cosmic phenomena.

Earth Science

Earth science is a broad category that includes such disciplines as geology, meteorology and oceanography. It is the study of planet Earth as a whole and of the factors that go into making it the way that it is. It draws from other sciences such as physics and chemistry. It includes the study of the chemical and physical processes of the planet and the elements that make it up. It involves the study of how life alters the planet.

Tags: includes study, laws that, study chemical, chemical reactions, concerned with, describes laws, describes laws that

The Effect Of Climate On Rock Layer Weathering

Climate, the long-term weather pattern over a geographic area, affects rocks and soil exposed to the elements. The amount of precipitation, the daily temperature, and the fluctuation in temperatures over a year affect the rate of weathering of rocks. Weathering is the breakdown of the surface minerals of rocks so that they can be transported by erosion. Climate affects both chemical and mechanical weathering rates. Chemical weathering is the process whereby minerals are altered by chemical agents. Mechanical weathering is the physical breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces without a change in chemical composition.

Water and climate act on rock outcrop.

Expansion and Contraction

Expansion and contraction is a form of mechanical weathering. The thermal heating and cooling of the rocks cause them to expand and contract over time. The expansion and contraction can cause the rocks to crack. Rocks that are foliated may break along planes of foliation, sloughing off the exposed rock face. Rocks are susceptible to this type of weathering in climates where there is a large fluctuation in daily temperature. Rock outcrops in the desert will tend to weather by expansion and contraction

Frost Action

Frost action is a type of mechanical weathering that occurs in cool, moist climates. Precipitation falls on the surface, infiltrates into the soil and fractures in the rock face. As the water cools and freezes, it expands up to 9 percent. The expansion in the fractures forces them further apart and breaks up the rock. Frost action occurs most often in wet climates that have wide temperature fluctuations across the freezing point.

Hydrolysis and Dissolution

Hydrolysis and dissolution are forms of chemical weathering. During hydrolysis, water and minerals react with one another creating new minerals or a dissolved material. An example of hydrolysis is when water reacts with feldspar minerals, forming kaolinite, a clay mineral. This process occurs fastest in climates that have rainy seasons or heavy precipitation throughout the year. Dissolution is the breakdown of rocks as minerals dissolve in acid rain. Dissolution will break down limestone quickly, causing sinkholes or karst topography. Dissolution is most rapid in climates that have a lot of acid precipitation.

Mechanical Weathering Rates

Strong mechanical weathering takes place when the annual temperature is 14 degrees and there is about 59 inches of precipitation annually. Moderate mechanical weathering takes place at temperatures between 14 and 32 degrees and about 39 inches of rainfall annually. Slight mechanical weathering takes place where temperatures are above 32 with 20 inches of rainfall annually. A combination of chemical and mechanical weathering takes place when the temperature is between 32 and 50 and there is between 20 and 39 inches of annual rainfall.

Chemical Weathering Rates

Strong chemical weathering takes place when the temperature is between 50 and 68 degrees and the annual rainfall is between 59 and 78 inches. Moderate chemical weathering takes place when the temperature is between 50 and 68 degrees and the annual rainfall is 19 to 59 inches. Very little weathering takes place below 19 inches of annual rainfall.

Tags: takes place, weathering takes, weathering takes place, annual rainfall, mechanical weathering, mechanical weathering takes

About United States Relief Maps

Congress established the United States Geological Survey (USGS) in 1879 to map the nation's mineral wealth. USGS work could not proceed without relief maps that included hydrography (streams), cultural features and topography. USGS's first maps were piecemeal work from regional geology surveys, not standardized to a specific scale or scheme. In 1882, USGS formed a geography division to systematize its cartography into a uniform format.

Powell

John Wesley Powell was the director of the USGS from 1881 to 1894. Despite losing an arm at Shiloh with the Illinois volunteers, he led parties of surveyors (map makers) in the Rocky Mountain region throughout the 1870s, including rafting the Grand Canyon. Powell's expeditions created topographic sheets that were the USGS geography division's sources for relief maps. In 1896, his 10 monographs for the National Geographic Society described the "slopes" (watersheds) of North America.

