About The Natchez Trace

About the Natchez Trace

The Natchez Trace is a 440-mile long stretch of land that runs from Natchez, Mississippi to Nashville, Tennessee. It is a trail that is filled with history and that has been used by Native Americans and European settlers in the area. It was a major trading route and a trail that many explorers and settlers in the history of North America took as they explored land in the area or made their way further west. The trail itself connects three major rivers in the area: the Cumberland, the Mississippi and the Tennessee.

History

The Natchez Trace is found on a natural geological ridge line that began to be used heavily for feeding by prehistoric animals in the area of present-day Tennessee. Here there was plenty of water for the animals, which also created grazing land that was rich in greens and attracted many animals. Native Americans began to use the path that was created by these animals for hunting and foraging. Their use expanded the Trace and made it into a traveler-friendly path that European settlers used after they began to explore the area.

Geography

The Natchez Trace follows the path of the three major rivers in the southeast of the United States. The Tennessee, Mississippi and Cumberland rivers all converge alongside the Trace and have created a lush geographic area that is rich in wildlife and greenery. It is also on a natural ridge line, which is the cause of the waterways alongside it. It runs through the modern day states of Tennessee, Alabama and Mississippi. It's about 62 miles long.

Features

The current Natchez Trace is a trail that has a number of interesting features that have attracted hikers throughout the years. It is a lush area filled with local flora and is a great place to observe nature. Many animals flock to this area for the plants and the water that are in abundance. While traveling the trail, hikers and explorers will also see remnants of old civilizations in the form of ghost towns that can be explored that offer a glimpse into the past of the United States.

Function

During the time in which it was used by European explorers, the Natchez Trace served as the only reliable trade route between posts in the ports of Mississippi and Louisiana. Because of this, it functioned as a route of travel that not only sales and tradesmen took, but also men of the clergy, explorers and local politicians. Preachers were especially fond of using the Trace as a way of spreading their gospel and religious ideals throughout the new settlements along the rivers that the Trace passed alongside.

Expert Insight

There is an important aspect to the Trace that does not include it being a trade route or an important area to animals and Native Americans. It is the place where the famous explorer Meriwether Lewis of the Lewis and Clark Expedition died. At the time he was in financial and emotional despair, and the depression brought on by this caused him to ask for gunpowder that was readily available at various trade posts on the Trace. After he did this, he was killed by two gunshots. While it seems that suicide is to blame, some people say that Meriwether Lewis was murdered on the Natchez Trace.

Tags: Natchez Trace, Native Americans, trail that, About Natchez, About Natchez Trace, animals Native

Why Does Ice Have A Lower Heat Capacity Than Liquid Water

It takes longer to heat water to a higher temperature than it does to melt ice. While this may seem like a baffling situation, it is a major contributor to the moderation of the climate that allows life to exist on Earth.

Specific Heat Capacity

The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of one unit mass of that substance by 1 degree Celsius.

Calculating Specific Heat Capacity

The formula for the relationship between heat energy, temperature change, specific heat capacity and change in temperature is Q = mc(delta T), where Q represents the heat added to the substance, c is the specific heat capacity, m is the mass of the substance being heated and delta T is the change in the temperature.

Differences in Water and Ice

The specific heat of water at 25 degrees Celsius is 4.186 joules/gram * degree Kelvin.

The specific heat capacity of water at -10 degrees Celsius (ice) is 2.05 joules/gram * degree Kelvin.

The specific heat capacity of water at 100 degrees Celsius (steam) is 2.080 joules/gram * degree Kelvin.

Factors Affecting Specific Heat Capacity in Water and Ice

Probably the most obvious difference between ice and water is the fact that ice is a solid and water is a liquid, but while the state of matter changes from solid to liquid to gas depending on temperature, the chemical formula remains two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to one oxygen atom.

A degree of freedom is any form of energy in which heat transferred to an object can be stored. In a solid, these degrees of freedom are restricted by the structure of that solid. The kinetic energy stored internally in the molecule contributes to that substance's specific heat capacity and not to its temperature.

As a liquid, water has more directions to move and to absorb the heat applied to it. There is more surface area that needs to be heated for the overall temperature to increase.

However, with ice, the surface area doesn't change due to its more rigid structure. As ice heats, that heat energy must go somewhere, and it begins to break down the structure of the solid and melt the ice into water.

Advantages of Water's Higher Specific Heat Capacity

The higher specific heat capacity of water as well as its high heat of vaporization allows it to moderate the Earth's climate by causing temperatures to change slowly in areas around large bodies of water.

Because of the high specific heat of water, water and land near bodies of water are heated more slowly than land without water. More heat energy is necessary to heat up the area because the water absorbs the energy.

A similar amount of heat energy would increase the temperature of dry land to a much higher temperature, and the soil or dirt would keep the heat from going into the ground. Deserts reach extremely high temperatures specifically because of their lack of water.

Tags: specific heat, heat energy, capacity water, degree Kelvin, degrees Celsius, gram degree, gram degree Kelvin

Find Hematite

Hematite is slightly magnetic, so you must use an earth magnet to find it.

Hematite is a type of iron oxide that's commonly used in industry to make iron. Silvery gray hematite, known as spectacular hematite, is commonly used in jewelry. This mineral is also popular among rock and mineral collectors. Hematite is most commonly found in dry lake and river beds or alongside streams and rivers. According to the Images of Nature website, hematite is most commonly found in Colorado, Missouri, Wyoming and the Great Lakes region, including Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, New York, Pennsylvania and regions of Canada.

Instructions

1. Learn to recognize hematite. Consult a rock hunter's field guide to view images of the various forms of hematite. Hematite can vary in color and shape, ranging from a rusty red that's mixed with gray particles to a metallic solid gray.

2. Attach an earth magnet, capable of picking up at least 50 pounds, to the metal tip of a ski pole. Earth magnets are extremely strong, so it will adhere to the metal ski pole tip with ease.

3. Walk along dry river beds and alongside rivers and streams in the Great Lakes region and other places where hematite is commonly found. Hold the tip of the ski pole an inch or two off the ground and sweep the pole back and forth, just as you would sweep with a metal detector.

4. Remove and examine rocks that jump up to meet the earth magnet. Hematite is dense, so it often feels heavier than expected. Examine the stone's color and appearance. If necessary, compare the findings to the hematite photographs in your field guide.

5. Scrape the suspected hematite over a porcelain streak plate. Hematite will leave a rusty brown streak.

6. Put the suspected hematite stones under a bright desk lamp when you get home and use a Mohs hardness test kit to scrape the surface of each specimen. Hematite ranks at approximately 5.5 on the hardness scale, so it will only affected by scrapers that rank above 5.5 on the scale.

Tags: commonly found, earth magnet, beds alongside, commonly used, field guide, Great Lakes, Great Lakes region

Caverns Of The World

Formations in caverns grow at an extremely slow rate.

Watch your step as you descend into the belly of the Earth to experience caverns and underground caves. The moisture that drips through the geological features can be slippery, and your attention is easily distracted by the surrounding wonder that feels much like being in a gigantic jewelry box, especially when they are lit for your viewing pleasure. The glistening stalactites and stalagmites of calcite, gypsum, limestone and other minerals create stunning displays of various geological interest, and are found around the world in privately owned locations or national treasures.

Basics

Ancient paintings can be found within several underground caverns.

You don't have to be a lover of gems, minerals or geology to appreciate a visit to any of the world's many caverns, although you may find it of interest to read about how they are formed, who discovered them and whether or not they contain pictographs or petroglyphs telling historic tales. From the Postojna Grotto in Slovenia and Eisriesenwelt Cave in Austria, to the giant crystal caves of Mexico and the Jenolan Caves of Australia, the world's caverns have fascinated people for centuries. Whether you plan to join a major tour group at a National Park or venture on your own to do some spelunking, you'll find hundreds of options to choose from.

Famous Caverns

Many seaside caves on the world's islands offer opportunities for exploration.

In the United States, visit Carlsbad Caverns National Park in southeast New Mexico, Diamond Caverns and Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, Howe Cave in New York, Wind Cave in South Dakota and Moaning Caverns in northern California. Aggtelek Cavern is located in northern Hungary. Antiparos Cave is on the Greek island it's named for. In Spain, Altamira Cave features Palaeolithic cave art of horse, deer, bison and mysterious drawings. Lascaux Cave in southwestern France also has ancient cave drawings. You'll find Jeita Grotto in Lebanon, Magoa Caves in China, Lubang Nasib Bagus in Malaysia and Peak Cavern in England.

