Red Rock Canyon is located just a few miles outside of Las Vegas. Close to 200,000 acres, it's a National Conservation area within the Mojave Desert in Nevada. Stunningly beautiful, Red Rock Canyon offers wonderful hiking and is a perfect weekend getaway if you're spending more than a couple of days in Las Vegas.
Instructions
1. Visit the Red Rock Canyon Conservation Area's website for comprehensive info on directions to the park, hiking trails, programs that are occurring as well as seasonal weather predictions and more.
2. Arrange your travel accommodations. You can camp in Red Rock Canyon or stay in Las Vegas and drive out for the day. Camping is allowed May to September, and you will need to make reservations by calling (702) 515-5371 (see Resources below).
3. Determine your hiking prowess. Red Rock Canyon in Nevada has hiking trails for experts over five miles long, and even a Children's discovery trail that focuses on wildlife and easy terrain. Read through the list of over a dozen trails to see which is right for you and your family.
4. Wear proper hiking gear. Leave behind the high heels and shiny dress shoes from your partying night in Las Vegas. Wear cool, comfortable clothing in layers with sturdy shoes, like hiking boots or sneakers.
5. Swing by the visitor center upon arrival if it is your first visit. They publish a bi-annual report that is full of info on their trails and happenings around Red Rock Canyon.
6. Enjoy your hike and become one with nature. This is one of the most beautiful spots in our country and is juxtaposed with the neon lights of Las Vegas, a refreshing change from its sister city.
Tags: Rock Canyon, Canyon Nevada, hiking trails, Rock Canyon Nevada
Panning for gold as a geological science experiment.
Gold is one of the most valuable metals found in the natural environment. With a rich history in the United States and other areas of the world, gold is a common subject for study in school. To further allow students to experience the properties and history of gold, there are several experiments that can be performed.
Panning for Gold
For a gold experiment appropriate for both younger and older students, gold panning can help teach important geological lessons. With a riffled pan, sand, fools gold nuggets and real gold nuggets, students can learn about the history of the western United States during the time of the Gold Rush, which occurred toward the end of the 19th century and early on in the 20th century. Students also learn lessons on the density of minerals and metals. This is because the unique 19.282 grams per cubic centimeter density of gold is what allows the gold to separate from the sand and other substances with a different density like sand, rocks and silt.
Gold Melting
Gold melting is an experiment that can help students learn the melting points of metals. Gold leaf or small gold nuggets can be melted down along with other metals to determine different melting points. Not only can this teach melting points in chemistry, but it can also help teach the difference between physical changes and chemical changes in substances.
Gold Pennies
This experiment can be used to teach the history and science of alchemy, as well as the difference between real and fake gold. In this experiment, students can learn how easy it is to turn copper coated pennies into gold, or at least make it look like gold. Alchemists often were able to turn substances to look like gold using chemical means. In this experiment, zinc and sodium hydroxide are combined to sodium zincate solution. The copper coated penny is dropped into the solution, causing the zinc to adhere to the copper on the penny, creating a penny that looks like silver. When the penny is heated up, the zinc further transforms by changing colors to one that mimics gold, although it is not real gold.
Rutherford Experiment
The Rutherford experiment uses a thin foil made of gold to demonstrate the diffraction of alpha particles. By observing how some particles head straight through the gold foil and others are deflected, students can learn how atoms are largely comprised of empty space, with most of the mass at the center nucleus of the atom.
Tags: students learn, gold nuggets, melting points, copper coated, difference between, help teach, like gold
Lesson plans can focus on deserts of the world or local desert terrain.
Older elementary students are taught lessons about the natural world, such as geology and climate. Generally, the lesson plans include instruction and activities on deserts. Dry conditions, hot and cold temperatures and little rainfall make deserts uniquely interesting places that make up about a fifth of the planet's land area. Incorporating desert activities and projects into the classroom can enhance the students' understanding of these unusual regions.
Desert Encyclopedia
Assign each child a particular desert plant or animal, then allow them to do research at the library or on the computer. Each child must find the answers to four questions about the plant or animal and include a drawing, as well. Questions should include how the plant or animal adapts to heat, how it gets water, how it protects itself and what special adaptations it has made to thrive in the desert. Compile the papers into a classroom Desert Encyclopedia for referencing.
Desert Diorama
Choose a particular desert to study in class and learn about the animals and plants that populate it. After students learn about its location, rainfall and average and extreme temperatures, let them make a diorama to display all they've learned. There are several online sources for diorama images, such as the Sonoran Desert diorama project on the American Museum of Natural History's website. Let children color the printouts of the background, animals, plants and birds. After cutting out the pieces, students can mount them inside a box, such as a tissue box or shoebox.
Desert Plants Trivia
Students should learn about the variety of plant life that thrive in terrain that gets less than 10 inches of rainfall per year. Teach students how desert plant life is varied and perfectly suited to the harsh climate. Prepare flashcards with a picture of a desert plant on one side and three facts about the plant on the other. Examples include a Joshua tree, barrel cactus, pincushion cactus, palo verde tree, yucca plant and the saguaro cactus. After a review, divide children into two teams and allow them to listen to the facts read aloud. The team that guesses the correct plant wins a point.
The Dead Sea was discovered by the Israelis sometime around 323 B.C. Located in the Judean Desert area, the Dead Sea is between Jordan and Israel. The weather here is typically sunny and dry throughout the year. It is about 400 meters (1,320 feet) below sea level, this being the lowest place found on Earth. It is one of the smallest seas in the world. It is about 50 miles long and 11 miles wide.
How Did it Form?
A rift where two of the Earth's plates are slowly spreading apart is forming where the Dead Sea is located. The East Rift Valley starts north of the Dead Sea and runs along the eastern side of Africa. The Dead Sea is located along the edge of the rift valley where the Earth's crust is being stretched so thin. In fact, the Dead Sea is continuing to sink lower every year. Scientists estimate the Dead Sea is sinking about 13 inches every year. This is considered fast for geologists.
Why So Salty?
One of the reasons the Dead Sea is so salty is because there are no outlets. The minerals that flow into it stay there forever. Most bodies of fresh water have outlets such as rivers and streams, which allow them to dispose of any dissolved minerals that might flow into them from other sources. Most oceans and seas typically have no outlets. There are a few exceptions such as the Mediterranean Sea. It is much saltier than the Atlantic Ocean, but it loses some of its mineral-rich water through the Straits of Gibraltar.
This increase in salinity occurs in all landlocked bodies of saltwater. An example of this in the United States is the Great Salt Lake in Utah. The Dead Sea holds some of the saltiest water in the world. It is almost six times as salty as the ocean. The Dead Sea is completely landlocked. As the depth of the water increases, the water gets even more salty, creating salt piles on the sea bottom.
There are several rivers and streams that feed into the Dead Sea, but none that drain out. Evaporation is the only way water is released from the sea. With the hot temperatures, the water evaporates fairly quickly. As this occurs, it leaves behind any dissolved minerals in the sea, increasing its saltiness. This is the same process that made the oceans salty.
Life in the Sea
Since the water became so salty so quickly, animals did not have a chance to evolve under such harsh conditions. There is no life in the Dead Sea other than a few types of bacteria and one type of algae that were able to adapt to the otherwise deadly sea water. The water in the Dead Sea is extremely deadly to other living things. Any fish that flow downstream to the saltwater are instantly killed. Their bodies become covered with a layer of salt crystals and they can't adapt to these conditions quick enough. The Dead Sea is not dangerous to humans, however, and they are still able to swim in it.
History
Around 3 million years ago, the Mediterranean Sea reached the East Rift Valley and emptied saltwater into the area. As time went by, the body of water formed became detached from the nearby lakes as the Mediterranean Sea receded. Ever since then, the Dead Sea has been continually fed water from the Jordan River and other small streams.
In 1947, a few young shepherds entered a cave near the sea to find their goat that had run away. Once inside they found some sealed tubes that held the now famous Dead Sea Scrolls. They held psalms and testaments that had not been printed in the Bible. Some people believe these scrolls were written by biblical kings and prophets. Even today people argue over the accuracy of the scrolls.
