Plants & Animals Of The Quaternary Era

The Quaternary Period began 1.8 million years ago with an ice age. Scientists refer to the era as the Age of Humans, the time was when hominids gained a foothold on earth. All of the plants and animals that we see today are part of the Quaternary Period; however, there are also extinct animals and plants that lived on the earth during its early stages.

The Two Epochs

The Quaternary Period can be divided into two major epochs; the "Pleistocene" and the "Holocene." The Pleistocene epoch started 1.8 million years ago and ended around 11,000 years ago, while the Holocene started 11,000 years ago and still continues today. These two epochs have two major differences: geography and climate. Since these two major characteristics play a major role in supporting flora and fauna, these two epochs have unique animals and plants. The Pleistocene epoch is characterized by the series of ice ages that occurred during its reign, while the Holocene epoch has a more stable climate.

Plants during the Quaternary Period

Even though there are major climatic differences between the Pleistocene and the Holocene epoch, much of the plant life didn't change. The Pleistocene era had two major climate conditions: the glacial and the interglacial. During the glacial period, most of the land was covered by ice, and vegetation was mostly tundra which included mosses, sedges, shrubs, lichens and low-lying grasses; however.During interglacial periods, or the time when most of the soil was not covered by ice, woodlands and coniferous forests existed. The emergence of tropical rainforests occurred during the start of the Holocene. This habitat allowed many animals and plants to thrive and evolve. Coniferous and deciduous forests thrived during this period, as well as savannas, where herbivores grazed and flourished.

Animals of the Pleistocene Epoch

Megafauna, or large mammals, thrived during the Pleistocene period. Animals, such as woolly mammoths, mastodons, true horses, saber-toothed tigers, cave bears and giant deer, are some of the well known giant mammals during the Pleistocene epoch. There are two major theories why these animals became extinct: "over-chill" and "over-kill." Scientists who believe in the over-chill theory say that all the large animals disappeared because they couldn't keep up with the climate changes, while scientists who believe in the over-kill theory believe that hominids, our ancestors, hunted down most of these animals, resulting in their extinction.

Animals of the Holocene Epoch

Most of the animals we see today are descendants of animals during the Pleistocene period. The elephants, tigers and horses we see today share genetic relationships to their larger counterparts that existed during the Pleistocene. Modern plants and animals also become extinct, but these extinctions mostly happen because of human actions, like poaching and deforestation. The rise in temperature and the stability of the climate also allow large tropical and coniferous forests to thrive, turning the earth into a perfect habitat for land animals such as mammals, reptiles, amphibians and birds.

Tags: during Pleistocene, Quaternary Period, animals plants, Pleistocene epoch, coniferous forests

Train In The Geothermal Field

Active geothermal regions of Earth can create a surreal landscape.

Geothermal energy is harnessed from heat trapped in the Earth, typically from volcanic activity, surface-absorbed solar energy, and from mineral pockets that have radioactive decay. The geothermal industry offers numerous careers for those wishing to enter the field. These include positions for geothermal and environmental engineers, geothermal systems installers, geologists and hydrologists. Training in the geothermal field should be dictated by the type of work you are most interested in performing, and should include college courses or certified training.

Instructions

1. Choose your geothermal career. These can range from entry-level positions which may include construction and placement of piping and pumping systems, to the overall design and engineering of the actual geothermal system itself. Research jobs are also available in the geothermal industry. Research is usually conducted by geologists and hydrographic scientists who work in conjunction with geographic information systems (GIS) specialists.

2. Enroll in classes at a university if you wish to major in the advanced disciplines of thermography, hydrographic science, geology, or engineering. Ensure that your curriculum includes studies of geothermal energy production and its many applications.

3. Take independent courses for certification and training for general careers within the geothermal field. Some courses are for geothermal installers' HVAC (heating, ventilating and air conditioning) certifications, which include the North American Technician Excellence and those offered by the International Ground Source Heat Pump Association. This association offers courses on installing geothermal heat pumps.

4. Obtain an internship, understudy position, or apprenticeship at a geothermal power plant or operations site. This will give you valuable on-the-job-training in the industry before you finish your schooling, or your specific certification training. Geothermal job applications and internship opportunities will vary among sites.