Sacred and Water Caves

Take care around your head when visiting underground rooms.

Underground sites of reverence can also be found worldwide. Among them are the Corycian Cave and a series of 3,000 Bronze-Age Minoan caves in Greece, the Elephanta Caves of India, Dambulla Cave of Sri Lanka and the Sof Omar Caves of Ethiopia. If you prefer diving or water caves and caverns, visit the Blue Grotto on the island of Capri in Italy or many found on islands worldwide. Another major site to consider is Sistema Sac Actun, in Mexico, which has the world's longest underwater cave.

What to Know

Divers have a unique opportunity for exploring underwater caverns.

Many of the world's caverns that are open to tourists ask for an entry fee. Gift shops will let you purchase souvenirs, so abstain from grabbing any part of the materials in the actual cave. Always wear good, nonslip shoes. Dress for the local climate, and bring a light jacket in case it's cool, even in the desert. Make sure you ask if photography is allowed. If you plan to go spelunking where allowed, make sure someone knows your plans, and take along a flashlight or headlamp, water and whatever else is suggested, and leave no trace that you were there.

Tags: caverns have, National Park, world caverns

Hands On Activities For Physical Science

Science can be a bit of a brain-twister for some students, because some of the concepts can be rather abstract. To cement the concepts of physical science, it's a good idea to plan some activities that get students involved with the project and working with their hands.

Atomic Model

Building an atomic model can teach students calculate protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom. It also will teach them read the periodic table and solidify the concept of atoms in their mind by allowing them to model one on their own.

Have them choose an element above No. 11 (sodium) on the periodic table to assure more than three energy levels and then construct the nucleus with a Styrofoam ball, attaching pompoms as protons and neutrons. They can then use pipe cleaners, craft wire or craft rings to create the electrons' orbit around the nucleus. The electrons can be beads, pompoms or play dough. Students also can turn them into mobiles that can be hung around the room.

Newton's Third Law

Newton's laws are a good way to get students involved, because they have real-world applications. Newton's third law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, and there are many activities to illustrate this concept, but one sure to win the students' interest is partnered roller-blade racing.

The basic premise is that two students wearing roller blades race each other down the hallway. However, the students are not allowed to apply force to move forward and cannot stop themselves. Instead, each racer has a partner who acts as his source of energy and his brakes. This will illustrate how the students' actions of pushing and stopping their classmates is an action, and the rolling of the skates and stopping of the students is a reaction.

Paper Planes

Have students make paper planes, encouraging them to create their own unique designs. Have them stand at a marked throwing point, then throw their planes and measure how far they flew. This will illustrate how speed and distance correlate. It also will illustrate the forces involved in flight, such as lift and drag.

Tags: will illustrate, also will, Have them, periodic table, protons neutrons, students involved

Make Sea Water At Home

Sea water has a salinity of approximately 3.5 percent.

Home uses of seawater include such things as aquariums, holistic treatments and agriculture. Seawater is inexpensive and simple to produce. According to the Seafriends Marine Conservation and Education Center, seawater is a combination of salts mixed with water and gases. While the composition of seawater varies by geographic location, mixing sea salt with tap water most accurately duplicates it at home. Sea salt contains minerals directly from the sea and tap water contains abundant natural minerals like calcium.

Instructions

1. Determine the quantity of seawater you wish to produce.

2. Pour the tap water into a mixing container that is large enough to accommodate the quantity of seawater you are making. Allow the water to settle for approximately 10 minutes and come to room temperature.

3. Add the sea salt to the water, stirring slowly until completely dissolved. According to Sir Francis Drake High School, you will need approximately 35 grams of sea salt per liter of water or approximately 4 oz. of sea salt per gallon of water.

Tags: quantity seawater, with water

What Are The Seven Wonders Of The Solar System

In July of 2010, the History Channel series "The Universe" premiered its episode on the seven wonders of the solar system. Utilizing computer graphics as well as commentary by scientists and historians, the episode included a range of phenomena from across the solar system including planetary bodies, volcanic activity and recently discovered eruptions from the surface of the Sun.

Enceladus

One of the outer moons orbiting the planet Saturn, Enceladus is home to around 30 geysers that erupt from cracks (called "tiger stripes") on the surface in the South Pole region, shooting liquid water which freezes into ice and snow in a process called "cryovolcanism." These blasts can reach over a hundred miles into space at speeds of over 1,400 miles per hour. Though there are other ice-covered moons in the solar system, Enceladus is the only one where these geysers have been found. Though they do not know for sure, scientists believe there could be several sources for the liquid water that shoots from the geysers, including an ocean size body of water located within the moon's core.

Rings of Saturn

There are seven main rings around the planet Saturn, as well as thousands of smaller "ringlets," all of which are made up of ice and dust particles. The exact origin of these rings is not known, but scientists do have several theories. They think it is possible that they could be comprised of material that never formed a moon, or that it came from a moon or comet that once existed but was crushed by the gravitational pull of the planet when orbiting too closely. Sixty-two moons orbit within Saturn's rings and cause "mountain ranges" -- uneven areas that change constantly as the moons continue their revolutions around the planet. Even though the rings look smooth and even, because of these moons they actually are not.

Great Red Spot

Located on the planet Jupiter, the Great Red Spot is actually an enormous storm that is nearly three times the size of the planet Earth and has been going on for over 400 years. Though the exact origin of the storm is unknown, it is believed that it may have been caused by the merging of several smaller storms that eventually became one giant storm. Unlike the low-pressure systems that move clockwise on Earth, the Great Red Spot storm is a high-pressure system moving counter-clockwise and including winds of up to 400 miles per hour. It is also not known exactly why the storm appears red, but is thought to be caused by gases as well as debris from the planet.

Asteroid Belt

Over 100 million miles of rocks and leftover debris from the formation of the solar system create the Asteroid Belt. Some of these rocks are just 1 to 2 feet across, while others are larger than cities. Though they may appear close together in pictures, these rocks can be millions of miles apart. The dwarf planet Ceres lies within the Asteroid Belt. Unlike other rocks, Ceres had enough mass and gravity to form into a spherical, planet-like shape, which led to its classification as a dwarf planet, like Pluto.

Olympus Mons

Located on Mars in the Tharsis Montes region, this is the largest volcano in the solar system. The base is 350 miles across and the summit is 13 miles in the air. This makes Olympus Mons several times higher than volcanoes found on Earth and over 100 times their volume. It is believed that three things led to this volcano reaching its giant size -- the lack of plate tectonics on Mars, as well as low gravity and lots of volcanic activity. Though it seems as if Mars is geologically "dead," the age of the marks of lava flows range from 115 million years to only two million years, which is not so long ago from a geological standpoint.

Surface of the Sun

The surface of the Sun, called a "photosphere," is made up of a constantly moving and erupting ocean of 10,000 degree plasma. Magnetic storms, which cause thunder-like noise disturbances and "eruptive prominences" of plasma, can break free of the Sun's strong magnetic field and shoot into space. These are eclipsed, however, by Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), which are massive bubbles of ionized gas that erupt into space at millions of miles per hour. They can enter the Earth's atmosphere and cause problems with power grids and satellites, and expose astronauts or travelers in airplanes to high levels of radiation.

Earth

The third planet from the Sun, Earth, is the only planet within the solar system with features adequate for sustaining human life, including liquid water, a breathable atmosphere and comfortable temperatures. There is dry land of varied types as well an abundance of liquid water, which is thought to be the key component to the beginnings of life. Though the exact reason there is so much liquid water on Earth is unknown, it is believed to have come from comets or asteroids that crashed into the planet, or from steam emissions coming from volcanic eruptions.

Tags: liquid water, solar system, Asteroid Belt, Great Spot, into space, miles hour

High School Science Projects Topics

Every year, students across the country fret over what to do for their science fair project. Since a good project can garner statewide or even national recognition, it's little wonder students put so much effort into winning. Besides science fair projects, some students may be required to produce projects for their science class as part of a larger assignment. Either way, developing a project can be done with a little thought and consideration.