Howell

Edwin Eugene Howell worked on Rocky Mountain surveys and was with the Powell expedition through the Grand Canyon in 1874. In 1875, he made a relief map of the canyon. Afterward, Howell worked at his family's mineralogy business in Rochester, New York. He founded a mineralogy company in Washington in 1892, where his specialty was relief maps. He developed textbook standard North American relief maps that the MacMillan Company published beginning in 1900. For example, in 1904, the University of Texas Board of Regents reported obtaining copies of Howell's MacMillan Company relief maps for their geology department, including Howell's relief showing the U.S. with the curvature of the Earth.

1920 Standards

In 1920, USGS published standards for cartographic expression of relief. USGS accepted contour lines, hachuring, hill shading, stippling and brush strokes of black ink. The most enduring illustration, contours, are curving lines connecting points that have the same elevation. Hachures shadow elevation as lighted from west or northwest. Hill shading is based on how closely contours occur. Stippling is done over stencils with varying densities of holes. Brush strokes are skillfully painted over blue print impressions.

Air Photos

In the late 1930s, the United States prepared for an invasion on the Pacific Coast. For detailed relief mapping, army engineers used five-lens cameras that photographed straight down, angled forward, angled backward and angled to each side. Stereoscopic mapping of these images coordinated the photo to points of known elevations confirmed by ground surveys. They developed 3-D imaging to coordinate known points by angled projection of a blue image and a red image of the same photo onto one sheet.

Landsat

In 1965, the USGS proposed a remote sensing satellite (now LANDSAT) to confirm existing relief and landform maps and gather additional natural resource data. The military opposed civilian satellite projects, although weather satellites were orbited as early as 1960. NASA was still doing remote sensing from aircraft until the first of several USGS satellites launched in 1972. LANDSAT measures relief by bouncing radio signals onto the planet surface.

Tags: relief maps, United States, geography division, Grand Canyon, Howell worked

Elements That Cause Weathering Factors

All types of weather affect the earth.

Rock disintegrates because of exposure to weather elements, such as water, wind and heat. Weathering, therefore, is weather-related. Weathering only happens to the rocks near the earth's surface; it does not happen in the deep underground. The vital process of weathering carries and provides the nutrients for soil, as it releases and deposits the minerals needed for plants. This process has shaped our earth.

Factors That Influence Weathering

Porous sandstone is easily affected by weather.

Rock that is hard or solid and does not have cracks is resistant to weathering. Soft or porous rock, with cracks and joints that let water in, is not resistant to weathering. For example, granite is a hard rock and is resistant to weathering. Sandstone, which is more porous, is easily affected by the weather. Limestone, which is a rock composed of calcium carbonate mineral, dissolves easily and weathers easily.

Geographic orientation is a factor of weathering. Facing north or east, rock gets less heating or cooling from the sun. Rocks that face this direction weather slower than south- or west-facing rocks. An example is on North American houses, shingles facing north and east last longer.

Climate plays a huge role in weathering. If you live in an area that is moist, physical weathering becomes very important to the integrity of rocks.

Elements of Weathering

Water brings its own design to rock.

The different elements of weathering, including heating and cooling, pressure release, wedging, crystallization and frost action, are responsible for natural weathering occurrences.

Heating and Cooling

Temperature changes cause rocks to stress as they expand and contract. This change in the rocks causes fractures. As time goes on, pieces of a rock's layers break off.

Pressure Release

When rocks experience the great weight that occurs as pressure is released, this allows rocks to grow and crack or break. The breaks are caused by the stress placed on the rock.

Wedging

The roots of plants growing in rock cause cracks. As the roots growing in the rocks get larger, they cause the rocks to actually fracture.

Crystallization

When water deep inside a rock is brought up to the surface and then evaporates, it causes crystallization. This process causes fractures in rocks. The crystals are dissolved mineral salts that expand, causing the fractures.

Frost Action

In rocks that have cracks, water collects, and, as this water freezes and thaws, the rock is weakened. This action of freezing and thawing causes rocks to break.

Chemical Weathering

Quartz is the end product of hydrolysis.

Hydrolysis, oxidation and carbonation are components of chemical weathering.

Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis is the process of hydrogen reacting with carbon dioxide and other minerals to chemically break down the rock into silica, or quartz. As the weathered materials are washed downstream, they turn into clay deposits. The process that weathers granite and basalt is a slow one.

Oxidation

Oxidation is when oxygen mixes with minerals and forms oxides. This creates a natural rusting. As iron rusts, it breaks apart. Rock decomposition occurs as a process of oxidation.

Carbonation

When water mixes with rocks containing carbon, like limestone, the process produces carbonic acid solution. This acid water dissolves vegetation that is rotting. The water also washes out as acid rain. The acid then breaks down the rock and dissolves it.

Tags: resistant weathering, affected weather, cause rocks, causes fractures, down rock, easily affected, easily affected weather

Which Causes Of Weathering Cannot Be Classified As Mechanical

Chemicals in air and water can slowly break down rock.

Weathering is a process by which rock is broken down into smaller pieces. Not all of these processes are mechanical--that is to say, physical--in nature. Some rely on chemical reactions to degrade the integrity of rock's structure. In other cases, biological processes cause a change in exposed rocks. Generally rock will experience many forms of weathering at some point in its existence.

Oxidation

This form of chemical weathering occurs when oxygen in the air or water reacts with metallic minerals like iron. The oxygen causes a reddish-brown "rust" to develop and leech into the surrounding environment. Basaltic rocks may produce an orange colored byproduct as a result of oxidation. The dark red soils found in tropical climates are typically the result of high levels of oxidation.

Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis is the process by which hydroxide and hydrogen ions in water disrupt the normal atomic structures of certain rocks. The hydroxide and hydrogen ions force mineral ions out of the rock. These are carried away, while what's left behind is an entirely new substance. Clay is often the result of the hydrolysis reaction, as feldspar formed deep within the Earth is exposed to the effects of surface water.

Acidic Effects

Carbon dioxide present in water can react with other chemicals to produce a weak form of acid. Known as carbonic acid, this substance is particularly effective at dissolving certain kinds of rock. Limestone is one example, as carbonic acid from rainwater or groundwater can dissolve the calcium in the rock. The limestone surface becomes porous and pitted. This weakened surface is highly vulnerable to further weathering processes.

Root Pressure

Plant root structures are remarkably strong and persistent. Tree roots can grow into existing cracks in a rock face and widen the gaps further. Some very hardy plants need almost no topsoil, getting their nutrients entirely from the rock surface. The cracking and splitting caused by roots provide greater surface area on which other forms of weathering can act. As plants produce waste material or decompose, the chemicals released accelerate destruction of the original bedrock.

Biological Weathering

Certain microorganisms make themselves perfectly at home on the surface or inside of rocks. Algae can grow on rock and create moist, warm patches where normal weathering processes act faster. The waste products of microorganisms can slowly eat away at rock surfaces. Ancient stone buildings are often the target of these biological assaults. Larger organisms inadvertently crush and transport rocks from one location to another. The life functions of plants and animals contribute chemicals to the ecosystem that react with soil and rocks.

Tags: carbonic acid, forms weathering, hydrogen ions, hydroxide hydrogen, hydroxide hydrogen ions

What Is The Salary Range For A Mineralogist

A mineralogist is a type of scientist who specializes in the classification of minerals and other precious stones. The nature of the work varies according to location, and for this reason travel is often required. However, depending on qualifications, a mineralogist has the potential to earn a decent salary.

Job Description

Mineralogists observe and classify minerals, gems and precious stones on the basis of structure and surface characteristics. They conduct chemical tests and take X-rays in an attempt to determine the specimen's composition and other physical properties. Mineralogists evaluate this data and theorize about the origin of certain minerals while simultaneously trying to discover new mineral resources.

Work Environment

Many mineralogists are employed by universities, where they either teach or conduct research. A smaller percentage works at the U.S. Geological Survey or state geological surveys. Others find employment at national laboratories or work as curators in natural history museums. Depending on their employer, mineralogists split time between an office setting and outdoors in the field. It is not unheard of for them to travel to remote locations by helicopter or even by foot. Also, their work sometimes takes them overseas, making job relocation a common occurrence.

Education

Aspiring mineralogists must earn, at a minimum, a bachelor's degree, though most will pursue postgraduate work. Because many mineralogists are employed in the research or teaching sector, a doctorate is a popular option.