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The Purpose Of Soil Bulk Density

When planting, it is useful to know your soil density.

Soil is a porous mixture, made up of rock fragments, organic materials, water and air. Soil density is a measurement of the compaction of soil. This data is collected by the scientific analysis of soil samples in a laboratory. The purpose of soil density measurement is to provide data for use by farmers, engineers, builders and scientists to determine suitable and safe usages for land. Does this Spark an idea?

Farmers

Farmers buying new land want to know the state of the soil. Soil bulk density, or dry bulk density, indicates how much air and water is present in the soil. The measurement of soil density is calculated by dividing the weight of dry soil by total soil volume. An experienced farmer can tell the soil's quality and condition from this data. He uses this information to plan which crops to plant and water them. He will also be able to predict how much fertilizer he must use, since air breaks down nutrients within the soil structure. More compacted soil contains less air, which will require increased applications of fertilizer. Soil density measurement allows a farmer to calculate overall costs and decide if the land is a good investment.

Construction

The land underneath buildings must be strong enough and of the correct type to support the structures. Before any building takes place, scientific measurements of the soil density are taken to ensure building safety and determine what type of structure, if any, can be built. Silty and sandy soils which compress quickly under loading, soils that shrink and expand, "man-made" soils, or plots where a backhoe has filled holes with rubble or trash are all poor choices for building structures. Soil density measurements will identify these issues.

Scientific Classification of Soils

Scientists analyze soil samples to classify soil types. To do this, they conduct laboratory experiments to determine the size of soil particles. The bulk density measurement of soil is used to determine the size of soil particles. Clay soils have the smallest particles, followed by silty soils. Sandy soils have the largest particles. This information is not standardized throughout the world, but most countries use a system similar to that in the United States, which is based on particle size. These systems are used to convey information to other scientists about the condition of the soil at any given location.

Earthquake Risk Analysis

An important use of soil density measurement is found in the work of earthquake risk analysis. Soils come under great stress during earthquakes. The ability to predict how soils will react during an earthquake saves lives. Local governments can identify populations at risk by knowing what kind of soil is in an area. Soft, sandy and silty soils have the potential to change from a solid to a liquid under the pressures exerted by earthquakes. The process, called "liquefaction," occurs when soft soils are compressed. Soils at risk of this process are less dense and can be identified by soil density measurements.

Tags: density measurement, soil density, bulk density, soils have, density measurements

Longterm Effects Of Earthquakes

Aerial view of the San Andreas fault, California.

The Earth's crust is broken up into a series of plates that sit on the mantle below. Heat, generated from radioactivity deep in the Earth's mantle, drives convection currents that move the crustal plates in different directions, as explained by UCMP. The various plates form three different types of boundary: divergent, in which they move in the opposite directions; convergent, in which they collide; and transform boundaries, in which two plates move side by side.

Why do Earthquakes Occur?

Earthquakes can occur at all three types of plate boundary. BBC News explains how, at plate boundaries, the plates can become locked together, with a subsequent buildup of kinetic energy. When the plates give way, this stored energy is released in the form of an earthquake. The power released by the earthquake happens in three waves of energy: P waves, which are felt as a sudden jolt; S waves, which arrive a few seconds later and produce more sustained side-to-side shaking; and finally, surface waves, which radiate outward from the epicenter, arriving after the P and S waves.

Impact on the Landscape

The powerful and destructive nature of earthquakes means that they play a significant role in shaping the natural landscape along current, and previous, plate boundaries. This occurs over long periods as a result of processes of erosion and deposition along fault lines. Furthermore, according to David Keefer of the U.S. Geological Survey, the material that earthquakes dislodge can form landslides, which can subsequently block waterways and form artificial dams. Thus in the long term, the action of earthquakes will shape the surrounding landscape.

Consequences for the Local Population

According to Randy Kobes and Gabor Kunstatter at the University of Winnipeg physics department, earthquakes are notoriously difficult to predict because of the lack of regular patterns. This, therefore, has implications for the people located in earthquake-prone areas. The result is a need to spend on adequate technology to provide the most effective warning systems as possible, in addition to ensuring that all buildings are engineered to withstand more severe earthquakes. These measures will add to the living costs within these areas. Moreover, the constant threat of a potential earthquake can have long-term mental implications for some people, who may feel as though they live in a constant state of fear and uncertainty. Ultimately this can lead to a reduction in local population, with feedback effects on house prices and the economy.