Interesting Facts
The amount of salt or salinity in the water allows you to float. The density of the water is so much more than other oceans, so you can float in the water like a sailboat or fishing bobber.
North of the Dead Sea is a town called Jericho, Israel. It is the oldest known human city still inhabited today.
Benefits
The benefits and medicinal properties of the Dead Sea water must have been realized centuries ago. Even before Cleopatra walked the area, many people have traveled to the Dead Sea to take advantage of the benefits and healing powers of the salts and minerals. Cleopatra was very fond of the health benefits and used them in her common beauty treatments.
Today there are many spas that have been built around the shores of the Dead Sea. These are extremely popular to the many tourists who come to the area to enjoy the minerals, mud and water to treat numerous aches and pains.
Tags: Dead located, dissolved minerals, East Rift, East Rift Valley, every year, flow into
The term "ecological footprint" was conceived at the University of British Columbia by Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees in 1990. It is a measurement of how much land, water and natural resources a person, city, country or humanity as a whole requires to produce the resource it consumes. To leave no footprint would mean that a person replaces to the environment exactly what he takes. Since the mid-1980s, humankind has been in ecological overshoot, meaning they are taking more than they are giving back.
Our Footprint's Future
Current measurements show that it would take the planet about 16 months to replace what humanity uses in one year. In other words, we humans use 1.3 planets to sustain ourselves. The United Nations estimates that if current trends continue, by the mid-2030s we will need two Earths to sustain ourselves.
What a Large Footprint Means
Our leaving a greater footprint means that fresh water is being depleted, fisheries are diminishing, forest cover is retreating and pollution and waste are building up. One of the results of such as large ecological footprint is global warming and climate change. Aside from the geological problems, ecological overshoot also means increased wars and conflicts over resources, famine, increased disease, mass migrations and multiple human tragedies.
Corporate Ecological Footprint
A business must use up resources such as paper and supplies and thus produces waste. Factories produce massive amounts of pollution. Very few businesses plant trees, recycle and work to increase fresh air and water. The reason for monitoring a business's ecological footprint is to get people to identify and work within ecological limits. Many activists believe that the key is individual action and creating public demand for new laws and policies, investing in green technology, infrastructure and increasing recycling and energy resources.
Urban Ecological Footprint
Analyzing a city, state or country's ecological footprint allows governments to track natural capital demands and to compare this to what is available. By doing this, governments are able to accurately determine effective distribution of demands within their economy. People know constraints and future liabilities and are able to compare their situation with similar cases.
Your Ecological Footprint
More than 70 percent of humanity's ecological footprint comes from city-level pollution and resource use. Demographic studies indicate that cities will grow in population and, in turn, will need more resources and produce greater waste. City governments can do a great deal in reducing their footprint by encouraging all residents to monitor their own footprint. Recycling initiatives, more green space and city and private facilities going green (or more environmentally sound) would contribute a great deal to reversing the trend of the ecological footprint becoming deeper. If a city tracks its ecological footprint, it may be able to limit demand by greater use of green technology. Since urban infrastructure is meant to sustain large numbers of people for long periods of time, improving a city's ecological footprint could have significant effects on large areas for generations.
Water is an important natural resource in New Jersey.
New Jersey is in the northeastern United States and provides its citizens with an abundant amount of water, forests and minerals for natural resources. Nearly half of the state is covered in forested regions, while every border of New Jersey, except the northern, is surrounded by water. These bodies of water include the Atlantic Ocean, the Hudson River and the Delaware River. New Jersey is also a major source of gravel, sand and clay minerals.
Water
The Garden State is on the coastline of the Atlantic Ocean, which offers a boost in the state's economy due to the shipping trade and resort cities. The largest freshwater lake in New Jersey is Lake Hopatcong in the central region of the state; this lake acts as a water supply for Sussex County and provides chances for fishing and boating activities. Groundwater and surface water in New Jersey is monitored through the New Jersey Water Science Center, a division of the U.S. Geological Survey. This organization determines whether or not the water is contaminated. The New Jersey Water Science Center monitors over 140 surface water sites throughout the state, such as rivers and lakes, and 30 wells for groundwater.
Forests
According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, New Jersey has over 2.1 million acres of forests, which makes up approximately 42 percent of the state's surface area. Fortunately, the state has not suffered a major loss of trees, since the majority of urban development has been in concentrated areas, such as Greater New York City, Greater Philadelphia and the Jersey Shore. New Jersey has 11 national and state forests regulated by the New Jersey Division of Parks and Forestry. Some of the largest parks in the state include the Delaware Water Gap and High Point State Park, both in the northwestern region of the state. These parks are a boon for New Jersey's tourism economy, since they offer chances for hiking, kayaking and climbing activities.
Minerals
The primary uses of minerals excavated from New Jersey are developing building materials and gravel for roads. Minerals found in New Jersey include clay, peat, stone, sand and gravel. New Jersey is the only state in the United States to produce greensand marl, according to the U.S. Geological Survey. Greensand marl is used by farmers for fertilization purposes. Industrial sand is found in South Jersey and is used for glass-making and foundry work. Gravel is one of the most common mineral deposits in New Jersey and found throughout the state. The continuing practice of mineral excavation in New Jersey is beneficial to the state as it creates jobs.
Tags: Atlantic Ocean, Geological Survey, Jersey Water, Jersey Water Science, region state
Aerial imagery can be found easily with online search engines.
Aerial photography used to be more difficult to find until Internet search engines began collecting satellite imagery for maps. Now, you can insert almost any coordinates and instantly receive a bird's-eye view of the area. These images are also free, which is a large benefit compared to paying a pilot and photographer to shoot images. Additionally, you can select the amount of zoom you'd like to see, whereas a traditional aerial photo has only a limited range of zoom.
Instructions
1. Visit either the Google or Bing search engine.
2. Navigate to the "Maps" section of the website. This is normally found at the top of the page.
3. Type your coordinates into the search engine and click "Search."
4. Hover over the top right navigational bar of the map to reveal more options. Click "Satellite" for Google or "Bird's Eye" for Bing to view photos of the area.
5. Click the "+" or "-" signs to zoom in or out of the photo to your desired level.
Fossils reveal information about the Earth's past.
The University of California's Museum of Paleontology defines paleontology as the study of what fossils reveal about the ecologies of the past, evolution and the place of humans in the world. The various types of paleontologists use knowledge from anthropology, archaeology, biology, geology, ecology and computer science to determine the origin and destruction of the different types of organisms that have existed on Earth.
Micropaleontologist
Micropaleontology is the study of mostly microscopic fossils, which includes fossils of tiny invertebrate shells or skeletons, bacteria, spores, pollen and the small bones and teeth of large vertebrates. According to University College London, micropalaeontology is probably the largest branch of paleontology, because so many fossils are of such a small size.
Paleoanthropologist
Paleoanthropology, also called human paleontology, is the study of the prehistoric human past based on artifacts and fossilized human bones, and the context in which these specimens are found. This discipline is a combination of paleontology and physical anthropology.
Taphonomist
Taphonomy is the study of the processes of decay, preservation and how fossils are formed. According to the University of Arizona Geosciences, taphonomists ask specific questions: Does the assembly of the fossil accurately represent the original organism? Was any material lost or did the material condense during the fossilization process? How long was the fossil in the rocks?
Vertebrate and Invertebrate Paleontologists
Vertebrate paleontologists study vertebrate fossils from animals with spines, ranging from primitive fishes to mammals. Invertebrate paleontologists study invertebrate animal fossils, such as mollusks and echinoderms.
Palynologist
Palynology is the study of living and fossilized pollen and spores. The hard, outer shells of pollen grains from different species are unique and can survive in favorable conditions for thousands of years. Palynolgists can identify plants that lived in the past and identify broad environmental trends based on plant life.
Other Types of Paleontologists
A paleobotanist studies fossil plants, including fossil algae, fungi and land plants. An ichnologist studies fossil tracks, trails and footprints. A paleoecologist studies the ecology and climate of the past and the interactions and responses of ancient organisms with changing environments.