Salary Range

The average salary of a mineralogist in the United States is $67,470, though this number varies according to location, experience, extent of higher education and employment setting. The entry level salary typically falls in the vicinity of $36,580 yearly, while maximum earnings of $133,310 have been reported.

Job Outlook

Employment opportunities for mineralogists are projected to grow 22 percent--much faster than average for all occupations--from 2006 to 2016. Graduates who possess a master's degree will see the best job prospects because opportunities will be limited for those holding only a bachelor's degree. Furthermore, PhDs are expected to face stiff competition for research and college-level teaching positions. A great deal of job opportunities are anticipated to arise because older mineralogists are either retiring or abandoning the field.

Tags: according location, bachelor degree, mineralogists employed, precious stones, Salary Range, varies according, varies according location

What Are The Most Famous Landmarks In Wisconsin

Wisconsin has significant landmarks of national importance in America.

Wisconsin has no shortage of landmarks that reflect its significance in American history, diversity of settlers and importance in the fields of art, architecture, science and design. The state has been home to all manner of folk, from pirates to gangsters, pioneers, fur traders and famous architects. Belgian and German settlers were of great importance to the state's development, and some of these landmarks reflect their particular influence.

Aztalan State Park

One of the oldest and most significant landmarks in Wisconsin is the remains of the ancient city of Aztalan in Jefferson County. Archaeologists discovered it in 1836, and historians pieced together its history as a ceremonial complex and walled city that thrived for 300 years. It received recognition as a national landmark in 1964. You can see the remains of stockade walls and flat-topped mounds, although much of the park is now open prairie.

Aztalan State Park

1213 S. Main St.

Lake Mills, WI 53551

920-648-8774

wiparks.net

Villa Louis Mansion

The restored British arts-and-crafts style Victorian Villa Louis, located on Saint Feriole island overlooking the Mississippi River, helps tell the story of one of Wisconsin's founding trades, fur trading. A national landmark in its own right, Brisbois House is home to the Fur Trading Museum. Made from locally-quarried limestone, Brisbois House is a rare example of a fashionable federal-style home and remains one of the state's most famous landmarks.

Villa Louis Mansion

521 Villa Louis Road

Prairie du Chien, WI 53821-0065

608-326-2721

villalouis.wisconsinhistory.org

The Pabst Mansion

Wisconsin saw the largest settlement of Belgians in America in the 19th century, and they have left a lasting legacy in the architecture. Hundreds of homes still stand in the Namur Historic District, including Saint Mary of the Snows Catholic Church and the Harold Euclide General Store. Privately owned, they are only visible from the outside, but the Pabst Mansion in Milwaukee is open to the public. Home to the world-famous beer baron, sea captain and philanthropist Sir Frederick Pabst, it is a remarkable Flemish Renaissance revival mansion, with elegant original fixtures and furniture.

Pabst Mansion

2000 West Wisconsin Avenue

Milwaukee, WI 53233

414-931-0808

pabstmansion.com

Wisconsin State Capitol

The Wisconsin State Capitol building in Madison is an example of Beaux-Arts architecture, noted for its decorative design, its importance as part of the Progressive Movement in the early 20th century and for a bronze sculpture by Daniel Chester French, who also sculpted the statue of Abraham Lincoln in Washington's Lincoln Memorial. The interior is full of marble and mosaics and, although still used to serve three branches of government, is open for public tours.

Wisconsin State Capitol

2 East Main Street

Madison, WI 53702

608-266-0382

wisconsin.gov

Circus World Museum

Wisconsin became home to the "Greatest Show on Earth" when the Ringling Brothers chose Baraboo for their winter headquarters. At its peak, their traveling circus featured leopards, kangaroos, zebras and hippopotamuses. Today, the landmark Circus World Museum has an extensive collection of circus wagons, handbills, costumes and posters. There is a live circus held at the museum each summer.

Circus World Museum

550 Water Street

Baraboo, WI 53913

608-356-8341

circusworld.wisconsinhistory.org

Tags: Villa Louis, Circus World, Circus World Museum, Pabst Mansion, State Capitol, Wisconsin State

Places To Ski In New Hampshire

Hit the ski slopes in New Hampshire.