Potential Impact on Tourism

An area that depends on tourism to support a large part of its economy can be heavily impacted by earthquake occurrence. For example, a decline in tourism can be expected in an area that has recently witnessed an earthquake with a high level of media coverage. The result of this would be further damage to the local economy, which will be bearing the already high costs of the earthquake itself. Moreover, through time, the number of visitors will decline due to fears over safety.

Tags: waves which, area that, plate boundaries, which they

Desert Areas In Montana

Montana may be up near the Canadian border, but some of its landscapes look like they'd fit in just as well in southern Arizona. Pacific weather systems flowing in from the west tend to get ripped up by the mountains in the western third of the state. This means little rain makes it past the ranges, turning central and eastern Montana into semi-arid desert-type environments, including badland, dune and shrubland. Arctic cold fronts coming south from Canada don't bring in enough moisture, either; precipitation in much of central and eastern Montana averages less than 16 inches per year, with some areas getting as little as 6 inches.

Sand Dunes

Sand dunes seem like they belong in California's Mojave Desert or the Sahara, but spots in Montana's northeast and southwest corners have what the state of Montana calls active and stabilized dunes. Wind pushes dunes of sand along through sagebrush-dotted landscapes. Wildfires are an occasional threat along with grazing. The total land area covered by this ecological system is only 78 square kilometers, or about 30 square miles.

Sagebrush Shrubland

Sagebrush is the chief plant form in the southwestern and south central portions of Montana. Low sagebrush shrubland, covering much of the southwest, typically lies in shallow soil on top of limestone. The state of Montana notes the soil there is often clay, preventing plant roots from growing well. Big sagebrush shrubland, in south-central Montana, is dry, dusty and relatively flat with few hills. The sagebrush doesn't recover well after fires, and the state notes only about 25 percent of the area is covered by plants.

Badlands

Badlands, dry areas with a particularly tough, jumbled geography, reign over the eastern half of the state, especially near Fort Peck Lake and the Missouri River, and eastern portions of the Yellowstone River. Shale badland forms a small section of this, in the south central portion near the Wyoming border. These areas are nearly completely barren, with much of the land swept away by storms. Western Great Plains badlands cover the majority of the state outside of the mountains. Very little vegetation exists; the state of Montana puts the figure at less than 10 percent coverage. Two recreational areas capitalize on the desolation of the badlands: Makoshika State Park, near the border with North Dakota, and the Terry Badlands Wilderness Study Area, near the town of Terry, southwest of Makoshika along Interstate 94. Makoshika is an abundant source of fossils, although you can't take any home yourself if you find them -- you must report them to the park without removing them.

Salt Desert Scrub

A very small area in two counties in the south, Big Horn and Carbon, contain an ecological system called Mixed Salt Desert Scrub. This is a dry area-- less than a foot of precipitation annually -- with reddish soil and mainly low vegetation. The soil is rather poor. Grazing and off-road vehicle use are the main threats to the area.

Tags: less than, state Montana, area covered, central eastern, central eastern Montana

Schools That Offer Landscape Architecture

Before designing the layout for gardens, landscape artchitects must complete the right educational program.

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics predicts that the demand for landscape architects will increase by 20 percent through 2018, resulting in the creation of 5,300 new jobs in the field. Most states require that landscape architects complete a degree program approved by the Landscape Architecture Accreditation Board of the American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA). A number of schools offer landscape architecture degrees and carry the approval of the ASLA.

Oklahoma State University

With nearly 18,000 undergraduate and 4,600 graduate students, Oklahoma State University is located in the urban setting of Stillwater, about 65 miles from Oklahoma City. The university offers a master's of science degree in landscape architecture with an emphasis on water use and management elements of design. Assistantship and fellowship programs are available to students to help offset the cost of graduate education, and the school gives more than $15 million per year in such awards annually, according to its website.