Geologists study rocks found on the Earth's surface and inside of its layers. They assist mining, construction and engineering firms in making determinations on use or remove rocks for industrial purposes. The need for hydrologists and geoscientists like geologists in the United States will increase by 18 percent from 2008 through 2018, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. The National Association of State Boards of Geology offers a certification program, which confers the Professional Geologist credential. In some states, certification is required before starting work as a geologist.
State Requirements
The National Association of State Boards of Geology only offers Professional Geologist certification for geologists who reside in states that mandate licensing or registration in the field. As of January 2011, 31 states fully regulate the practice of geology, thus requiring certification. The NASBG allows each state to establish its own set of qualifications for certification but there are general similarities across states.
Education
Typically, a Doctor of Philosophy degree is necessary to gain certification as a professional geologist. There are a number of colleges and universities in the United States that offer Ph.D. programs in geology. In 2010, "U.S. News and World Report" compiled a list of the best geology graduate programs in the country, which included the University of Arizona, the University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, Pennsylvania State University, the University of Texas-Austin, Stanford University, California Institute of Technology and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Doctorate programs in geology usually take a minimum of four years, and require students to complete a lengthy research project and dissertation. These programs generally include chemistry and physics courses as well as classes directly related to geology, such as mineralogy, which deals with the chemical composition and structures of the Earth's minerals.
Examination
One standard requirement for Professional Geologist certification is the successful completion of examinations developed by the National Association of State Boards of Geology. Two examinations are offered through the NASBG: the Fundamentals of Geology and Practice of Geology. States determine which exam candidates for licensing must complete; some states may require both tests. Each exam is multiple choice and last up to four hours. The NASBG administers the exams twice each year in the spring and fall.
Other Requirements
Generally, states mandate that applicants for certification complete an application and pay a fee to the state. In addition, states may impose other requirements on geologists seeking certification. Evidence of a certain number of years of experience in research or as an assistant to a professional geologist may be necessary. Some states mandate that applicants undergo criminal background checks prior to applying for certification. A small number of states require certified Professional Geologists to complete continuing education coursework on a regular schedule in order to maintain their certifications.
Tags: Association State, Association State Boards, Boards Geology, National Association, National Association State, Professional Geologist, State Boards
Right angle trigonometry relies on the geometric ratios between sides and angles in right triangles to calculate the value of one part when the other is known--for instance, finding a missing angle when the sides are known. It can be extended and applied to many fields, including environmental science, geology and navigation. Using sine, tangent, cosine, a calculator, a ruler and a protractor, you can engage in many scientific activities to explore right angle trigonometry.
Approximating Tree Height
Because of the time and labor involved in measuring a tree from top to bottom, many researchers use trigonometry to accurately estimate tree heights. To do this, first, measure your distance, perhaps with a tape measure, from where you will be standing to the tree you are measuring. The units do not matter. Next, using a clinometer, measure the angle from your face to the top of the tree. If you do not have a clinometer, you can use a protractor with a free-weight attached to its center. As you angle the protractor in accordance to your line of vision to the top of the tree, the weight will create the "angle of elevation" of your eye sight to the tree top. Finally, use a calculator to determine the height of the tree. Since tangent of the angle, or tan(angle), = (opposite side)/(adjacent side), your tree height will equal (your distance from the tree) x [tan(angle)] + the distance from the ground to your eye level. For example, if you are 14 ft. from the tree, the tip of the tree is 55º from your eye level 5 ft. off the ground, then the tree height is 25.0 ft. [14 x tan(55º) + 5].
Measuring Width of a Stream
Start by measuring your distance directly across from some object on the other side of the stream, like a large rock or tree, to a point some distance along the stream but further down. From this new point, estimate the angle made from your starting position to your current position to the object on the other side of the stream. The best way to do this is with a compass. Approximate the degree of change in your compass from facing your starting position to facing the object on the other side of the stream. Even if your measurement is imprecise, you will be able to closely approximate the width of the stream using this information. For example, if your distance from the object directly across from you to further down the stream is 15 ft. and your compass changes by about 30º, then the stream width is 8.66 ft. [15 x tan(30º)].
Measuring the Sun's Angle of Elevation from the Earth
Throughout the day, the sun changes its position in the sky. The higher up it is, the shorter the shadow cast by objects of a given height. You can use this information to estimate the sun's angle to the Earth and the approximate heights of objects given their shadow length. Begin by taking a yardstick or any type of vertical, medium-sized object. Measure the height of the object. Then stand the object vertically in a place with no shade, and measure the shadow cast from the base of the object. For instance, if your 4 in. cell phone has a 3 in. shadow, then the sun's angle is 53.1º [tan ̄ ¹ (height/shadow) = tan ̄ ¹ (4/3)]. Therefore, if you know the shadow of a house is 8 ft. when the sun's angle is 53.1º, then its height is 10.7 ft. [8 x tan(53.1º)]. As the sun rises, its angle of elevation grows and shadow length correspondingly shrinks.
Tags: your distance, distance from, from your, object other, object other side, other side
Teach your child about earthquake safety to make her feel more secure should one occur.
There are approximately 20,000 earthquakes worldwide each year, according to the United States Geological Survey. No matter the magnitude, an earthquake is a frightening event, especially for children. A child left alone at night in her bed is vulnerable to injury from a bedroom that isn't designed for earthquake safety or because she's not prepared for act during the quake. Setting up a bedroom correctly and teaching your child earthquake safety will help protect her no matter what the time of day. Does this Spark an idea?
Instructions
1. Place your child's bed away from the window. This will ensure that broken glass doesn't fall on her if the window breaks.
2. Avoid hanging any pictures, mirrors or shelving above or around your child's bed. During a quake, they could fall from the walls, causing injury.
3. Anchor heavy objects, such as televisions, dressers or bookcases, to the wall. This will ensure that these heavy objects don't fall on your child during an earthquake.
4. Set a flashlight and a pair of shoes inside a plastic bag. Attach or tie the bag to your child's bed. The flashlight will help her in the event of a power outage, while the shoes will protect her feet from any debris or broken glass.
5. Teach your child react in the event of an earthquake. She should drop to the floor next to her bed and cover her head with her hands; stay in bed and cover her head with a pillow; or run to the nearest doorway. She should then wait for you to come to her; she shouldn't attempt to walk down the stairs in case she falls. Map out an escape route and teach your child about a safe meeting place in an open area, such as on the sidewalk, the front yard or in a neighbor's yard.
6. Write down the instructions and post them inside your child's bedroom. Run down the instructions at least once a week in order to keep her well-versed in what to do. Include a map that shows her where the family's meeting place is after an earthquake has occurred.
Tags: your child, earthquake safety, broken glass, child about, cover head, cover head with
The Progressive movement (1890 to 1920) was largely a reaction to the rapid industrialization of America. The views held by many in the progressive movement regarding education, the environment, role of government, employee-employer relations and rejection of Social Darwinism crystallized into reforms that continue to affect the lives of Americans today.
Progressive Goals
The Progressive movement was comprised of disparate groups and individuals rather than one unified bloc. However, they generally believed in an expanded role of government and the protection of society's weaker members. Progressivism included many different -- and sometimes contradictory -- goals. Among these goals were the end of prostitution, women's suffrage, nationalization of utilities, the end of child labor, enactment of anti-trust legislation, alcohol prohibition, dissolution of Tammany-style political machines, Americanization of immigrants and enactment of immigration restriction laws and the end of sweatshops.
Government
Recognized by many as the beginning of the Progressive movement, the National Conference for Good City Government was convened in Philadelphia in 1894 in an effort to clean up government corruption and make government more efficient. The keynote speaker -- then-New York City Police Chief Theodore Roosevelt -- spoke passionately about streamlining government and applying moral tenets to it. The conference launched the National Municipal League, which became a training ground for Progressives and still exists today as an exchange network for Progressive-themed reform movements.
Roosevelt's Bully Pulpit
Many Progressive reforms were aimed at curbing the detrimental effects to society caused by industrialist greed. With Progressive reformer Roosevelt in the White House, corporations were forced to incorporate some of these reforms. Faced with intransigence by coal companies during a 1902 coal strike, Roosevelt threatened to use Army troops to keep the mines open. The owners backed down, began bargaining in good faith with the union and the strike ended. Roosevelt also used his office to disband a railroad monopoly through the Sherman Antitrust Act.