Choosing a Broad Area

If allowed to choose the area of science for a project, students should consider this seriously. Creating a project in an area of interest may lead to finding a career path. Moreover, noteworthy projects look good on a high school resume and can be a factor in receiving a scholarship. So students should consider all the fields of science before choosing. Consider which most appeals among: biology, chemistry, physics, microbiology, biochemistry, medicine, environmental science, earth science, computer science or engineering.

Refine the Area to a Field

Whether you are allowed to choose the area or must choose from an assigned area, you can further refine your project definition by looking at the fields within the various areas. For instance, in biology, you could consider botany, human physiology or zoology. In physics you might consider astronomy, electricity, thermodynamics or forces and motion. Perhaps microbiology would be of interest, in which case you could present a project on bacteria, viruses, fungi or yeast. If you think you would like to be an engineer, consider these fields: electrical engineering, civil engineering and mechanical engineering. Earth sciences are often popular choices for projects. In them you can demonstrate elements of geology, meteorology and oceanography. Computer science offers all sorts of math-related fields such as probability, statistics, algebra, geometry and programming demonstrations in everything from AI (artificial intelligence) to simulations.

Choosing a Project

Once you have narrowed down the project to a field of interest, consider what things about that field you have studied either in class or on your own initiative. Do some research in libraries and on the computer. Find the latest journals, magazines and online articles regarding anything to do with your topic. It's from these current resources that you'll most likely find your project idea. Remember that some projects will be presentations of information, as students can't be expected to perform, for example, nuclear experiments. But you could, for instance, build a model to demonstrate how earthquakes happen and show plate movement and the damage caused. Also, search sites for project ideas that can be performed.

Here Are a Few Ideas

Among classic ideas is building a volcano model or creating a tornado or a cloud in a bottle. You could also compare the growth rate of plants with and without the use of hormones or fertilizer, or simply by using different plant foods. Do an experiment with hydroponics or aeroponics. Show or determine if ants prefer one type of food over another. Show bacterial transformation. Assess the intelligence of cockroaches in a maze. Build a magnetometer and study how the Earth's magnetic fields are affected by solar storms.

Make a sidereal pointer that aids in locating celestial objects. Create models of the solar system or of comets. Demonstrate make metal float. Demonstrate how the shape and mass of an object affects its velocity when sinking in water. Show how changes in air pressure can force an egg into a bottle. Demonstrate magnetic field shielding. Show how temperature change can affect the current, voltage and power generated by a solar cell. Build a levitating train using magnets.

In the field of dermatology, do a study on the effectiveness of various sunscreens against UV light. Do experiments that show which types of soil erode the worst and under which conditions. Show which types of soil absorb liquid pollution the least and the most. There are virtually hundreds of potential project ideas out there.

Tags: allowed choose, allowed choose area, choose area, project ideas, science fair, should consider, students should

Make A Land Form Project

An estuary is a land form where a river mouth runs into the ocean or sea.

A land form is a physical feature of the earth, such as a butte. Factors used to categorize a land form range from its elevation to the rocks or soil that make it up, to its relation to larger surrounding geographical features. Designing a land form project provides you a better understanding of how the area's smaller features shape its overall topography.

Instructions

1. Research different land forms from books on geology, geography or topography until you find one that interests you. Perform further research on the land form you select and write a single-paragraph definition. Include its external appearance, mineral composition, how it is formed and in what geographical regions in typically occurs.

2. Draw a cross-section illustration of a generic example of your land form, which will show the viewer what it looks like both on the inside and the outside. Label the features of the land form that distinguish it from others, such as the vertical or nearly vertical, rocky slope of a cliff. Also label the different kinds of earth that form it, such as limestone or topsoil.

3. Draw two pictures illustrating how your land form developed. For example, to show how a butte is formed, your first picture will show water or wind starting to erode the soft rock around capstone rock, such as sandstone. In the second picture, erosion will have washed away all the soft rock, leaving only the capstone, which now forms the butte. As with the previous diagram, label the important features, as well as the period required for the land form to emerge.

4. Print out pictures of three well known examples of your land form. Type out a title card for each, including its name, location and three other facts -- such as elevation, size or shape -- of your land form. Also include at least one cultural or historical fact about how the people who live around the land form interact with it, or in some cases try to avoid it, such as volcanoes or swamps.

5. Draw or print out a map of the world. Label the regions where your land form is found. Create a title card for this map naming and describing the geographical region. If your land form was a fjord, you would describe the geography of glacial regions, where huge, slow moving masses of snow and ice called glaciers carve out the different features of the earth as they move across it over hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of years.

6. Assemble all your materials and carefully glue or tape them to a three-sided display board. Complete the project by writing the name of your land form at the top in large letters.

Tags: land form, land form, your land, your land form, regions where

Planets Activities For Third Grade

Third graders are facinated by planets and other astronomy ideas.

Third graders are ready to learn basics about the solar system, planets and other astronomy concepts. Your enthusiasm as you help students understand that outer space really isn't "out there" will be contagious. Students will be captivated by the idea that their home Earth resides a member of an astronomical family called the solar system. Use activities to help students to absorb information more effectively. Third graders respond to memory games and challenges for appropriate rewards.

Order of the Planets

Teach students where the planet Neptune fits into the solar system.

Students can learn the order of the planets in the solar system with a simple memorization activity. Write the following vertically on the board with "Mr." on one line and each letter after on separate lines. "Mr. Vem J. Sun and his dog, Pluto." Next to each letter, write, in order, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. Let the children practice memorizing the information for homework.

The next day, give a short quiz. On one side of a sheet of paper, list the planets in random order. Beside each planet, put space for an answer. Number the spaces 1-though-10. Ask the students to enter the planets in the spaces according to their order beginning with the planet closest to the Sun. (You can include Pluto, if you like).

Space Words

Terms such as "moon" can teach children to alphabetize.

Use basic astronomy terms for children to practice alphabetizing and to familiarize them with the terms. Write on the board the terms, meteor, comet, astronomy, planet, galaxy, star, rings, nebula, gravity and moon. Place a numbered blank beside each term. Ask the students to fill the terms in the blanks in alphabetical order. After reviewing the terms, divide the students into small groups to practice memorizing the alphabetical order of the terms. Ask students to recite the terms, telling them that each student who gets it right will receive an extra five points for the day's grade.

Earth

TheEarth is "home" and many other things.

Planet Earth provides an opportunity to teach students adjectives and nouns. The website, Enchanted Learning provides an adjective activity. Draw a large circle representing the Earth in the middle of the board. Around the Earth, draw eight smaller circles, attaching each by a line to the planet. Hang a picture of the Earth from space next to your drawings. Tell your students that the Earth is a thing and so it is a noun. Write "noun" inside the Earth drawing. Tell your students that the smaller circles describe the noun and are adjectives. Ask the children to brainstorm words describing the Earth. Give them one answer to get the ball rolling. Enter "blue" and "adjective" into one of the smaller circles.

Tags: solar system, smaller circles, Third graders, your students that, alphabetical order, children practice

Elementary Science Activities

Teaching elementary students about environmental science is a fun way to introduce local fauna, conservation, metamorphosis, germination and photosynthesis. There are several projects that will encourage students of this age to explore and learn about nature around them. With some basic materials and some time out in nature, these activities can be done as a group and create finished projects.

Nature Walk

Find an area adjacent to the school that is safe for children to explore. Walk through the area to make sure there are no poisonous plants or challenging areas while taking note of different types of plants to share with elementary students. Gather materials needed for the nature walk such as small baskets for students to put things in and magnifying glasses.

Discuss with students before heading out into nature the idea of conservation and how it is important to respect the plants they encounter on the nature walk. Picking items off the ground ensures plants stay healthy and continue to grow. Using the magnifying glass will allow them to take a closer look at interesting items. Determine what time of year it is, and ask the students to think about how the season affects the plants around them.

When you get back to the classroom, give each student a sheet of paper and some glue. Create a nature collage using the items from the nature walk and then have students label the different items in their collage.

Planting Seeds

Growing seeds with elementary students is one way to learn about how a seed goes through the evolution from a small seed to a thriving plant. Bring in different types of seeds for students to look at, such as sunflower seeds and small wildflower seeds. Go over the germination process with students and how photosynthesis is part of helping plants grow. Would plants grow without sun and water? Why or why not?

You will need some soil and a couple of clear glass jars along with the seeds to complete this project. Have students help fill glass jars half way with soil. Pick several seeds to plant in jars and place some in spots in the sun, and others in areas where they will not get sun. Label each jar with the type of seeds and if they are in the sun or not. Water the seeds every couple days and take note of any changes.