New Hampshire, located in the northeastern United States, is a New England state that offers vacationers opportunities for winter sports, including skiing and snowboarding. The state has two mountain ranges that are home to ski resorts: the Appalachian Mountains in the southern part of the state and the White Mountains in the north. Many of the ski resorts in New Hampshire offer lodging accommodations, as well as chances for dining and shopping.

Crotched Mountain Ski & Ride

Crotched Mountain is in the southern New Hampshire Appalachian Mountain region and features 23 trails for skiing and snowboarding activities. The resort offer five lifts for transportation up the mountain. As of 2010, the hours of operation during the ski season are 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. on Mondays through Saturdays, but the resort closes at 5:00 p.m. on Sundays. The ski season typically lasts from November to March. Skiing and snowboarding lessons are provided by the resort's staff. Adults and children can take lessons. Night-skiing is allowed.

Crotched Mountain Ski & Ride

615 Francestown Road

Bennington, NH 03442

603-588-3668

crotchedmountain.com

Pats Peak

Situated in south New Hampshire, Pats Peak is approximate a 30-minute drive from Concord. The resort provides 22 trails for skiing and snowboarding, as well as 10 lifts for transportation up the mountain. The Pats Peak ski season usually lasts from December through March, depending on the amount of snowfall. Hours of operation during the ski season, as of 2010, are 8:30 a.m. to 10 p.m. on Mondays through Saturdays, but the resort closes at 4 p.m. on Sundays. Night-skiing and snow tubing activities are allowed. Rental equipment for skiing and snowboarding is available.

Pats Peak

P.O. Box 2448

Henniker, NH 03242

888-728-7732

patspeak.com

Attitash Mountain

Attitash Mountain is in the heart of the White Mountains in north New Hampshire, right off U.S. Highway 302 in Bartlett. Skiers and snowboarders can take advantage of 78 skiing and snowboarding trails and the 11 lifts that are available for transportation up to the mountain. Cross-country skiing trails are available as well. The ski reason lasts from November through April. As of 2010, the hours of operation at Attitash Mountain are 9:00 a.m. to 4 p.m. Night-skiing is not permitted at this resort. Accommodations can be found at the on-site hotel, the Attitash Grand Summit Hotel.

Attitash Mountain

Route 302

Bartlett, NH 03812

800-223-7669

attitash.com

Ragged Mountain

Ragged Mountain is in the central region of New Hampshire, less than 20 minutes from the Danbury Wildlife Management Area. The resort offers 50 trails for skiing and snowboarding. Transportation up the mountain is available via the five lifts at the resort. Snow tubing activities are allowed. The resort also has a terrain park with facilities for half-pipe activities. Night-skiing is not allowed, though. Hours of operation during the ski season, as of 2010, are 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. The ski season usually runs from November through April. Lodging accommodation can be found on the resort in the Sunrise and Sunset Bunk Rooms, which can host up to 24 people per room.

Ragged Mountain

620 Ragged Mountain Road

Danbury, NH 03230

603-768-3600

raggedmountainresort.com

Tags: Attitash Mountain, Pats Peak, Ragged Mountain, skiing snowboarding, Crotched Mountain, during season

Rocks Of Maine

Maine is known for its rocky shores.

Mud compressed on the ocean floor 400 millions years ago has been transformed into the many rocks found in the state of Maine. These include granite, limestone quartz and marble. The state is an example of different rocks created by varied scientific processes. Some rocks are sedimentary. Others are igneous and metamorphic.

Rockport and Rockland

Sedimentary rocks comprise most of the rocks on Earth. They are created from deposits of mud, sand and sediment. In Maine, sedimentary rocks take many forms. Limestone is an example found in MidCoast in Rockport and Rockland. Shale, mudstone, siltstone, various sandstones, arkose, graywacke, chert and conglomerate are more sedimentary rocks found in Maine.

Camden Hills and Acadia

Igneous rock is also known as a "fire rock." It is the original rock of the Earth made by magma, trapped and cooled deep within the Earth. In Maine, igneous rock includes granite, pegmatite, quartz, monzonite, syenite, diorite, diabase and gabbro. These rocks are especially prevalent in the Camden Hills of Maine and the northern part of the state known as Acadia.