Education
The Progressive movement brought about many educational reforms, including a large increase in women attending colleges and universities. Other reforms were instituted by such Progressive reformers as Progressive education pioneer and champion John Dewey, who began touting an educational model that emphasized personal growth rather than rote learning and mastery of bodies of knowledge, and Harvard educator Charles Eliot, who introduced elective courses and teaching through seminars. Believing that education was the key to an "enlightened" population, Progressives also launched enrolment campaigns that resulted in record levels of children attending school.
Women and Minorities
Progressive efforts in equality have had a long-lasting impact on American life. It was during the Progressive era that women's employment switched from domestic service to clerical and professional jobs. Margaret Sanger, the founder of Planned Parenthood, led a drive for birth control among poor women and the Progressive move for women's suffrage came to fruition with the 19th Amendment to the Constitution. Reformer Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. DuBois led a movement for racial equality that included DuBois' founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
Tags: Progressive movement, Progressive movement, rather than, reforms were, role government, women suffrage
Geography is the study of the world's topography, populations, atmospheres and systems and environments. Geography merges the social, or human, and natural, or physical, sciences, defining the relationship between human beings and their environment. Geographers uses specific tools to study, compare, measure and represent geographical features and models.
Maps
Maps are graphical models of qualitative and quantitative attributes of specific areas. General maps display qualitative features, including data that is categorized or ranked, as in land mass size, and data that is named, as in the name of a country or state. These maps are illustrated from data retrieved from aerial or satellite images. Highway maps displaying cities, states and interconnecting highways and roads are examples of general maps.
A thematic map tracks statistical variables and represents attributes not normally discernible from an aerial or satellite map. For example, population density maps are thematic.
A cartogram is a type of thematic map that displays spatial data and shows comparative images based on the actual amount of the variable under review. An atlas is an example of this type of map since it uses actual land mass size to display a proportional figure of all land masses. For example, the representation for the country of Japan is smaller than the one of China.
Special purpose maps show specific features not available on other maps. A meteorologist uses a special purpose map to track weather-related events such as precipitation values for a specific region.
Geographic Information, Global Positioning and Directional Systems
Geographic information systems (GIS) merges mapping technique, a database and computer technology to store, analyze and manipulate spatial data. This tool eliminates the need to manually depict maps since it can alter line, points and other geographical symbols rapidly and accurately. For example, GIS technology can draw a map showing all U.S. cities with populations over 1 million.
Global positioning system (GPS) technology creates virtual maps by using in-space satellites to acquire spatial positioning. This technology was developed for the U.S. military. Currently, millions of civilians worldwide use global positioning devices for location, mapping and directional assistance.
A compass is a simple navigational tool. This device consists of a magnet placed on a small field. The magnet reacts to the earth's magnetic core by pivoting or pulling toward the north magnetic pole.
Remote Sensing
Remote sensing uses aerial photography, satellite images, radar and microwaves to study the planets while detailing natural and man-made attributes. This tool uses the electromagnetic energy, such as the light spectrum, to detect and analyze surface properties and images and provide comparative data. Weather maps use this technique to display accurate weather events and predictions of upcoming variables such as temperature and snow amount.
Mathematical Models
Mathematical models allow a geographer to understand or predict complicated spatial relationships. Models use quantifiable observations or trends to represent a human or physical phenomenon. For example, a pollution model uses a mathematical formula to calculate and display the relationship between the amount of automobile emissions, smog and amount of respiratory illness for a given geographical area.
Tags: aerial satellite, data that, from aerial, from aerial satellite, land mass
Above or below sea level topography (topo) maps depict in detail the surface level shapes and features of an area. Although topo maps show basic map features, such as longitude and latitude data and scale referencing, they also use color, lines and other symbols to represent vegetation, waterways and/or manmade structures. In addition, they utilize contour lines---lines that connect spots on the map of equal elevation---to represent 3D shapes, show changing elevation and the height of surface areas. Once you relate the map depictions to their respective landmarks, you can easily read and use a topo map.
Instructions
1. Review your map key to determine the meaning of each color on your map. A color can directly match the real feature it depicts (blue for water or green for vegetation) or not (gray or pink for manmade structures) depending on the cartography standards used at the time the map was made and the purpose of that specific topo map.
2. Look at shades of color and patterns overlapping colors as shades/patterns represent additional details. For example, wavy lines on a river can represent rapids or a dark blue pattern can represent a flood zone.
3. Compare line types, colors and widths on your map to the key, as lines provide additional detail. Straight, solid, dotted, dashed and curved lines, and/or a mix of line types, can represent important features such as primary or secondary roads, power lines, railroad tracks, waterways, boundaries and land contours. A solid blue line can run through several colored areas to represent a stream or a solid blue line outlining a solid white area can represent a lake or pond that appears only when it rains.
4. Go to the "Contours" section of your key. Contours appear as curved solid, dotted or dashed lines of varying widths and colors that meet yet do not cross other lines. Wide or dark lines marked by numbers, called index contours, appear at evenly spaced intervals to represent a reference elevation point. Thin contour lines, called intermediate or supplementary contours, appear between index contours to represent a change in land slope---lines close together show steep slopes and lines widely spaced apart show less or no slope.
5. Extract the "contour interval," the amount of elevation between contour lines, from the margin or your map. Contour intervals typically appear as rounded evenly divided numbers from 10 to 100 feet (10, 20, 30... or 100, 200, 300...), with flat areas represented with numbers below 10 feet. For example, a map has intermediate contour lines closely spaced below an index contour marked 600 feet and a contour interval of 20 feet. The first line below that index reference equals a steep sloped area at 580 feet of elevation.
6. Use basic mathematics to determine the contour interval between one index contour and another instead of using the contour interval key. Take two index contours, subtract the smaller index contour number from the larger to determine the difference in elevation from one to the other, count the number of intermediate or supplementary contour lines between the two and divide the difference in elevation by the number of lines.
Tags: contour interval, contour lines, index contour, index contours, between index, blue line, difference elevation
Metamorphic rocks have undergone changes over the course of time.
Metamorphic rocks refer to rocks that have changed over time. Metamorphic rocks may be igneous or sedimentary in form at first, but because of the high temperature and pressure of the earth above, these rocks change into a new form. This happens 12 to 16 kilometers below the earth's surface where the temperature is above 100 degree Celsius.
Kinds of Metamorphic Rocks
Marble is a transformation from dolomite or limestone, but marble is much harder than either of its parent rocks. Marble's different colors are caused by impurities during the metamorphosis. Sandstone that comes in contact with magma becomes a quartzite, which is harder than the original stone. Slate is a low-grade metamorphosis of shale that is easy to split. Schist, on the other hand, is a medium-grade rock because of the heat and pressure it experiences. Gneiss is a high-grade conversion of granite.
Experiment 1
You will need several colors of modeling clay, wax paper and three books. Create 24 pieces of pea-sized balls from clay. These clay balls represent the rock particles. Place the clay balls on a piece of wax paper, cover them with another sheet of wax paper and then stack books on top of the paper. The weight of the books simulates the pressure rocks place on rock particles. Remove the books and the top layer of wax paper and look at the clay, which has changed into a new form. The same happens to sedimentary rocks changing into metamorphic rocks.
Experiment 2
When metamorphic rocks are formed, they do so with several layers of dirt and lava. As a result, if you cut a rock in half, you will see many different colors and forms; sometimes you can even find preserved skeletons of bugs and insects. Demonstrate this concept by gathering three balls of colored clay or play dough. Roll the three balls of clay together into one big ball so the colors mix together. Next, press or pound on the newly formed clay ball until it is almost flat. Finally, cut the flattened ball into four or five pieces. Examine how the colors have mixed together and formed layers of colors, just as rocks formed under the pressure of the earth combine together like the minerals found in metamorphic rocks.
Experiment 3
This is a simple experiment for younger students that shows how ingenious rocks are formed. You will need wax paper and chocolate chips. Melt the chocolate chips in the microwave as an example of magma or lava. Next, pour out the melted chocolate onto a piece of wax paper for each child. Have the students watch the chocolate as it hardens and then cools down.