After two weeks, gather the students around the jars and see which seeds are growing and which are not. Talk with students about why the growing seeds were successful.

Give each student a small 4-inch by 4-inch sheet of paper and let him or her glue several seeds in an interesting design. The sheets of paper can be taken home and planted in soil for students to watch grow with their families.

Metamorphosis

Seeds and leaves go through changes, and so do different insects. For this science project, you will need to obtain caterpillar that will go through metamorphosis to change into butterflies. Many types are available to purchase online and can be shipped directly to the school. They may also be found on a nature walk, if the season is appropriate.

Along with the caterpillars, you will need glass containers with a breathable lid containing natural elements such as sticks, grass and rocks. Place each caterpillar in a container and discuss with elementary students what they think will happen to the caterpillars. Make a list of ideas and post them near the containers. Check the caterpillars daily and mark changes on a chart. When changes are noted, discuss with students the process of metamorphosis and the stages the caterpillars are going through to become butterflies.

After the caterpillars have gone through metamorphosis, have students draw a picture of the process to take home.

Tags: elementary students, with students, nature walk, will need, with elementary, with elementary students, around them

Gis Master'S Degrees

GIS master's degrees require knowledge of surveying techniques.

Those pursuing a career in geographic information systems (GIS) can obtain a bachelor's degree in that field. Students will learn the methods associated with the visual accumulation of spatial data, primarily focusing on mapping and analyzing geographical features and how those features relate to a variety of problems. If you have a degree in another science or geography-related field, however, you can obtain a graduate certification in GIS that will equip you for the field.

What Programs Are Offered

More than 150 master's programs, offered by dozens of English-speaking universities, offer GIS graduate degrees or lesser one-year certifications. Prices vary, depending on the school, how much distance learning is involved and how much financial aid is afforded to each candidate. According to GIS Professor Don Boyes of the University of Toronto, graduate students have a choice of obtaining a one-year "professional" master's or a two-year "research" master's in GIS. Though the former deals primarily with the practical application of GIS principles, the latter type of program, such as the one offered by the University of Calgary, carries more weight in the professional world and is geared toward providing graduate students with a more well-rounded understanding of the field. If a student is interested in pursuing a doctorate-level degree in the GIS field, the two-year master's is recommended.

What the Programs Offer

In addition to cartography, global positioning systems, spatial analysis and remote sensing competencies, most graduate schools for GIS delve into how the craft can be used in conjunction with the latest technological advances. This involves the fields of geospatial data management, remote sensing, field methods and statistics. Image processing, software and satellite receiving are integral parts of many master's programs in GIS. According to information from Cranfield University in the United Kingdom, GIS master's degrees graduates move on to careers as GIS analysts, geospatial analysts and applications engineers.

Variety of Programs

Depending on the price you pay and the university you attend, classroom learning can be a large or nonexistent part of your graduate school attendance. Some schools, like American Sentinel University, offer graduate certificates in a completely online environment. Others, like Oregon State University, offer a combination of classroom and distance learning that requires group and individual research projects.

Longer Programs

Some master's programs in geographic information systems are designed to take three years to complete at a part-time pace. At Penn State, the GIS master's program is geared toward working professionals with limited time they can devote to study. Most classes are online, and just one class is completed at a time. In year one, Penn State expects its students to develop literacy and technical prowess in the GIS field, at the end of which a post-baccalaureate certificate will be awarded; in the second year, curriculum broadens to hands-on projects and management tasks, often within the student's current workplace; in the third year, students take GIS-related electives to hone skills and complete work-related GIS projects, which are presented to a professional audience at the end of the program.

Tags: master programs, distance learning, geared toward, geographic information, geographic information systems, graduate students, information systems

Type Of Energy Produced By Photosynthesis

During photosynthesis, "producers" like green plants, algae and some bacteria convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy. Photosynthesis produces chemical energy in the form of glucose, a carbohydrate or sugar. The glucose produced by photosynthesis is an integral part of the food chain because a great deal of energy is stored in the chemical bonds in the glucose molecule, and this energy can be released during digestion and chemical processing by other organisms.

Green plants produce chemical energy in the form of sugars

The Facts

Photosynthetic organisms are autotrophs, or organisms that can make energy from inorganic compounds. Autotrophs are also called "producers." All non-autotrophic organisms, including humans, are heterotrophs, and rely on organic sources of chemical energy. Essentially, all heterotrophic organisms thus rely in some sense on the energy made by autotrophs through photosynthesis.

Features

The term "chemical energy" refers to the energy stored in the chemical bonds between atoms in molecules. Chemical bonds are a form of stored or "potential" energy, because when the bonds are broken, energy is released.

Function

Photosynthesis uses light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen gas. Each molecule of glucose essentially "stores" up to 38 molecules of ATP which can be broken down and used during other cellular reactions. ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, is the form of chemical energy cells use to function. Cellular respiration is the complementary reaction to photosynthesis, because it is the reaction that cells use to break down glucose molecules and release ATP. The potential energy stored in the molecular bonds of glucose becomes kinetic energy after cellular respiration that cells can use to do work like move muscles and run metabolic processes.

Effects

Approximately 176 billion tons of carbohydrate in the form of glucose is produced by photosynthesis every year. This carbohydrate energy constitutes the "producer" level of the food chain which then sustains organisms at other trophic levels.

Considerations

Additionally, just about all of the oxygen in the atmosphere is produced by photosynthetic organisms. Evidence in the geological record has long suggested that the first photosynthetic organisms oxygenated the atmosphere and paved the way for more complicated, oxygen-requiring organisms early in the history of life on Earth. According to an April 11, 2009 article in "Science News," photosynthetic organisms may have begun to oxygenate the atmosphere as long as 3.46 billion years ago.

Tags: chemical energy, energy stored, bonds glucose, chemical bonds, chemical energy form, energy form, energy from

Identify Rocks For Kids

Rockhunters look for rocks at the beach, in the mountains, wherever they are.

No matter where you go on earth, you will find rocks of one variety or another just waiting for a young rockhound to come collecting. But once you have your specimens, the challenge is to figure out what kinds of rocks you have. Rocks have several characteristics used for classification. With a field guide and a few basic tests, you can learn to identify rocks like a geologist and teach other kids about the life story of your rock.

Instructions

1. Inspect the rock for signs that it is igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary. Igneous rock is often dark colored and heavy, with two sizes of visible grains and lots of holes formed by the volcanic gasses from which it came. A fossil is a sure sign of a sedimentary rock. They also tend to be lighter in weight and color than the igneous, and their grains are tightly packed. Metamorphic rocks have a large grain texture, visible layers alternating light and dark colors. Once you have deduced the rock type, you can narrow your search to those listed in the corresponding section of the field guide.

2. Scratch your rock sample in turn with a finger nail, a copper penny, a pocket knife or common nail, a piece of glass, a steel file or concrete nail in turn until something makes a mark allowing you to estimate its mineral hardness according to the Mohs scale. Alternately, you can collect a sample of each of the rocks listed on the scale and try to scratch each rock with these samples for a more accurate estimate of where it falls on the hardness scale.

3. Look at the color of the rock and match it with the correct color family in your rock guide. Scrape it across an unglazed white porcelain tile and observe the streak color for another factor to match with the guide's description of rock characteristics.

4. Hold your rock up to the light to determine whether it is transparent, translucent or opaque. You will be able to see through a transparent rock whereas light passes through a translucent rock but nothing is visible when you look through it. Opaque rocks do not let any light through.

5. Observe the luster of the rock: metallic or nonmetallic. All metals are, of course, metallic. The non-metallic rocks are classified as glassy, brilliant, resinous, greasy or waxy, pearly, silky or dull.

6. Hit your rock sample with a hammer and watch to see whether it shatters, flattens or breaks along the planes of weakness. The shape of the cleavage may be cubic, rhombohedral, or basal and will be cleanly and evenly divided. A fracture, on the other hand is jagged and uneven. Fracture classifications are conchoidal, fibrous or splintery, hackly, uneven or irregular. If you have carefully narrowed your search with each rock characteristic, you should at this point be able to pinpoint which type of rock you have.

Tags: your rock, each rock, field guide, match with, rock sample

Find Fossils Near Myrtle Beach South Carolina

Finding a fossil while digging on a beach can be an amazing find for collectors.