Oklahoma State University

101 Whitehurst Hall

Stillwater, OK 74078

(405) 744-5358

osu.okstate.edu

University of Maryland, College Park

Rated 53rd among national universities by U.S News and World Report's Best Colleges of 2010, the University of Maryland at College Park opened in 1856. The school has more than 26,000 undergraduate and 10,000 graduate students. The Department of Landscape Architecture grants both bachelor's and master's degrees in the field. In addition to studio practice, students in both programs study architecture history, human behavior, plants and ecoystems.

University of Maryland, College Park

2102 Plant Sciences Building

College Park, MD 20742-5025

(301) 314-8385

maryland.edu

University of Washington

Located in Seattle, the University of Washington received the 42nd-place ranking among colleges and universities in the U.S. from U.S. News and World Report in 2010. Bachelor's and master's degrees in landscape architecture are among the program offerings available for the school's total of more than 41,000 students. Green architecture is a major focus of the Department of Landscape Architecture with courses including urban ecological design and green infrastructure.

University of Washington

348 Gould Hall

Seattle, WA 98195

(206) 543-9240

washington.edu

University of Arkansas

Founded in 1851, the University of Arkansas is located in Fayetteville, about 190 miles northwest of Little Rock. The school's Fay Jones School of Architecture grants bachelor's degrees in the field, which require five years of study instead of the standard four. At the conclusion of the second year of study, students prepare a portfolio, which is reviewed and approved before they can proceed into the upper-level courses in the program. Focuses of the program include community development, wetland reclamation, public memorials, parks and gardens.

University of Arkansas

232 Silas Hunt Hall

Fayetteville, AR 72701

(800) 377-8632

uark.edu

California Polytechnic State University

Home to more than 19,000 undergraduate students, California Polytechnic State University is a public institution in Pomona. The university grants a bachelor's degree in landscape architecture with emphasis on community, urban and regional planning. Because computers are integral to study in the program, the department arranges for students to purchase personal laptop computers at discounted rates from Mac and Dell.

California Polytechnic State University

3801 W. Temple Ave.

Pomona, CA 91768-2557

(909) 869-3210

landscape.calpoly.edu

Tags: State University, College Park, more than, California Polytechnic, California Polytechnic State

Find Crystals Within Rocks

Crystals are the result of superheated rock cooling underground. The molecules always harden in a geometric pattern, but the pattern depends on environmental factors. Pressure and minerals in the surrounding rock cause the variety of shapes and colors in crystals. Crystals are easiest to find in areas with very dry, loose soil, like the southern United States and warmer areas of the Middle East and Mediterranean.

Geodes are a special kind of crystal. They look like ordinary, egg-shaped rocks but contain glittering crystals. Geodes form in gas pockets inside igneous (fire-made) rock or sedimentary (soft) rock. The pocket develops a dull crust on the outside, and the minerals trapped inside grow into crystals.

Instructions

1. Find several good-sized geodes. You may discover them while digging for crystals, or you can purchase them at novelty shops and caving stores. Find a flat space outside and dig a small hole in the ground, just large enough to cradle one side of a geode. Lay a cloth over the hole; this will catch any broken crystal and prevent the geode from getting dirty.

2. Score the geode around its circumference by holding it firmly in one hand and digging the corner of the chisel into its surface. Drag the chisel through the crust all the way around the geode. Set the geode on the cloth, pressing gently to settle it in the hole. Make sure the geode is stable by trying to rock it back and forth. Adjust as necessary.

3. Place the flat edge of the chisel against the score mark and strike the end of the handle firmly with a mallet. Turn the geode slightly, place the chisel on the next section of the score mark, and strike the chisel again with the mallet. Continue this way along the entire score mark or until the geode breaks open.

4. Be patient. Depending on how thick the crust is, the geode may take some time to crack. Once it does, pry it open gently with your fingers, if you can, or slide the chisel between the halves and twist it gently to reveal the shining crystals.

Tags: score mark, geode cloth, mark strike, score mark strike, with mallet

Use A Map Grid Lesson

Latitude and longitude grids define absolute position anywhere on Earth.

Starting with an interactive sensory movement activity engages kids' interest in learning use a map grid before transferring their understanding to pencil and paper activities. With guided practice, they will soon be finding map locations with ease. Once students master the process of reading map grids, they can display their creative skills by designing grid maps of imaginary locations.