Tags: rocks formed, chocolate chips, clay balls, different colors, harder than, into form
The Great Plains are located west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains spreading across ten states, three Canadian provinces, and into Mexico. The area, categorized by its geological makeup, has a history of Native American tribes, settlement and modern day technology.
Geography
The Great Plains are located across Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, Texas, Wyoming, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, New Mexico, and Colorado. Canadian provinces Saskatchewan, Alberta and Manitoba and parts of Mexico are also within the Great Plains.
Features
Characterized by large expanses of flat and hilly prairie land and steppe, the Great Plains measure approximately 2,000 miles (3,200 km) north to south and 500 miles (800 km) east to west.
History
The Plains were home to 27 Native American tribes, mostly nomadic and known for their tipi shelters and bison hunting. The Great Plains were settled after the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and the Homestead Act of 1862.
Effects
Pioneer settlement of the Plains brought near extinction to the American bison in the 1800s. American expansion also resulted in the relocation of 46,000 Native Americans by 1837, known as the Trail of Tears.
Benefits
Today the Plains area is known for farming, herding and implementation of new technology. The region has experienced some economic revitalization from advancements in wind power development.
Tags: Great Plains, American tribes, Canadian provinces, Great Plains located, Native American, Native American tribes, Plains located
Missouri is one of the center-most states in America and was acquired during the Louisiana Purchase. It officially became a state in 1821 and was seen as a gateway to the West. Today Missouri's tourism economy makes up more than 6 percent of its gross domestic product. One reason could be Missouri's location: Eight states surround its borders along with many major interstate highways. Does this Spark an idea?
Iowa
Iowa borders Missouri along its top border. Interstate highways 29 and 35 connect both states, with Highway 29 connecting Sioux City, Iowa, to Saint Joseph, Missouri. Highway 35 connects Des Moines, Iowa, to Kansas City, Missouri. Iowa border towns include Hamburg and Lamoni, while Grant City and Unionville are Missouri border towns.
Kansas
Kansas City exists in both Kansas and Missouri as two different cities with the same name and proximity along Missouri's western border. Kansas City, Missouri, was established in 1850, 18 years before Kansas City, Kansas, was formed. Interstate 70 runs through Kansas City, connecting it to St. Louis.
Oklahoma
Oklahoma touches Missouri at its southwestern border. Joplin, Missouri, is less than 5 miles from the Oklahoma border. Interstate 44 joins Oklahoma with Missouri, connecting Oklahoma City and Tulsa to Springfield and St. Louis. That connection is known as the Will Rogers Turnpike.
Arkansas
Arkansas is along Missouri's southern border, with Rogers and Corning among the border towns; Missouri's border towns include Thayer, Branson and Malden. Interstate bypass 540 connects Arkansas with Missouri, running from Alma, Arkansas, to Joplin, Missouri. State roads 63, 65, 67 and 71 also connect both states. Arkansas and Missouri also share the Chain-O-Lakes bodies of water.
Tennessee and Kentucky
Missouri connects with Tennessee at its southeast border. Interstate bypass 155 connects both states through Missouri's Hayti and Tennessee's Dyersburg. Marston and Cooter, Missouri, are border towns. The Mississippi River also splits the borders.
Kentucky touches Missouri just above its Tennessee border on the southeast as well. Interstate 57 connects both states, from Marion, Kentucky, through Charleston, Missouri.
Illinois
Illinois borders Missouri on the east side, with Interstate 70 running past Indianapolis, Indiana, through Illinois to St. Louis. Interstate 64 also runs through Illinois to St. Louis.
Nebraska
Nebraska's closest significant border city to Missouri is Omaha, which is less than 50 miles from Missouri's northwestern tip. St. Joseph is the closest significant Missouri border town. Interstate 29 connects the two towns.
Tags: border towns, Kansas City, both states, Missouri border, border Interstate
Quartz and calcite are common minerals in the rocks around the world. Both minerals form in a variety of colors, such as purple, white, brown, gray and colorless, which at times makes them appear similar. However, these two minerals have many distinctively different physical and chemical properties that differentiate them.
Hardness
Mineral hardness is a key characteristic that scientists use in sample identification. Quartz is about four times harder than calcite. A piece of quartz can scratch a sample of calcite, but calcite cannot scratch quartz. If you have a sample if each, try to scratch one sample with the other to observe the difference in the hardness. You also can test the hardness of these two minerals using a pocketknife. The blade of the knife has a hardness value between calcite and quartz. The knife can scratch a calcite crystal but will not scratch quartz.
Crystal Shape
Quartz and calcite crystals have distinctively different crystal shapes. One of the most common forms of calcite is a rhombohedron, though it also can form prismatic crystals, scalenohedrons and other less common forms and combinations. The most common form of quartz is a hexagonal prism that is terminated with six-sided pyramids at either end of the crystal. Many quartz crystals may not exhibit the perfect crystal shape or may appear to have a three-sided pyramid at the terminus.
Cleavage and Fracture
Cleavage is a crystal's ability to break along weak bonds within the crystal structure. The break results in a smooth surface. Calcite exhibits rhombic cleavage, which means that it breaks along three planes of weakness that create a rhombic shape for the crystal. Quartz does not have strong cleavage but can fracture across the crystal, leaving a rough surface on the broken crystal. Quartz fractures are described as conchoidal when the fractured surface exhibits a swirl pattern on the stone.
Chemical Composition
Calcite is a calcium carbonate mineral while quartz is a silicon dioxide crystal. Visually, you cannot tell the difference in the mineral composition, but you can perform a test to determine if the crystal you have is calcite. Calcium carbonate reacts with an acid to produce bubbles on the surface of the crystal. To test your sample, drop dilute hydrochloric acid, lemon juice or vinegar onto the sample and watch for bubbles. Quartz does not react to a dilute acid.
Tags: Quartz calcite, calcite common, common forms, crystal Quartz, distinctively different
Calculating river lengths provide interesting information, but it is not always easy to measure
Rivers are essential in shaping landscapes, supporting aquatic life and supplying water to many communities. Extensive research is done in the area of river length measurement. The Nile River is credited as the world's longest, stretching approximately 4,135 miles across Egypt, North and South Sudan, and Ethiopia. In the United States, the Mississippi is the longest river at 3,870 miles. Measurements are made based on available topographic data and remote sensing imagery.
What to Measure
Prior to measuring river length, the beginning and end of a river need to be determined. Rivers originate from a range of sources, such as glaciers, fountains or lakes, and end by either flowing into the sea or another river. The start of a river is referred to as headwater, while the end of a river is called embouchure. So, calculating river length depends on measuring from the headwater to the embouchure.
Where to Measure
Rivers, especially the larger ones, usually have several contributing headwater streams, and a criterion is followed to decide where to begin measuring. This involves weighing up multiple factors, including which is the longest headwater stream, which has the largest volume of water, and which has the same orientation as the entire river.
Measure
Topography is an important geological tool. A topographical map is a two-dimensional figure that represents a three-dimensional surface. Analyzing topographical data is the most common method for measuring river length. Such data is traditionally collected via field surveys, which is often labor intensive. Advanced remote sensing image capture also provides topographic data that can be more accurately interpreted, although pinpointing the beginning of a river remains problematic.
Difficulties
No universal standard exists for measuring the length of a river; the statistics constantly vary. In 2007, Brazilian scientists controversially claimed the Amazon River was close to 100 miles longer than the Nile River. As the source and mouth of a river remain difficult to establish, it is uncertain where measurement should begin or end. Sources of variance arise from questions, such as which tributaries to include or what adjustments to make when a river passes through a lake.
Tags: river length, beginning river, measuring river, measuring river length, Nile River, remote sensing
Once you have conducted a survey, regardless of the subject matter, it is best to write a report that analyzes and explains the nature of the survey and its outcomes. The length of the report can vary. It depends on the depth of your project, your subject matter and the way you carried out your survey.
Instructions
1. Analyze and organize your data. Before you can begin assembling your report, you will want to check your data for errors or inconsistencies. Make sure your data accurately reflects what the survey concluded. Look for any common themes or recurring points that shaped the nature of your survey conclusions.