Looking for fossils around the Myrtle Beach area of South Carolina can produce unexpected results if you are lucky enough to stumble across a find. Primarily, around beach areas, fossils that come from deep within the sea can be found if you have the time and patience required to dig deep and dig often to uncover such treasures. The coastline in and around Myrtle Beach provides ample opportunity to seek out clues to the past, and fossils can be found on occasion.

Instructions

1. Choose a beach to go looking for fossils. Use maps to determine which beach you will be visiting. Plan your parking in advance and verify parking fees. Bring all equipment and supplies with you.

2. Start looking for fossils at one end of the beach and work your way in one direction. Take your time and understand that not every fossil search will result in finding something. Plan your dig during opportune times for finding fossils. Know that looking for fossils is more productive during a full moon and when the tide is low. Check the Myrtle Beach weather stations and tide charts to know when to plan your trip. Know that fossils are also churned up during storms, and looking for fossils along the beach after a storm can produce better results.

3. Dig through the sand and dig in areas adjacent to the water's edge and back in the dry sand. Know that fossils can be found in a variety of seashells. Take your time and examine each seashell found and pay attention to small details of each object. Check each item to see if fossils are present.

4. Use shovels to dig deeper in to the sand. Pay attention when discovering something while digging and use your hands to uncover the item to prevent damage. Use a sifter to look through the sand for smaller objects. Use a magnifying glass to examine items in greater detail. Know that in Myrtle Beach common fossils include shark teeth, nautilus shells and bones.

5. Place items you find in a plastic bag to take along with you. Abide by Myrtle Beach rules and regulations regarding the removal of items from a beach. Only take the items you will be keeping and put back any items you do not want.

Tags: Myrtle Beach, Know that, around Myrtle, around Myrtle Beach, fossils found

Write A Geologist Cv

A geologist studies rocks and their evolution.

A geologist studies the earth's crust, its constitution and history through research and analysis of rock layers in the crust. Geologists specialize in different fields. Petroleum geologists, for example, look for possible petroleum traps and recommend locations for drilling. If you are looking for work as a geologist, you'll need a professional resume to make an impression. Write a well-constructed resume that highlights your experience and skills as a geologist.

Instructions

1. Type your contact address in the top center of the page. Write your name in the first line, followed by street address, city name and zip code, telephone number and email address.

2. Write "Objective" in bold on the left hand side of the page. Explain what you are expecting from your job. For example, you could say "Seeking a challenging position with an oil and gas company that best utilizes my research and analysis capabilities in petroleum trap tracing." If you are applying for a specific academic position, you could say "Seeking an educator's position in petroleum geology to add to my 10 years of teaching and research experience."

3. Add a "Skills" section. Provide your area of specialization -- for example, expertise in oil and gas exploration. Mention geological software applications that you may have used, such as Landmark.

4. Type "Work Experience" in bold. Start with your latest job. Go to the next line and write your designation followed by organization name and address in the next. In the next line, give the duration of employment. Type "Responsibilities" in bold in the next line and list the scope of job responsibilities. Specify responsibilities such as geological data collection using different testing methods and creating geological maps and sketches. Specify any computer-based study on composition of rocks. Be as informative as possible. List all the jobs you have held.

5. Write "Education" in bold. Start with your most recent educational qualification. Write the degree name followed by the name and address of the educational institution in the next line. List merit awards and scholarships.

6. Include an "Activities" section. Talk about your involvement with geology clubs or associations. Mention volunteer work with community organizations.

Tags: next line, bold Start, bold Start with, could Seeking, geologist studies, name address

The Difference Between Neolithic & Paleolithic

The Neanderthals were gone by the start of the Neolithic time period

The Neolithic time period begins about 10,000 years ago as the last glacial age faded and a warmer, wetter climate began to provide more opportunities for human expansion across the Earth. The only remaining hominid left to take advantage of the new environment was Homo sapiens, modern man. The major Neolithic development was an entirely new agricultural lifestyle, which permitted permanent settlement and a significant increase in population. The Paleolithic period, starting approximately 2.5 million years ago, was focused on the hunter-gathering lifestyle and during the glacial period was heavily dependent on the vast herds populating the predominantly savannah landscape.

Hominid Transitions up to Neolithic Time

The earliest Paleolithic hominids to use stone (lithic) tools were likely Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis, both in Africa living as hunter-gatherers. There are some indications that earlier Australopithicus species used stone and so the beginning of the Stone Age may be earlier still. As time continued first Homo erectus and then Homo neanderthalensis came to dominate the scene and the Neanderthals were certainly around at the same time as modern humans, Homo sapiens, came on the scene. However, by 10,000 years ago only Homo sapiens remained.

Climate and Environment

For much of the last 2 million years the Earth has been locked into a pattern of ice ages followed by warmer periods and then the return of an ice age. The Paleolithic hominids survived these shifts by following the large herds of animals that roamed the grasslands created by the much drier climate of ice ages. Very little changed in the way of life until the retreat of the last glacial period. With increased moisture forests returned in abundance and finding prey animals became much harder. Both Neanderthals and modern humans populated what is now Europe and much of the Asian continent once the ice was gone.

Tool Use in the Stone Age

The fundamental tool set of the Paleolithic hominids consisted of flake knives and hand axes with spears developed in the later periods. Bone was increasingly used to create smaller tools and both sewing and nets were developed. With the Neolithic came the development of further "hafted" stone tools particularly the polished stone axe and the adze. Though still Stone Age technology the Neolithic manufacturing was much more consistent and produced a far wider range of specialized tools.

Plant and Animal Domestication

The real difference between Paleolithic and Neolithic cultures was the domestication of plants and animals and the resultant agricultural revolution. Whereas the Paleolithic people were nomads, moving in search of both game and edible plant material, the Neolithic farmers began to settle down into organized communities. Wheat, barley and rye and other cereal grains became crucial sources of food along with sheep and goats. Dogs were almost certainly the earliest domesticated animals presumably used in hunting but they were certainly eaten as well. Cattle and pigs came later in the Neolithic period and added a tremendous amount of protein to the possible diets. The stability and surplus of food supply then lead to the development of the first large scale societies in the Middle East.

Tags: Homo sapiens, Paleolithic hominids, glacial period, last glacial, million years

Digging Crystals In Arkansas

Arkansas quartz crystals are highly prized by gem hunters.

If your idea of recreation is digging for crystals, consider a trip to Arkansas, well-known in rockhound circles for its clear, high-quality quartz crystals. These gorgeous specimens are highly sought-after, but other types of mineral crystals draw rockhounds from all over to Arkansas.

Ouachita National Forest Area

The Ouachita National forest is located in central Arkansas and extends into Oklahoma. Most of the 1.8 million acres of forestland lies inside Arkansas. This land is rich in many forms of mineral crystals, including some of the finest quartz crystals found in the United States. Although some areas are closed off to mineral hunting, there are many locations where visitors can dig for quartz. Visitors can choose from both fee digs and free hunting areas.

Fee Digs

The Mount Ida area is well-known for crystals. Many sites are privately owned, but several are open for visitors to hunt their own crystals for a small fee. These are good places for beginners or those with little time to explore open land. The fee digs usually have staff on hand to show those new to rock hunting what to look for and dig. At some mines, land is excavated and piled for visitors to explore. Other sites allow digging from the mine walls. It is best to call and ask about digging specifics, extra charges for findings and other rules before choosing your mine destination.

Free Digging

You need not worry about mine owners restricting you to sifting though tailings or charging extra for crystals after you have already paid for entry. Crystal Vista, just south of Mount Ida at the top of Gardner Mountain, is a free dig location. A mine at one time, Crystal Vista is now open to the public at no charge. Another free crystal digging area is Crystal Mountain, located between Jessieville and Perryville. You can also hunt for crystals in areas that are not private or otherwise restricted from hunting -- but unless you know the mountains well and hunt for crystals, you might spend more time looking for a place to dig than actually digging, if you go off on your own hunt.

The Other Crystal

The most popular crystals other than quartz in Arkansas are diamonds, which you can dig at Crater of Diamonds State Park in Murfreesboro. Crater of Diamonds is the world's only public-access diamond mine. There is a fee to dig, but anything you find is yours to keep. As of 2011, about 75,000 diamonds have been recovered from the park. The diamond hunting area covers a 37-acre plowed surface, and only light tools are required to dig. There are camping sites at the park and several amenities for those who feel that one day in the diamond fields just is not enough.