Instructions

Instructional Method

1. Lay out an oversize grid in a large area such as a gymnasium or playground using ropes, masking tape or sidewalk chalk. Label the vertical columns with letters and the horizontal rows with numbers. Explain that some maps contain a grid of evenly spaced horizontal and vertical lines that divide the map into squares. These lines are imaginary markers to assist people in locating places on the map and differ between different map versions. Each square corresponds to a letter-number address, such as M5. Call out coordinates and ask students to go stand in that box. Continue until students can easily locate the correct position.

2. Pass out a grid map to each student. Ask students to look at the map index and note that each place listed corresponds to a letter-number address for the map location. Demonstrate locate the vertical line labeled "M" and then count up four horizontal lines to find the location. Point out that each grid square is just a general map location; it narrows the search but does not pinpoint the exact location of any given place.

3. Give students a location and ask them to locate it on the map and note the grid coordinates. Try giving them coordinates and asking them to identify what they find in that grid square. Continue giving examples while you circulate to check for understanding. Pass out a worksheet of locations and coordinates to find for more practice.

4. Pair students up and ask them to create a grid map of an imaginary location of their choice, suggests Tips for Teachers. The map should take up the entire grid and include an index of key locations and their grid coordinates.

Tags: corresponds letter-number, corresponds letter-number address, grid coordinates, grid square, letter-number address, that each

Naturalist Job Description

A naturalist is concerned about protecting the environment

Naturalists are teaching scientists committed to helping people, young and old, to gain an appreciation for the natural world. Naturalists help students to connect the science they are learning in school with the real challenges involved in protecting the plants and animals that live in the wild. Naturalists are focused on teaching people how sustainable ecosystems can be established and sustained.

Function

Naturalists develop lessons designed to not only be instructive about forests or how ocean waves affect coastal areas, but also lessons that will help people to gain an appreciation for the interrelationship between the environment and the actions of humans. Lessons may include information on protect the environment or how the actions of mankind are affecting climate change and weather patterns. The presentation of a naturalist at a nature center may be the incentive that a child needs to begin caring about the environment.

Misconceptions

The job of a naturalist is not always glamorous or in the public eye. Naturalists are important team members of any organization they work for. At the Pacific Whale Foundation in Maui, Hawaii, naturalists are called upon to "provide high quality customer service and other supportive duties to promote Pacific Whale Foundation's mission and boat operations." At this organization the naturalists are required to assist in keeping the supplies stocked in the boats and to assist with food service and cleanup duties.

Volunteers

Volunteer naturalists provide assistance in the preparation and presentation of nature and cultural programs. Volunteer staff members assist nature center visitors by answering questions and providing essential public safety protection by reporting incidents or providing first aid for minor injuries. Volunteer naturalists are required to demonstrate a genuine commitment to conservation and the protection of the park or nature center ecosystem. Volunteers should bring an enthusiasm to the job that helps visitors to gain a deep appreciation for the preservation of our natural resources.

Qualifications

Naturalists are usually required to have a college degree in one of the natural sciences such as biology, geology, environmental studies or horticulture. Naturalists who work in historical parks may be required to have course work in one of the social sciences such as history or geography. Naturalists should be good communicators and enjoy working with people and teaching students of all ages. Most positions require the naturalist to work outdoors and be in good physical condition.

Potential

College graduates with natural science degrees will have many opportunities for entry level positions as naturalist interns and teaching naturalists. These positions provide valuable training to move up into a wide range of conservation and forestry jobs. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, "the employment of conservation scientists and foresters is expected to grow by 12 percent during the 2008 to 2018 decade." The salary range for these positions is $35,000 to $73,000.

Potential

Tags: nature center, environment actions, gain appreciation, naturalists required, Pacific Whale

Career Descriptions For Environmental Science Jobs

Environmental sciences work with all aspects of the environment.

Environmental science is a major in colleges and universities that can yield entrance into a number of careers. Jobs that fall under the umbrella of environmental science typically specialize in a certain geographical area or a single aspect of the environment. Others apply their knowledge of environmental science to aid a certain industry.