2. Outline the purpose and hypothesis of performing your survey. In the introduction section of your report, detail why this survey was developed, who developed this survey and what outcome you or the survey developers expected. For the ease of the reader, you may want to add a one-page abstract that briefly outlines the purpose of the survey and touches on the information gained. This could even precede your formal introduction.
3. Define how the survey was performed. Fully describe how the survey sample was determined, any exclusions to the sample set, how you chose your survey takers and any other relevant information. Also define the chief researcher, how he was chosen and how the integrity of the survey was ensured.
4. Detail the nature of the survey questions and provide an explanation for each question on the survey. Do not simply list the survey's questions; explain each question in detail. Each section should require about two pages of explanation in length. Explain why each question was asked and what options, if any, were given to the survey takers. If possible, provide any statistical basis for including each question.
5. Provide any tables or illustrations that will help the reader better visualize the survey's outcomes. Gather your statistical information and organize this into a table or graph that can be visually understood by the reader.
6. Write a conclusion that sums up your findings. Address any major findings and describe what that could express about the sample set. Address any concerns you might have had about the findings or any changes you would recommend for a future survey on the same or similar subject matter. Offer hard or theoretical explanations for your outcomes.
Tags: each question, your survey, subject matter, your data, nature survey, survey outcomes, survey questions
You can find spectacular limestone formations all around the world.
Granite and limestone are two of the most common and widely distributed rocks on Earth. Both have been used as key building blocks over the centuries. They are, however, very different in their composition, appearances and uses. Although the science behind the formation of these types of rocks is complex, you can identify significant distinctions between granite and limestone.
Rock Type
Granite is an igneous rock. As with other rocks in this category, it is formed from magma that cools and solidifies after a volcanic eruption. Granite rocks were formed when pockets of magma cooled below the Earth's surface, with the overall process taking longer than for many other igneous rocks.
Limestone is classed as a sedimentary rock. It was formed on the surface of the Earth by the process of sedimentation, with several minerals or organic particles coming together to form a solid sediment. Limestone is formed from at least 50 per cent calcium carbonate. Grains of carbonates, such as ooids and peloids, and fragments of coral may also be present in limestone.
Appearance
Granite has a grainy appearance and can be pink or varying shades of gray, depending upon its chemical and mineral make-up. The rock is usually found in large deposits; for example, those that form large massifs or tors.
Limestone is mainly white, although it may be tinted by impurities. The presence of iron oxide, for example, gives it a brownish or yellowish tint, and carbon can give it a blue, black or gray hint. Although often hidden from view, when bands of limestone do emerge from the Earth's surface, it is often in spectacular style. Famous rocky outcrops of limestone include Malham Cove in North Yorkshire, U.K., and the Bridal Veil Falls in Utah.
Physical Properties
Samples of granite usually boast a compressive strength of around 200 MPa. They usually have a density in the region of 2.65 to 2.76 grams per centimeter cubed.
The compressive strength of limestone, however, is more varied, ranging from 15MPa to in excess of 100MPa. Its density, at around 2.6 grams per centimeter cubed, is roughly the same the density of granite.
Uses
Thanks to its abundance, durability and the ease with which it can be extracted and cut, limestone has long served as an important building material. The Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, for example, was constructed entirely from limestone. It was also highly popular in the late 19th and 20th centuries, used on a range of buildings and monuments across Europe and the US. Limestone is also used to build roads, in the manufacturing of cement and to extract iron from its ore.
Granite has also served an important role in the construction sector, again due to its durability. Notable examples of its use over the centuries include several of the pyramids in Egypt. Aberdeen, Scotland, is known as the Granite City because it was built largely from the rock.
All living creatures leave behind traces of their activities as they build dwellings, rest, hide, forage and hunt for food, or as they travel about. Sometimes this evidence is preserved by geologic processes over long periods of time, and those traces can give us insight into the lives of creatures from the very distant past.
What are Trace Fossils?
Trace fossils are a type of impression left in sedimentary rock formations, made by the activities of ancient animals. Trace fossils are marks of the creature's passing, and can be as varied as the footprints of dinosaurs, burrows of marine worms, paths made by clams and mollusks across the sea floor or even the droppings or feces of animals. Trace fossils differ from the preserved bodily remains of animals such as skeletons or mineralized forms that preserve the shape of body tissues.
How are trace fossils created?
Most trace fossils are made when a creature has been active in wet mud or sandy soil. The mud or soil dries and hardens, preserving the impressions or droppings, which are later covered by more soil or sediment. Over many years, the sediment is transformed into sedimentary rock.
What can be learned from trace fossils?
Trace fossils are valuable because they can provide us with information about how the animals lived, such as how they moved about, foraging and hunting, how they constructed nest or burrows and even how they fled from predators or fought with them. Trace fossils can reveal details of an animal's posture and walking gait, such as whether they stood erect or moved on two or more limbs. By comparing evidence of an animal's activities to known patterns of modern creatures, information can be deduced about the organism's anatomical structure and interaction with their environment, even if no body-form fossils are present. In some cases, an animal's diet can be determined by the fossilized droppings or feces.
Some trace fossils, made by soft bodied creatures such as worms, nematodes and snails, are the only evidence we have of these type of creatures in the ancient world. The traces they left behind can also help us understand the nature of the environment, climate and ecology of their eras. Trace fossils are often useful in helping to establish dates for sedimentary layers in which other types of fossils are found.
Why are trace fossils valuable for scientific studies?
The scientific study of ancient trace fossils is called paleoichnology. Paleontologists keep records of trace fossils from different rock strata from locations throughout the world. Trace fossilshave been discovered in every geologic era starting with the Late Precambrian to the Ice Age. They are found in sedimentary rocks such as limestone, siltstone, sandstone, coal and shale. Trace fossils have been formed in underwater environments as well as on dry land. The presence of trace fossils in a rock strata can also help determine the type of environment and local conditions that existed in the place and time that the impressions were made. Trace fossils are considered important to scientists who study geology, as they provide information about the formation of of the surface features of the Earth's upper crust.
Can trace fossils lead to other discoveries?
Often, trace fossils can indicate areas where more rare fossils that preserve the bodily forms of animals might be found, with further investigation or excavation. For example, areas that have dinosaur tracks visible on ancient river banks may be near fossilized bones that were buried in the silt, where the river took a sharp bend. By tracing the course of the ancient river, such bones are often discovered partially exposed on eroded slopes.
An Example of Evidence from Trace Fossil Footprints
One very interesting example of the type of story that trace fossils can reveal is the case of a set of tracks that showed a struggle between a Tyrannosaurus Rex and a Triceratops. The three-toed tracks of the Tyrannosaur were widely spaced and deeply impressed as it ran swiftly in pursuit of the Triceratops. The trackway showed where the Triceratops swung around to confront its foe and defend itself with its three sharp horns. The footprints dispersed about indicated where the huge beasts fought in deadly combat. Excavation in the same area found the skeletized fossil remains of both, who died still locked in an embrace as they struggled.
Have trace fossils ever been found of humans or their ancestors?
Trace fossils that show the passing of the distant ancestors of humans have been found in sedimentary rocks formed from volcanic ash deposits. Footprints from a small family group including adults and children walking barefoot through the ash were preserved from over three million years ago.
Tags: have been, trace fossils, also help, ancient river, animals Trace
Engineering contractors use grants to cover the publication costs of their work.
Engineering contractors work and study in various areas of science, including geology, biology and physics, and other industries such as construction and education. Grants are available from federal government agencies as well as private companies to support research and development projects and other aspects of engineering contractors' businesses. These grants cover compensation, travel, equipment and supply purchases and other direct costs associated with their projects.
Department of Energy
The U.S. Department of Energy sponsors grant programs for engineers to fund research and development projects. For example, the Inventions and Innovations Program awards grants to engineers to support their research into energy-saving ideas and inventions and the development of these technologies. These grants are available to U.S engineers and small businesses.