Tags: quartz crystals, Crater Diamonds, Crystal Vista, hunt crystals, mineral crystals, Ouachita National

Damage Caused To The Ecosystem By Tsunamis

Damage Caused to the Ecosystem by Tsunamis

Identification

Tsunamis are large ocean waves set in motion by unstable sea floor activity. Undersea earthquakes, landslides or volcanic activity are the events capable of destabilizing the sea floor's surface. Undersea earthquakes where the earth's plates shift are the most common cause of tsunamis. When set in motion, waves are generated from the sea floor on up to the surface of the water. These waves then grow in height and intensity as they travel towards costal lines. By the time they reach land, waves can stand as high as 100 miles tall. The force of these waves is substantial, and can result in significant damage. The 2004 event that took place in the Indian Ocean is one such example of the massive force these waves can generate. According to a United States Geological Survey, the waves which reached the shore in the Indian Ocean tsunami event released as much energy as 23,000 atomic bombs. The resulting damage to the ecosystem

can be catastrophic and far-reaching.

Tsunami Damage

Upon impact, tsunami waves are capable of dislodging any land formations, foliage and nearby bodies of water. As the power behind these waves pushes them inward, ocean waters can reach several miles inland. As a result, fresh water lakes become contaminated with salt water, while salt sedimentation is embedded in the lakes' soil. Runoff from inland areas can leave trash and silt to rest in lake waters. Resulting damage from tsunami waves dislodges existing flora and fauna, leaving leftover sedimentation to smother undersea corals and grasses. Costal forestation undergoes significant damage, and can be totally wiped out under severe conditions. As waters begin to recede, non-biodegradable debris is swept through inland areas and dragged into the ocean waters. Contaminated soil in which crops and vegetation are grown kills off bacteria populations needed to maintain the soil's ecosystem.

Ecosystem Effects

Ecosystems that lie along coastal lines include mangrove forests, sea grasses, coral reefs and wetlands. Each of these ecosystems is dependent on the others for nutrient supplies. The elimination of one or more systems may permanently alter the overall environmental status. Coral reef structures destroyed in the wake of an event also kill off any existing fish populations. This absence can lead to a significant break in an ecosystem's food chain, and ultimately work to eliminate species that are dependent on that food supply. Soil exposed to salty sedimentation loses its fertility, and so becomes sterile. As result, soil located in agricultural areas must be re-cultivated, which is a long, costly process. Tsunami waves can also cause the erosion of costal terrains which will continue to erode for years afterward. As new terrains grow in, the surrounding ecosystems may never be the same due to the loss of bacterium, plant and marine species.

Tags: Caused Ecosystem, Caused Ecosystem Tsunamis, Damage Caused, Damage Caused Ecosystem, Ecosystem Tsunamis

What Happens During Chemical Weathering

Carbonation

Carbonation takes place when dissolved carbon dioxide in moisture forms carbonic acid and reacts with minerals in the rock. This weakens and breaks down the rock. Calcium-rich rocks, like limestone, provide the best breeding ground for carbonation.

Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis occurs when a chemical reaction takes place between hydrogen in rain water and the minerals in a rock. This softens the rock, leaving it open for other weathering agents to break it down. An example would be when potassium feldspar in granite reacts with water, forming a softer clay.

Oxidation

Oxidation takes place when water Oxygen combines with water and earth minerals. For example, the reaction between oxygen and iron forms iron oxide, which crumbles easily. You may know this process as "rusting."

Hydration

Hydration occurs when rocks absorb water. This causes the rocks to expand, resulting in stress that leads to the breaking down of the rock. This form of chemical weather happens during the conversion of hematite to limonite.

Tags: rock This, takes place, down rock, minerals rock, minerals rock This

Kids' School Science Experiments

Science is a challenge to teach, but nothing excites students and displays scientific principles better than hands-on experiments. There are thousands of classroom experiments available to teachers, limited only by your imagination, budget and the age of your students. Choosing the perfect experiment has everything to do with the lesson you want to teach and whether you think your students can successfully perform the given steps.

Lemon Battery

Pick up one lemon, a few inches of insulated wire, some sandpaper and a basic voltmeter. You will also need one steel nail, one zinc-plated nail and a knife for stripping the wire. If you want each group to perform the experiment, multiply the supplies list by the number of groups in your class. Strip the wires before class time. Have each group sand the bottom of a nail and the copper wire, then insert both into the lemon as close together as possible. Students can then use the leads on the voltmeter to read the electric output of the lemon. Switch nails and retest to see how different nails affect the output.

Floating an Egg

It is much easier to float when the liquid around you is denser than you are. This is why you will find it easier to float in the ocean than a freshwater lake -- the salt makes the ocean water dense and increases your buoyancy. You can demonstrate this principle with a simple experiment. Provide each group in your class with a large bowl, an egg and a container of salt. Ask the students to fill the bowls with water and test whether the egg floats. Students can then mix salt in with the water until the egg floats. Have students record the differences in an experiment journal.

Build a Volcano

Building a volcano is one of the most common elementary science experiments, and most adults probably remember building a volcano at some point in their school studies. You can pass this tradition on to your students with relatively little fuss. Start by helping your students to make papier mache volcanoes. You can make them at the beginning of the day as an art project; they should be dry enough to use after lunch. Place empty film containers into each of the volcanoes. Drop in a couple of spoonfuls of baking soda, a little dishwashing soap, and some red and yellow food coloring. Have your students toss in an ounce of vinegar to set off their eruption.

Light Spectrum

Light is not actually white, but is made up of a variety of colors that cannot be seen by the naked eye. People interpret color by seeing light reflected off surfaces. Show your students the full spectrum of light by splitting the Sun's rays up with a simple project. Take a small pan and fill it with water, leaving about a third of the pan empty. Place this pan in direct sunlight. Place a small mirror under the surface, pointed at the Sun. Take a white sheet of paper and catch the reflection of the mirror -- you should be able to see a rainbow-like effect on the page. This is the light being refracted into its component colors.

Tags: your students, each group, with water, easier float, Students then

Where Is The Stone Mountain Memorial Located

The Confederate Memorial on Stone Mountain

The Stone Mountain Memorial is just northeast of Atlanta in the city of Stone Mountain, Georgia. This popular attraction draws more than 4 million visitors each year. Carved onto a dome of granite that stands more than 700 feet high, the Mount Rushmore-like sculpture pays homage to heroes of the Civil War. The Park itself contains 3,200 acres of natural and man-made attractions.

Geography

Just 10 minutes from Atlanta, Stone Mountain is in the metropolitan area of DeKalb County. It is part of a large belt of granite that runs along the western rim of the Piedmont Mountain range. Standing 1,683 feet above sea level, it runs approximately 9 miles underground. The base of the mountain is approximately 5 miles in circumference. At roughly 700 feet above the surrounding Georgia Piedmont Mountains, it can be seen from Amicalola Falls State Park and Kennesaw Mountain.

The Civil War Memorial

In 1912, United Daughters of the Confederacy charter member Helen Plane began to execute a plan for a memorial to the late general Robert E. Lee carved onto the north face of Stone Mountain. Fund-raising issues and problems with three different sculptors followed, but eventually the sculpture was dedicated in 1970. It features Generals Lee and Stonewall Jackson, and Confederate President Jefferson Davis. The entire sculpture measures three acres and stands 400 feet above the ground.

Attractions

During the summer months, a Lasershow Spectacular is played directly onto the surface of the Memorial carving. A patriotic tribute to the southern states, the show combines fireworks, laser lights, classic and popular music and ends with the Star Spangled Banner. Other attractions include a Sky Hike, the Summit Skyride, an Antebellum Plantation and a Scenic Railroad.

Directions

Stone Mountain is approximately 15 miles northeast of downtown Atlanta. It is accessible from Interstate 285, which is the perimeter loop that circles Atlanta. Take Exit 39B from I-285, which leads to U.S. 78. Stone Mountain Parkway, which takes you to the park entrance, is eight miles east at Exit 8 on U.S. 78.

Tags: Stone Mountain, approximately miles, feet above, granite that, more than, Mountain Memorial, Stone Mountain Memorial

Three Natural Forces Affecting Rocks

Rocks are constantly broken down and remade.