Agricultural Scientists

Agricultural scientists study farm crops and animals and use their environmental science skills to develop ways to improve the quantity and quality of farm yields. This involves ways to control pests and weeds without harming crops, animals and humans, for example. Other scientists in this career path work with soil or water specifically to devise ways of conserving both. Scientists who specialize in this career path claim titles that include plant, animal and soil scientist. Some agricultural scientists work in a managerial capacity or simply begin by conducting basic research. These individuals typically find themselves working regular hours in laboratories. Those working in applied sciences may work irregular hours and work outdoors, on farms or in agricultural research stations.

Geoscientists

There are three types of geoscientists, all of them part of the environmental science sphere. Geologists study the composition of the Earth, as well as its history and the processes that go on within it. Geophysicists study similar aspects of the Earth but apply the basic principles of chemistry, mathematics and physics in doing so. In particular, these people study the surface and internal composition of the Earth, its atmosphere and waters, and the magnetic, chemical and gravitational fields within it. Hydrologists study the quantity, distribution and properties of the world's water supplies. These scientists use their research to understand how water supplies affect the environment as a whole.

Conservation Scientists

Conservation scientists work with private and public landowners as well as federal, state and local governments to protect, conserve and improve natural resources. They advise landowners on take care of their land and design and implement programs to keep those lands healthy and productive. They work with forests, range lands, farm owners, state and national parks and other natural areas. Conservation scientists need at minimum a bachelor's degree to find work, and this can be in environmental science. For research positions or to head a team in the field, higher degrees and experience are necessary.

Tags: environmental science, work with, career path, composition Earth, Conservation scientists, crops animals

Benefit Of Tsunameters

Benefit of Tsunameters

The Indian Ocean tsunami of December 2004 that killed an estimated 169,000 and left hundreds of thousands homeless is just one example of the devastation caused by tsunamis. One major reason tsunamis have been the source of such widespread destruction is because they generally strike with little or no warning. However, scientists have been working on systems and networks of strategically placed tsunami-detection buoys, or tsunameters, that analyze tsunamis in real time, giving population centers in a tsunami's path time for preparation and evacuation.

DART and the First Tsunameter

According to the National Academy of Enginieering (NAE), the first tsunameter to be used in the Deep-Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) system was created at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) in Seattle, Washington in 1987. Able to detect and measure a tsunami with an amplitude as small as one centimeter in 6,000 meters of water, this buoy would then transmit its data to a surface buoy, which relays the information to a ground station via satellite. The DART network of tsunameters enables analysts to determine the tsunami's path, magnitude and destructive potential.

Financial Benefits

At a cost of about $250,000 per tsunameter station, the DART system, has saved the state of Hawaii millions of dollars since 2003. For example, a tsunami caused by an earthquake near Adak, Alaska, was interpreted by DART to be non-threatening to to the state's coastal areas. As a result, no warning was sent, saving Hawaii approximately $68 million in evacuation and other costs. In comparison, a 1986, pre-DART event in the same region was detected, prompting a $40 million evacuation of Hawaii's coastal areas. If the DART system had been in place at the time, the tsunami would have been assessed as harmless. The tsunami turned out to be less than a foot high when it struck.

Future of Tsunameters

According to the NAE, the next generation of tsunameters will incorporate numerical modeling technology to forecast tsunamis in real time for specific coastal towns and cities. The United States has committed $37.5 million to expand its tsunami warning and detection capabilities. With 32 new buoys, the DART system will expand coverage to all countries on the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, extending nearly 100 percent coverage of the U.S.

International Network

Ironically, there is still no tsunami warning system in place in the Indian Ocean, site of the most destructive tsunami in modern history. According to the NAE, "Although there are thousands of moored and free-floating data buoys and thousands of land-based environmental stations around the world and more than 50 environmental satellites orbiting the globe, all providing millions of data sets, most of these cannot yet "talk" to each other." The Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) is a U.S.-led, international initiative to link these systems into global tsunami coverage. "Combined with efforts under way in the Indian Ocean, we will be casting a safety net across the world...," says the NAE.

Tags: DART system, have been, Indian Ocean, Benefit Tsunameters, coastal areas, million evacuation, real time

Island Types

Islands can nourish life, or destroy it, by erupting hot lava.