Penobscot Bay

Volcanic igneous rocks form on the surface of the Earth rather than within the magma as it cools. Mark Island and Penobscot Bay possess large amounts of basalt, typically found around bodies of water, such as Maine's Mohegan Island. Some other rocks in the wet parts of Maine include esite, dacite, rhyolite, tuffs and breccias.

Oxford County

In Maine, there are various kinds of metamorphic rock scattered throughout the landscape. Slate is typically found in Monson, Maine. In the early 20th century it was mined in this location, though the amount of slate has dwindled today. Phyllite, schist, granofels, marble, quartzite, greenstone, amphibolite, serpentinite and hornfels are other rocks dispersed throughout the area. Mount mica mine in Oxford County Maine is a repository for many forms of quartz.

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Find Oil Deposits

Long before oil rigs are built and drilling begins, surveys and testing must be done.

For thousands of years, ancient people utilized seeping surface oil (and its relatives, tar and asphalt) for various purposes --- medicine, fuel and as a patching and water-proofing material. It wasn't until the late 1800s that science was applied to locating underground oil deposits. Today, despite the quantum leap forward in technology from the 19th century, the same basic prerequisites still exist for oil to form: a source of oil, a porous and permeable rock (a "reservoir" rock) in which it oil accumulates and an impermeable cap-rock layer to trap the oil.

Instructions

1. Perform research of geologic surveys of the area you suspect contains underground oil. Although modern science still looks for clues that wildcatters in the 1800s also sought---notably dome-like rises in the earth's surface called anticlines---technology now provides more thorough views under the surface. Using gravitational, magnetic, seismic and aerial mapping techniques, dome-like structures can be located underground, too. Rock species and formations also must be studied. Sandstone and limestone, for example, are perfect reservoir rocks; they are relatively soft and permeable, providing a sponge-like structure in which the oil reacts chemically and gathers. They perfectly fit the ancient Greeks' description: "petros" means "rock" and "elaion" is "oil" --- petroleum.

2. Assemble a team of cartographers, geologists, geo-physicists, surveyors, aerial photographers, explosives experts and magnetic and gravity survey specialists. Using your research and recommendations, these people form your advance team that will go into the field and create maps, cross-sections and profiles of the areas to be explored. Establishing quadrangles that cover hundreds of miles across flat, rolling and mountainous terrain, they pinpoint areas where your follow-up teams will begin testing the subterranean geology.

3. Drill into the earth. Teams consisting of three truck-mounted drilling rigs, at intervals of three-quarters of a mile, bore into the surface to depths approaching 100 feet. Each team bores three holes about 100 feet apart, taking about an hour per team, before moving to the next indicated drilling site.

4. Insert 50 pounds of ammonium nitrate (fertilizer, basically) into each hole and spray each hole with a gallon of diesel oil. The "shooter" inserts an electric blasting cap into a blasting agent primer and lowers it to the bottom of the hole via an electric wire to detonate the charge. Three 50-pound sacks of explosive are added to each hole on top of the primer charge, topped by a few buckets of sand, and the wires are attached to a firing mechanism at the truck.

5. String geophones along the ground at hundred-yard intervals around the three-shot holes to a distance that equals 1.5 miles between the ends of the geophone lines.

6. Ignite the hole charges.

7. Have your stratigraphic crew members analyze the 60-foot rock core samples that the drillers provided. They check for permeability and porosity (the sponge-like quality of the rock) and then send the sample for more detailed lab testing.

8. Analyze and interpret the computer-generated seismic data that the explosions and resulting seismic waves created. Look for anticline formations, which appear as inverted bowls and can be single layers or multiple shelves. Oil can deposit in sandwich-like strata separated by impermeable rock. The West Guara field in Venezuela has 47 layers, where producers drill through low-yield strata to reach richer ones beneath.

9. Drill to verify oil deposits if you feel the preliminary tests are promising. This can cost $200,000 per well in the U.S. and twice that amount in other countries.

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The Average Salary Of A Volcanologist

Volcanologists may travel internationally to collect field data.