Rocks are always morphing into different types of rocks. In the 18th century, James Hutton (known as the founder of modern geology) observed that rocks are profoundly impacted by the forces of nature. Heat, pressure and erosion affect how rocks develop, break down and are recreated.

The Rock Cycle

"The Rock Cycle" is a term used by Hutton to describe the cycle when rocks are made and broken down. It reveals a process of large rocks eroding into dirt, dirt compressing into rock and heat and pressure forging the cycle of new rocks.

Heat

The Earth's crust moves and rocks are pulled under and then ejected out. When rocks become submerged below the surface of the Earth, they are exposed to hotter temperatures. Most rocks melt when they are between 60 and 125 miles underground. The deeper underground they are, the hotter the rocks get. Rocks between 1100 and 2400 degrees Fahrenheit transform into a molten state known as magma.

Pressure

Rocks receive pressure from tons of other rocks pressing down on them when they are beneath the surface of the earth. Pressure, in combination with heat, significantly transforms rocks through a process known as metamorphism. Rocks affected by both heat and pressure are known as metamorphic rocks.

Erosion/Weatherization

Wind, sun and climate change create erosion, a natural force that breaks down rock into sediments. Erosion affects all rocks on the earth's surface. The elements of wind and water can change landscapes and move mountains. Erosion always occurs from the top down; this is mass wasting. It is a displacement of matter from one place to another. Rocks affected by erosion and weatherization break into new pieces of rock known as sedimentary rock.

Tags: broken down, heat pressure, Rock Cycle, Rocks affected, when they

Bachelor Of Science Scholarships

Find scholarships to help you graduate with a Bachelor of Science degree.

Funding a Bachelor of Science degree can seem a daunting and overwhelming task, even to the brightest students pursuing B.S. degrees in subjects such as computer science, aerospace, biology or geology. Scholarships offered to students in some of these fields can enable students to apply themselves to their studies without worrying as much about paying their tuition bills.

Computer Science Scholarships

The National Security Agency's Cooperative Education Program offers annual scholarships to undergraduate students studying computer science who have achieved a grade point average of 3.0 or higher.

The AMOCO Foundation offers one-year scholarships in varying amounts to undergraduate juniors and seniors studying computer science who are U.S. citizens or legal permanent residents.

Aerospace Scholarships

The Hughes Aircraft Bachelor of Science Scholarship is offered to students studying aerospace engineering and who are U.S. citizens or legal permanent residents. Undergraduate students should have a minimum grade point average of 3.0 to qualify for this renewable scholarship, which covers all tuition and student fees.

NASA's Undergraduate Student Researchers Program offers scholarships up to $8,000 a year that can be renewed for up to four years. Eligible students are undergraduate freshmen and sophomores, with 32 credit hours or less completed, who are studying aerospace engineering and who have achieved a grade point average of 3.0 or higher.

National Science Bowl Community College Scholarship Program

According to a government website dedicated to explaining the National Science Bowl, "Since 1991, the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE's) National Science Bowl® has recognized outstanding academic achievement. The National Science Bowl® is a highly visible educational event and academic competition among teams of high school students who attend science seminars and compete in a verbal forum to solve technical problems and answer questions in all branches of science and math." To continue the recognition of high school students competing at both regional and national levels, a scholarship program was established for students competing in the National Science Bowl who wish to pursue Bachelor of Science degrees in fields such as the sciences, engineering, mathematics or teaching. To be eligible to receive the scholarship, students must participate in a National Science Bowl regional competition at least once throughout their high school careers, be a citizen or legal permanent resident of the United States, demonstrate "academic success and integrity throughout their high school career" and be scheduled to graduate high school in the spring of the year that they apply for the scholarship. The scholarship, if awarded, covers tuition and fees for two years up to $2,500 a year, as well as a paid 10-week summer research internship at a Department of Energy National Laboratory. Scholarship recipients must be 18 years of age prior to beginning the internship.

Tags: National Science, National Science Bowl, Science Bowl, Bachelor Science, high school, grade point, grade point average

What Is A Method Of Absolute Dating

Absolute dating tells when man-made sites and artifacts were created.

Less than a century ago, when archaeologists, geologists and other scientists sought to determine the age of artifacts, fossils, buildings or geological events, they turned to "relative" methods to approximate a date sequence they hoped was meaningful. Yet as they tried for greater accuracy, significant advances in "absolute" dating techniques exploded in the early 1920s, with many of which are still in use today.

Absolute Dating Defined

Simply put, absolute dating refers to any method archaeologists and paleontologists use to estimate the age of any type of artifact or structure that has been modified or created by humankind. This process typically involves measuring and calculating what remains of the chemical and/or physical properties naturally present in everything from rocks to human remains, and the most widely accepted methods of absolute dating rely on measuring the radioactive decay of naturally occurring elements and isotopes within an object or artifact. Chemists have established the rate at which radioactive decay occurs for particular chemical isotopes and isotope sequences, so researchers now can estimate age as precisely as possible by examining how much radioactive material is left in a discovery.

Absolute Dating, Not Actual Dating

While these absolute processes cannot truly provide "actual" dates for when a certain thing was created, absolute dating provides a credible range of dates, a tremendous advantage over relative dating's limitation to age sequencing. Today, experts can more accurately date and place the discovery of artifacts, geological events and paleontological sites on both the global and human record.

Most experts concur that while superior to relative dating practices, even absolute dating cannot truly be "absolute"; therefore, site and artifact dating--even when absolute methodologies are used--can only be estimated within a few hundred years or so.

Carbon-14 Dating

Arguably the most significant archaeological and paleontological breakthrough of the 20th century, the discovery of carbon-14 dating makes it possible for these scientists to learn the age of artifacts containing organic matter--including all flora and fauna--that has been dead for several centuries to as many as 50,000 years. Present in all living things, when a plant or animal dies, it ceases to absorb the natural levels of carbon needed to sustain life; carbon that then begins to decay at a consistent radioactive rate. Measured in terms of the carbon isotope's half-life of just 5,730 years, the remaining levels of carbon-14 are commonly used to date artifacts, human and animal bones, and other dead organisms.

Radiometric Dating

When an artifact or fossil exceeds 70,000 years of age, the relatively short half-life of carbon-14 cannot adequately measure age; therefore, scientists must turn to the far more accurate method of radiometric dating. To reach back that far into the historical record requires using a more complicated isotope series with longer half-lives (e.g., uranium/lead or potassium/argon). Radiometric dating can be especially important to geologists, who have successfully used this tactic to date the Earth, as well as to paleontologists, who often employ radiometric dating to identify ancient fossils' place in the geologic record.

Dendrochronology

Dendrochronology--simply counting the number of rings in a tree's cross-section is an accurate and well-known means to establish the absolute date of wood younger than 4,000 years. A tree's distinct pattern of rings is a record of the rainfall it received over each year of its life, and since rainfall varies annually, as well as across a diversity of habitats, the ring patterns among trees living in the same region should be similar. Dendochronologists can match the annual rings on a sample from a specific site to what's known as the "master sequence" of the patterns identified on nearby trees' rings and accurately determine an absolute date for historic events and conditions.

Tags: absolute dating, absolute date, Absolute Dating, cannot truly, geological events

What Is An International Relations Major

An international relations major prepares students for the global economy.

For many years, the international relations major concentrated on military conflict between nations, a byproduct of the Cold War era. Since the fall of the Soviet Union in the 1990s, the major has shifted to the study of globalization and its impact on the economy and the environment, and international efforts to eradicate poverty, hunger and disease.

General Requirements

Although requirements will vary from college to college, international relations majors are usually expected to take courses that will develop their proficiency in writing and speaking, courses in modern history and economics and political science.

Area Specialization

International relations majors often specialize in a particular geographic region, like the Middle East, or thematic area, such as resource management and the environment. Students may also study languages of that region, or sciences related to their thematic specialization, such as geology or biology.

Career Options

Graduates with a major in international relations have a wide variety of potential career paths to follow, including jobs in various aspects of international trade, immigration and intelligence services. The major requires the development of intellectual skills that are also useful in a variety of other fields not related to international relations specifically, such as journalism, management and general administration.

Tags: international relations, international relations, international relations major, relations majors

Identify Minerals In Everyday Life

According to the U.S. Bureau of Mines, the average person consumes or uses 40,000 pounds of minerals each year. Apart from making up the contents of our planet, minerals are vital ingredients for daily life. Minerals bring electricity into our homes, keep our teeth shiny and white, let us write in and erase answers on tests, and more. To begin identifying minerals, it is vital to know name them and how omnipresent they are in our everyday lives.