Islands are bodies of land surrounded entirely by water. Some form on their own accord following volcanic activity below the sea, while others break off continents to become separate land masses. Islands exist in a variety of types and are home to many different lifeforms.

Continental

Unlike all other island types, which originate from the ocean floor, continental islands are comprise pieces of the continental crust that have broken away from a larger continent and drifted away at sea. Since these islands are comprise different pieces of continental crust, they contain many different types of rocks and soils and are quite complex in structure. They may also be home to the plant and animal species that lived on the continent to which the pieces that comprise them were formerly attached. Some examples of continental islands include the Sumatra, Sicily and Barbados islands.

Oceanic

Any island that arises from the deep sea floor is termed an oceanic island. While continental islands contain the plant and animal species of a nearby continent, an oceanic island acquires its own unique combination of plants and animals. Some exhibit volcanic activity, while many were once home to active volcanoes that have since become inactive. Oceanic islands vary greatly in size -- some are composed of only a view specks of rock or sand, while others, such as Iceland, are huge land masses. Other oceanic islands include Hawaii and the Azores.

Volcanic

All islands, with the exception of continental islands, start off as volcanoes, although not all possess any remaining volcanic rock today. Volcanic islands start off as submarine volcanoes, which erupt beneath the water. Once a submarine volcano grows large enough that it is visible above ocean surface, it is termed a volcanic island. Young volcanic islands are cone-shaped and frequently erupt lava. As a volcanic island ages and becomes less active, it will begin to erode, resulting in an island with jagged mountains, numerous valleys, and steep slopes at its center; at this point, a coral reef begins to form around the island. The volcanic island will continue to erode, until it disappears.

Coral

While a volcanic island in a tropical body is eroding away, a coral reef is growing around it and turning it into a coral island. During storms, materials pile up on an emerging coral reef, resulting in areas of land on the reef. Coral islands are composed almost exclusively of calcium carbonate or limestone from sand and coral rock made of the skeletons of shells, algae and corals. Famous coral islands include the Great Barrier Reef in Australia and the Belize Barrier Reef in Mexico.

Tags: continental islands, volcanic island, coral reef, islands include, animal species, Barrier Reef, continental crust

Famous Trenches In The Indian Ocean

The Indian Ocean contains tectonic ridges and deep trenches.

The Indian Ocean stretches from the shores of India on the north to the shores of Antarctica on the south. Africa is its western boundary, and Indonesia is on the east. Accounting for approximately 20 percent of the water on the Earth's surface, the Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean in world. It has the fewest trenches of all the oceans and contains ridges that separate tectonic plates. One of the ocean's trenches was responsible for the cataclysmic 2004 series of tsunamis in India and Indonesia.

Southwest India Ridge

The Southwest Indian Ridge in the far southern region of the Indian Ocean forms the boundary between the African tectonic plate and the Antarctic tectonic plate. The ridge stretches from the southwestern area of the Indian Ocean to the southern Atlantic Ocean, south of the cape of the African continent. The ridge is a divergent tectonic boundary, meaning that the plates are moving away from each other.

Carlsberg Ridge

A divergent tectonic ridge that forms the boundary between the African plate and the Indo-Australian plate is called the Carlsberg Ridge; it runs along the eastern coast of the Africa in the western Indian Ocean. The ridge, seismically active, is named separately from the Southwest Ridge because of its individual seismic activity. A major earthquake of 7.6 on the moment magnitude scale occurred on the ridge in 2003.

Southeast India Ridge

The Southeast India Ridge, which separates the Indo-Australian tectonic plate and the Antarctic plate, extends from the far southern area of the central Indian Ocean to the far western edge of the Pacific Ocean off the southern coast of Australia. The ridge is a divergent tectonic boundary as the two plates are moving away from each other.

Diamantia Trench

One of the two trenches in the India Ocean is called the Diamantia Trench, which is in the southeastern basin of the India Ocean. Its maximum depth is more than 8,000 meters, or almost five miles, and it is the deepest spot in the Indian Ocean. "Diamantia Deep" is the name given to the deepest part of the trench, located 1,000 kilometers (621 miles) west-southwest of the city of Perth in Australia.