Department of the Interior
Grants are also available from the U.S. Department of the Interior to support the research and development efforts of engineers. The U.S Geological Survey grant program awards discretionary funds to cover the costs of researching and examining minerals, water, geological structures and biological resources on public lands. Grants are also used by engineers to attend national conferences to discuss project results. Another research and development grant program funded by the U.S. Department of the Interior for engineers is the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program.
Department of Defense
Engineers can also apply for funding from the U.S. Department of Defense. For instance, the federal agency sponsors the Collaborative Research and Development grant program. Grants are awarded to private firms such as corporations and limited liability companiesto improve productivity in the construction industry through research and development.
National Science Foundation
The National Science Foundation, NSF, funds several programs for engineers to finance their research and development projects. The Computer and Information Science and Engineering program awards grants to engineers to cover the costs to conduct research including salaries, wages and travel expenses. Engineering Grants and International Science and Engineering are other grant programs available to engineers from NSF.
Private Grants
There are grants for engineers from non-government agencies as well. The United Engineering Foundation, Inc., UEF, which is an association of several engineering institutes, funds grants to support the advancement of science and technologies through education and engineering. Grants are awarded to nonprofit organizations on an annual basis. In 2012, UEF anticipates up to $750,000 to be available for funding. Engineers seeking grants from nonprofit organizations, private businesses and other non-government entities can visit their local libraries and economic development centers for assistance.
Tags: Department Interior, development projects, grant program, grants engineers, research development, research development, research development projects
Much of the theory of continental drift (now referred to as plate tectonics) derives from evidence provided by fossils. Scientists have been collecting parallel evidence across the Pacific Ocean since the early 1900s. This evidence, which includes reptile fossils of matching genus, shows clearly that the Earth's modern land masses were once close together and, likely, physically joined.
History
In 1915, German scientist Alfred Wegener developed a theory that the continents we know today were once joined as a single land mass. He called the land mass Pangaea, a term that means "all lands" in Greek. A South African geologist by the name of Alexander Du Toit added to the theory, suggesting evidence that described how the supercontinent split and drifted apart. The scientists based a significant portion of their theories on evidence from the fossil record.
Significance
Paleontologists discovering matching fossils in Africa and South America contributed greatly to the evidence behind the theory of continental drift. It seems to prove that these continents were once close enough to each other that animals and plants could easily move between them. Notably, the fossils in question were found embedded in the same geologic layer sequence. This suggests that the living organisms from which the fossils derive lived in the same ecosystem and soil, even though they were found thousands of miles apart.
Types
There are hundreds of fossil types that have turned up in Africa and South America. Four of these include the Cynognathus (a mammal-like land-dweller found in South America, Africa, China and Antarctica), Lystrosaurus (a pig-sized herbivore found in Africa, Antarctica, and India), Mesosaurus (a freshwater-dwelling anapsid reptile found in Africa and South America) and Ichthyosaurs (another aquatic reptile, shaped like a 45-foot-long dolphin, found in Africa and Chile.)
Geography
The division of Pangaea began 250 million years ago and occurred in four distinct stages. First, a rift began within Pangaea and split the supercontinent into two parts, Laurasia and Gondwanaland. Next, the Atlantic expanded and pushed apart North America and Africa. Antarctica then severed from Gondwanaland while India shifted toward the equator. South America and Africa split during the third stage, pushing Africa north. Finally, Greenland broke away from continental Europe and North America.
Theories/Speculation
The 2004 discovery of a rare fossilized dinosaur led scientists to believe that the continents might have been connected by a land bridge almost 25 million years after previous researchers had theorized. The fossil in question, Rugops primus, is that of a large carnivore found in South America and the Sahara Desert.
Tags: South America, America Africa, Africa South, Africa South America, found Africa, South America Africa, were once
Hands-on learning experiences help immerse children in the world of the dinosaurs.
Whether due to their size and shape or their mysterious disappearance from our planet, dinosaurs fascinate many preschoolers. A physical science unit focusing on these giant reptiles is a common experience in many preschool classrooms. Go beyond reading books and studying images of the giant reptiles and let preschool-aged children take an active role in creating fossils, hunting for dinosaur bones and making a habitat for the class dino-herd.
Go on a Dinosaur Dig
Leftover chicken bones and a sand table help give budding paleontologists some experience in locating and identifying "dinosaur" bones. Collect the bones of a whole roasting chicken and boil them until no meat remains. Sterilize them by placing them in a container of bleach (in a well-ventilated area) and allowing them to soak overnight. After rinsing and drying the bones, hide them in the sand. Let students unearth them using paintbrushes and small shovels. Once they collect all of the bones, let them guess which animal the bones belonged to.
Create Dinosaur Fossils
Study the importance of dinosaur tracks and use regular clay (not Play-Doh) and toy dinosaurs to create your own lasting dinosaur impression. Ask the butcher at the grocery store for some new and clean Styrofoam meat trays. Give each child a small ball of clay and let them roll it flat. Offer children an assortment of toy dinosaurs and let them select their favorite. Make dinosaur footprints by using the plastic toy to stamp tracks across the clay. Remove the clay to the tray, write the name of the dinosaur that left the footprints on it and let it dry. For added enrichment, place the entire classes' tracks in a row and let them take turns guessing which type of dinosaur left each imprint.
Make a Fossil
Use paper cups, modeling clay and Plaster of Paris to give children a hands-on experience creating "real-life" fossils. Put a small amount of clay in the bottom of a paper cup and let children choose a plastic dinosaur figurine to "fossilize." Push the figure into the clay so that it makes an imprint, then remove it and pour Plaster of Paris into the rest of the cup. Let the project dry overnight, then peel away the paper cup and clay to reveal the "fossil" embedded there.
Design a Dinosaur Habitat
Learn more about the type of environment inhabited by dinosaurs by letting students create a dinosaur home. Spray-paint a large, sturdy piece of cardboard black and green. Let children place brown and green Play-Doh (mud and grass) on the floor of the habitat. Make a "pond" using blue gel glue. Fill the habitat with plastic rocks, trees and dinosaur figures. Create a working volcano by covering a small plastic drinking bottle with Play-Doh (to resemble the volcano's cone) and positioning it inside of a small cake pan. Leave the top open to create the lava flow. When it is time for the volcano to "erupt," fill the bottle with warm water, a few drops of detergent and a tablespoon of baking soda. Add a small amount of vinegar to the bottle and watch your volcano explode.
Texas' diverse landscape yields a wide variety of precious gemstones.
Texas is a huge state with incredibly diverse geographical features, from sandy beaches and lush hill country to hot, scrubby desert. Near the center of the state is the Llano Uplift, a giant granite dome known locally as Enchanted Rock. Texas' geologic diversity is great for mineral collectors and rockhounds looking for precious and semiprecious stones.
Pearl
Texas babies born in June can enjoy a birthstone harvested in their home state.
Texas is a great source for freshwater pearls, which are found in the Highland Lakes area of central Texas. Divers retrieve mussels from the muddy silt of Lakes LBJ and Buchanan, sometimes using a process called "brailing," which causes the mussels to open up and clamp onto a net.
The Concho River, a tributary of the Colorado River in west Texas, yields the prized pink, purple and lavender Concho pearl. Texas requires a freshwater fishing license to dive for mussels; in 2011, the cost is $30.
Topaz
Most blue topaz is irradiated to look that way.
Blue topaz, which is extremely rare, is the official gemstone of Texas. Colorless and light-blue topaz can be found in Mason County, in the stretch of Precambrian granite west of the Llano Uplift. Due to its popularity as a locally sourced treasure, topaz is increasingly hard to find in the hill country.
Chalcedony
Agate comes in many different colors and is recognizable for its curved bands.
Agate and jasper are two types of chalcedony, or cryptocrystalline quartz formations. Moss agate, which looks like blue cheese, as well as red and black agate, is available in Brewster County, near the western town of Alpine. Jasper, a form of chert, is usually red, green, yellow or brown and can be found in the limestone formations in the west central counties of San Saba and McCulloch, as well as in Moore County in the northern panhandle.
Cinnabar
Cinnabar, which is the red ore from which mercury is extracted, is visible in the bluffs of west Texas. It was used by the native tribes of Texas as a form of currency and for paint. Terlingua, a small town along the southwestern border, is home to one of the largest mercury deposits in the world.