Instructions

Finding Minerals in your Home

1. Define "mineral." A helpful definition is: a mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid which possesses a characteristic internal atomic structure and a definite chemical composition. Materials with these features also have distinguishing physical properties such as color, crystal form, cleavage, luster, streak, etc. Note: Minerals only represent 0.3 percent of our total intake of nutrients but are very important. Without these mineral nutrients we would not be able to utilize the other 99.7 percent of the food we eat.

2. Read a cereal box. Browse the nutrition label and ingredient list from several brands of breakfast cereals. Identify names of minerals (they are macro-minerals) there. Examples of some of these macro-minerals, which we need in plentiful amounts of, include: chloride, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, sulfur and zinc. Micro-minerals that we require only in trace amounts are: chromium, cobalt, copper, chlorine, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium and silicon. You can find these micro-minerals, as well as zinc, in most foods and supplements.

3. Find tarnish. When copper tarnishes (dulls or becomes discolored), it turns green on the surface. Green roofs on old buildings indicate the roof is made of copper. (Note: Some of the most massive deposits of copper in the U.S. were found by prospectors by accident when they spotted greenish rocks sticking out of the ground.)

4. Scavenge through your home. Many minerals are used to make common household items or things in and around your building or home. These include: sidewalk, bricks, nails, paint, windows, door knobs, floor tiles, plumbing, wiring, toilets and sinks, chairs, televisions, computers, pencils and so forth.

5. Learn and perform the identity test. Memorize these characteristics and testing methods. Identify and classify minerals using these characteristics:

Hardness -- the mineral's ability to resist scratching. If it's soft, it gets scratched easily; if it's hard, it can't be marred. Determine the hardness of your mineral. Lay the glass plate on a flat table. Scratch the mineral along the glass. If the mineral powders, then use your fingernail to feel if the glass is scratched.

Color -- Minerals are colored because certain wave lengths of light are absorbed. For some minerals, color alone is an identification method. (Example: Malachite is always sea green.) Determine the color. Identify whether your mineral is light-colored or dark-colored (non-metallics only).

Luster -- Shine; or how light is reflected from the surface of a mineral: metallic and non-metallic. Test the luster (metallic or non-metallic) of your mineral.

Streak -- When you scrape the mineral across a piece of unglazed porcelain (streak plate), the "streak" is the color of the powder mark.

Cleavage -- the ability of a mineral to break along planes. Test whether your sample has cleavage (leveled breaking points). Find the mineral's weak spots.

Specific gravity -- the "heaviness" of a mineral defined as a ratio: the weight of a mineral and the weight of an equal volume of water. (Example: Water has a specific gravity of 1.)

6. Select an object in your home or school. This might include: mirror, radio, alarm clock, electrical wires (copper); spare change (copper, nickel). Prepare "mineral content" cards. On a set of index cards, list the key minerals used in each item. Each set should be a different color. Pick one or two of the items evaluated. Look up and study the properties of the minerals used to make those items.

7. Get to know your toothpaste. Compare two (or more) brands of toothpaste. Toothpaste is made out of several minerals including: calcium carbonate, limestone, sodium carbonate, fluorite, mica

and zinc. Check out the ingredient list. Name the mineral ingredients you find. Make a list of these minerals to see which are most common between the two different brands. Each brand of toothpaste contains a different mixture of minerals, but all toothpastes contain abrasive ("hard") minerals that rub away plaque.

8. Start a collection. Find the natural form of each mineral: beautiful, sparkling quartz, copper, zinc and so on. Make a shadow box to display the minerals. Become more aware of their presence in your daily life by visualizing them in their true, colorful, craggy form.

Tags: minerals used, your mineral, daily life, ingredient list, metallic non-metallic, minerals used make

Resume Objectives For An Oceanographer

An oceanographer is a professional worker who studies and researches the ocean and ecosystems within local or international waters. Oceanographers are trained in three different areas, including geology, chemistry and physics. The resume objectives for an oceanographer must be specific to the area of study and work, so the employer knows what type of knowledge the applicant can bring to the position.

Physical Oceanographer

A physical oceanographer studies the behavior of waters, whether it is local waters or oceans. The physical characteristics of studying the water include identifying tide patterns, water currents and ocean temperatures. This is done to understand how the water behaves under different environments and situations. A resume objective for a physical oceanographer can be to study the physical behavior of water trends with the goal of finding common water patterns across different bodies of waters and oceans.

Chemical Oceanographer

A chemical oceanographer focuses on the chemical aspects of ecosystems in water, including human-influenced pollution and the presence of natural chemicals. A chemical oceanographer's resume objective can include finding solutions for specific areas that are hit by pollution; work to find strategies to lessen the damage of human-made pollutions in ecosystems and water populations; and studying the effects of pollution on animals and water.

Geological Oceanographer

A geological oceanographer focuses most of his work on finding resources in the water or ocean floor, such as oil and gas. A geological oceanographer's resume objective can focus on using the best possible techniques to use the natural resources from the ocean floor to improve life for humans. The objective must focus on using techniques that are also beneficial for the oceans and ecosystems within it.

Researcher Objectives

Oceanographers can also be found in research clinics, such as scientific and ecological research institutions. Universities and science centers will often hire research oceanographers to conduct basic research and experiments to improve in-field techniques for oceanographers. Resume objectives include conducting research to improve the conditions of ecosystems in polluted waters; evaluating research results conducted by other researchers; and finding ways to preserve food and nutrition for existing ecosystems in the ocean.

Tags: resume objective, chemical oceanographer, ecosystems water, ecosystems within, focus using, ocean floor

Gold Rush Prospecting Tips

Find out where to look for gold.

Searching for gold can be an exciting and interesting hobby. It can take you all over the United States, as gold is found throughout the nation. Knowing which states have the highest concentration of gold, where to look specifically and understanding the difference between real and fool's gold will make prospecting a much easier and more enjoyable experience.

Where to Find Gold

Gold can be found in all 50 states in many forms such as lode gold, or gold that is embedded in rock, as well as in plant tissues, seawater and in minute amounts in beach sand. According to GoldFeverProspecting.com, states where major amounts of gold has been found are Alabama, Alaska, California, Arizona, Idaho, Colorado, Georgia, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, North Carolina, South Carolina, Oregon, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Utah, Washington, Virginia, Wisconsin and Wyoming. Gold has been found in much smaller amounts in Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Oklahoma, Maine, Indiana, Maryland, Missouri and New Hampshire. Geological maps and reports from government records can tell you where to look for gold in these states specifically.

Where to Look For Gold

Because gold is so heavy -- about 19 times heavier than water -- it will always sink to the lowest possible level. Look for where the water slows in a stream bed during a flood as this is a good place to look for gold, according to GoldFeverProspecting.com. Sampling where a stream bed widens or bends, or where natural obstacles such as rocks and boulders occur, is also helpful.

Find gravel bars, including newly formed ones, in river beds, as large amounts of gold flakes can be found on them. Check where a stream levels out from a waterfall or downstream rapids for gold as well.

Look in pot holes in bed rock for gold as well as cracks in bed rocks. If you come across large cracks in bed rock in common prospecting areas it is likely the cracks have been cleaned out multiple times. High benches are where a stream cuts deeper into a canyon, leaving patches of gravel high on the wall of the canyon. These and moss and grass roots near a river are also places to look for gold.

Real Gold Versus Fool's Gold

Being able to identify real gold from fool's gold takes practice. The most common form of fool's gold is pyrite, which resembles gold in color and is heavier than most other minerals. It is brittle and can break easily in a smooth fracture. Scratch it with a knife and it will break off into small chips, and the fracture surface is gleaming.

Mica is another mineral commonly mistaken for gold as it has a shiny gold-like surface when viewed under water. It is lighter than many rocks and will not sink through sand and gravel. A flaky substance, mica can break into flat plates that float in water above gravel.

Real gold is a malleable metal that can be easily scratched with a sharp instrument or hammered flat. Unlike mica and pyrite, it will not flake, chip, crack or break. Gold found in natural concentrations in gravel bars or sand -- called "placers" -- is dull yellow in color and often pitted or roughened from stream abrasion. As previously mentioned, gold's heaviness means it will sink below gravel.

Tags: fool gold, where look, where stream, amounts gold, been found