With shooting fire, plumes of billowing smoke and rivers of red hot lava, volcanoes are one of nature's most dramatic and dangerous geological formations. Volcanologists are geoscientists who study these formations. They collect data to try to predict eruptions, advise on protection and evacuation procedures for those living in the vicinity of an active volcano, and analyze any health effects the presence of volcanic smoke and ash may have on local populations.

Average Salary

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) classifies volcanologists alongside their fellow geoscientists, such as seismologists and glaciologists. As of May 2010, the mean annual salary across the professions was reported to be $93,380, which equates to an hourly rate of $44.89. Those in the top 10 percent earned over $160,910, while their colleagues in the bottom 10 percent received less than $43,820.

Salary by Experience

Oregon State University classified volcanologists alongside other geological scientists, and reported a median salary of $37,349 for individuals with less than two years in the field, compared to $83,888 for those with 8 to 10 years of practical experience.

Salary by Location

Location also affects volcanologists' salaries. The BLS listed Oklahoma as the state in which, across all industry sectors, a practitioner was likely to receive the highest pay, with an annual mean of $129,870. Texas and Alaska also werelucrative locales, with respective means of $125,070 and $103,880. In contrast, Colorado was listed at $96,610, while Wyoming had an annual mean of just $67,710.

Salary by Industry

Most volcanologists work for government agencies. The BLS reported the mean annual salary for geoscientists working for the federal executive branch as $95,580, compared to $62,880 at the state government level and $73,990 for those who work as consultants.

Outlook

The BLS predicts that employment opportunities for geoscientists, including volcanologists, will increase by around 18 percent from 2008 to 2018. This compares with projected growth of between 7 and 13 percent for the country as a whole. The natural resources sector, as well as environmental protection will be key sectors for growth. As such, wage levels for the profession should remain reasonably competitive.

Education

Most volcanologists hold a master's or PhD degree. Thus, the first step in the career is to obtain a bachelor's degree. The Cascades Volcano Observatory recommends that candidates emphasise the natural sciences, such as physics, chemistry and geology, in their studies. At postgraduate levels, either during master's or PhD study, candidates will specialize in a volcanology field, such as gas geochemistry or ground deformation.

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Ideas For A Rock Bulletin Board

There are three basic types of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Students learn about rocks while studying Earth Science.

Create rock-themed bulletin boards that will enhance the classroom environment while teaching and reviewing important concepts about rocks.

Igneous Rocks

Volcanos form igneous rocks.

Igneous rocks, also known as volcanic rocks, are formed from volcanic eruptions. Create a bulletin board with a cut-out volcano. Include the major parts of the volcano, such as the cone, crater, conduit, and magma chamber, and an illustration of lava and ash erupting from the center.

Post actual photos of differently shaped volcanoes, as well the different types of volcanic rocks that they create.

Metamorphic Rocks

Example of a marble tile.

Metamorphic rocks can change form when exposed to higher temperatures or high pressure. They vary from igneous rocks because metamorphic rocks remain in a solid state whereas igneous rocks for from a molten state and then cool into a solid. According to the Open University, two of the most common metamorphic rocks are slate and marble.

Create a bulletin board that shows examples a map of where different marbles are found around the world, with photographs of the different types, or small samples when possible. Include information as to how marble and slate are used around the home.

Sedimentary Rocks

Photo of the Grand Canyon.

The Grand Canyon is one of the best examples of rock formations because the Colorado River has carved a path through the different sedimentary rock layers.

Create a bulletin board featuring pictures of the Grand Canyon layers and point the different colors and rock types. Include information about the theories as to how the rocks were formed and during which era, and close-up pictures of some of the 40 identified rock layers.

Fossils

Example of fossils.

Fossils are formed at different layers of the sediment, depending upon the age of the fossil and the type of specimen. According to Discovering Fossils, a fish fossil might be at a lower depth than a plant or other shells.

Create a bulletin board that shows the different layers of soil, and where fossils are commonly found in the layers. Consult a diagram available at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Include fossil pictures of both plants and animals. Make the bulletin board interactive by making the fossils detachable from the layers of soil.

Include photos of actual excavation sites and fossils, as well as tools used by archeologists to extract fossils.

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