Opal
Opal is a popular choice for both vintage and contemporary jewelry.
Opal is a lovely, opaque silica gemstone that can contain up to 10 percent water. Because it diffracts light, opal can take on many different colors, including white, purple, pink, blue and green. Texas opal can be found in the Catahoula Formation, a fossilized wood structure that stretches along the eastern Gulf coast of Texas and into Louisiana.
Tags: different colors, hill country, Llano Uplift, many different, many different colors
Hardness tests are used to determine the hardness of metals, rocks and minerals.
Hardness tests measure a material's resistance to scratching or abrasion, cutting, or permanent deformation caused by indentation under pressure. These tests could more precisely be said to test the materials for "give" (yield strength), tensile strength, or elasticity rather than for actual hardness. The Mohs hardness test is used to test minerals and gemstones. One of three scales --- the Rockwell, Brinell, or Vickers hardness tests --- is used to test metal strength.
The Rockwell Hardness Scale
The Rockwell Hardness test examines a metal's resistance to bending, shape change or penetration when force is applied. A non-deformable ball or cone is pressed into the metal under varying degrees of pressure either to see if the ball or cone will damage the metal, or to find out how much pressure it takes to damage the metal. The results are compared to the Rockwell Hardness Scale, which lists 15 letters of the alphabet (A to H, K to M, P to S, and V). These letters correspond to specific indentation tools, a load or pressure amount, and are assigned an arbitrary numerical value. The numerical values increase with the hardness of the metal.
THe Brinell Hardness Test
Like the Rockwell Hardness Scale, the Brinell Hardness test use the non-deformable balls or cones to look for a metal's resistance to bending, shape change or penetration when force is applied. The Brinell test doesn't use a scale. It determines the metal's hardness by using a microscope to measure the diameter of the indentation, then dividing the force applied during the test by the diameter's surface area.
The Vickers Hardness Test
The Vickers Hardness test uses a ball or cone to test for metal hardness in the same manner as both the Rockwell Hardness Scale and the Brinell Hardness Test. The Vickers Test performs two indentations at an angle of 136 degrees, applied for 10 to 15 seconds. The two indentations are then examined under a microscope to determine the area of indentation. The results of the two indentations are averaged.
The Mohs Hardness Scale
The Mohs Hardness Test examines the resistance of minerals and gemstones to scratching and abrasion and compares their hardness relative to a scale of minerals and gemstones with a known hardness value. The scale ranges from talc --- a soft mineral talc with a value of one --- to the hardest substance known -- the diamond -- which has a hardness value of 10. As with the Rockwell Hardness Scale, the numerical values are arbitrary. The difference in hardness between each numerical value on the Mohs Scale is also arbitrary. The difference between one and two on this scale is small as compared to the much greater difference in hardness between 9 and 10.
Important information is contained in a topographic map's margins.
The 1:24,000-scale quadrangles, published by United States Geological Survey (USGS), are the standard topographic maps. The margins contain important information that is vital in reading the map.
Scale
The scale is located in the bottom margin of a topographic map. On a USGS map, the scale is given in feet and sections of a mile and kilometer.
Coordinates
The 1:24,000 scale map displays and an area of 7.5 minutes of both latitude and longitude, which is marked in the margins. Typically, the margins also contain Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates in meters to pinpoint locations.
North
The bottom margin also displays magnetic and grid (true) north. The declination of magnetic north is important information for compass orienteering.
Contour Interval
Contour interval, the elevation difference between lines, is given in the bottom margin. On the 1:24,000 scale map, contour intervals are usually ten feet.
Map Name
The USGS notes that topographic maps are typically named by the most famous feature within the map. The name can be found in the top and bottom margins.
Dating Map Features
Topographic maps show house locations and other features. This information, along with the publication date printed in the margins, helps track development through time.
Tags: bottom margin, important information, topographic maps
Use a map of the gulf as a guide to draw your own map.
Make a map of the Gulf, whether it is the Gulf of Mexico or the Persian Gulf, by referring to or printing a map from an online source, or by using a photograph found in a book. Use the map as a guide to draw your version freehand on paper. Mount your finished map on cardboard or card stock for a sturdy finish. Label cities and landmarks for added detail. There are many concise maps available that can be studied to make your own map.
Instructions
1. Go to an online website, such as World Atlas (see Resources), and copy and paste the gulf-map photograph into a document. Save the document. Print the document on your computer printer.
2. Use the original map to draw, freehand, a replica of it on white paper. Use a pencil so you can erase mistakes. If the map is for a class project and your teacher has no objections, you can enlarge the map of the gulf and print the photograph as is.
3. Use colored pencils to color the map. There are lots of map photos available online. Search for Gulf Oil or Gulf Oil Well map images. There are many geological maps of gulfs online. According to the Guardian, there are abandoned oil wells in the Gulf of Mexico dating to the 1940s. Outline penciled words with fine-tipped markers to make the features prominent.
4. Label cities, towns, geographical features and landmarks. To make labels really pop, type the name of a city, choose a clear font in the appropriate type size for your map, and print it on white paper. Cut out the name of the city and glue it on a piece of colored paper. Trim the paper into a rectangle or desired shape. Glue the label to the map near the location.
5. Include a map legend for clarity's sake. According to Compass Dude, maps represent an illustration of a real-life location. Symbols used on the map help identify geography and other details. A map legend is needed to read the map. Draw your map legend in one of the corners of the map. For example, green circles could mean an area with forests. Make your own map legend or copy a legend found on a gulf map online.
6. Use rubber cement to adhere the map to a piece of card stock or cardboard to increase the map's durability. Title your map and include your name as the mapmaker.
Tags: card stock, guide draw, guide draw your, Gulf Mexico, Label cities, Make Gulf, name city
Sometimes a single feature--the direction mountains face, proximity to large bodies of water or humidity levels--affects a region's climate. At other times, an area's climate results from a complex set of geographical factors. Monitoring any regional climate is not simply a matter of checking local weather reports. Weather can vary considerably from one day to the next, but overall climate scarcely changes over time.
Time Frame
Mark Twain once said, "Climate is what we expect and weather is what we get." When meteorologists report the weather conditions (temperature, humidity, precipitation), their report covers the conditions present at a specific time and location. However, figuring out the climate for that location requires quantifying the weather data over a period of decades, and averaging the results.
Effects
Mountains are an example of a single feature affecting a climate. A mountain's windward slope faces into the wind, creating a constant uplift of air which produces large amounts of rain and snow. The mountain's leeward (sheltered) side is protected, so less precipitation occurs. Temperatures on the mountain are affected by sunshine or lack of it, with the warmest temperatures occurring on the sunny side. Elevation also drops temperatures as the altitude rises.
Types
The Earth is comprised of numerous climate categories. Tropical rain forest and tropical desert, wet coast land and marine, wet subarctic and ice cap, and urban climates, are just a few of these climate types. Each climactic region has a different set of environmental and geographical conditions affecting it.
Geography
Tropical rain forest climates straddle the equator and have high sun angles, creating warm temperatures and long days year-round, while their mountains face into the trade winds, increasing rain and humidity levels. In contrast, parched, scorching tropical deserts with low precipitation rates, are parked on a mountain's leeward side or near cold bodies of water. Their constant subtropical, high-pressure systems decrease humidity levels and leave rain or snow formation in short supply. The Earth's coldest temperatures are found at the ice caps, thanks to the extreme latitudes and the lack of sunshine for half of the year and their precipitation levels mimic that of deserts due to low humidity and precipitation levels. Concrete and buildings made of metal and glass raise temperatures in urban climates, like Houston, and the sheer quantity of skyscrapers create canyons that intensify wind speeds. Pollution from cars, trucks, and refineries -- among other things -- drive up the content of particulate matter in the air, which increases raindrops and friction in the clouds, thereby increasing lightning formation.
Expert Insight
Storms have always developed over Houston according to Richard Orville, an atmospheric scientist from Texas A&M, but they used to be caused only by nature. Now, he says, Houston's population (3 to 4 million) and half of the nation's petroleum refineries have affected this urban climate, producing stronger cumulus clouds and more powerful thunderstorms.