Sunda Trench

The Sunda Trench, the most-famous and most-destructive area of the Indian Ocean, was once called the Java Trench. Located in the northeastern corner of the Indian Ocean, the famous trench is the source of the 9.0 earthquake that in 2007 caused the destructive tsunami in Indonesia and India. At its deepest, it is more than 7,700 meters, or almost five miles deep. The Sunda Trench, the boundary between the Indo-Australian plate and the Eurasian plate, is part of the Ring of Fire of earthquake activity around the edges of the Pacific plate.

Tags: Indian Ocean, boundary between, divergent tectonic, India Ridge, Sunda Trench

Test Specific Hardness

Specific hardness of a mineral is tested on the Mohs scale. Hardness measures the ability of a mineral to resist abrasion. The Mohs scale was developed by German mineralogist Friedrich Mohs.The Mohs scale standard is from one to ten, with one being the softest mineral, talc, and ten being the hardest mineral, diamond. The hardness test is made up of ten common elements: talc, gypsum, calcite, fluorite, apatite, orthoclase, quartz, topaz, corundum and diamond.

Instructions

1. Number the minerals according to the Mohs scale, from one to ten starting with talc: talc (1), gypsum (2), calcite (3), fluorite (4), apatite (5), orthoclase (6), quartz (7), topaz (8), corundum (9), and diamond (10).

2. Start with the softest mineral; scratch the talc with the mineral for which you are determining the hardness. If the mineral scratches the talc, it is harder.

3. Scratch the gypsum with the mineral you are testing. If the mineral scratches the gypsum, it is harder than gypsum.

4. Repeat the scratch test until you reach the element that your sample mineral does not scratch.

5. Label your mineral with a number range, describing where it falls on the Mohs scale. The hardness range falls between the mineral the sample did not scratch and the highest level of mineral that was scratched. For example, if the mineral you are testing scratches elements up to fluorite but then does not scratch apatite, your element is between a 4 and a 5 on the hardness scale.

Tags: Mohs scale, apatite orthoclase, apatite orthoclase quartz, calcite fluorite, calcite fluorite apatite

The Types Of Rocks On Mauna Loa

The lava flows on the big island of Hawaii are dark with basalt and mantle minerals

Mauna Loa is a shield volcano on the island of Hawaii. It last erupted in 1984, and many volcanologists predict that it will erupt again in the near future. Considered the largest active volcano in the world, Mauna Loa makes up nearly half of the big island. Most of the rocks that can be found on the slopes of Mauna Loa are a result of some form of volcanic activity.

Volcanic Rock

The lava from Mauna Loa's various eruptions is basaltic, which is a type of rock found in the ocean floor, and within the Earth's mantle. The basalt from Mauna Loa is predominantly tholeiitic basalt, which has a very small percentage of silica. It is iron and magnesium rich and can occasionally include crystals of olivine, a pale green mineral. Basalt is usually a deep red to dark gray and often appears black. Depending on the properties of the lava flow, basalt can be smooth or cindery.

Types of Lava Rocks

There are two primary types of volcanic flows on the Hawaiian islands. Fast-flowing pahoehoe and slow-moving aa. Pahoehoe tends to be smoother and more dense, while aa has more of a crumbled, airy consistency. Mauna Loa and the older Ninole shield beneath it have erupted with both types of lava. In the Ninole volcanic series formations, around the base of Mauna Loa, you can find thin layers of alternating pahoehoe and aa that have been carved through by river erosion.

Metamorphic and Sedimentary Rocks

While the continental U.S. contains a high percentage of granite and silica-rich rocks, the land mass of Hawaii is almost entirely basaltic lava. But volcanic pressure can metamorphose basalt into schists and some of these can be found in small quantities on the Hawaiian islands, though it is rare. More common are layers of sand and ash that are slowly cementing into rock. Since the Hawaiian islands are young, relative to continents, the sediments are uncommon and thin.

Other Sand and Soil Constituents

Coral and shells, while not rocks, make up a great deal of the sand beaches on Hawaii along with eroded basalt, and some of the composite rocks further inland. Since basalt is such a dark rock, most of the lighter colors that you can find in sediments or sand will be from broken shells and eroded pieces of coral. On some of the beaches, the pieces will be larger, and easier to identify as shells, while others are finely rounded and can easily be mistaken for rock fragments.

Tags: Hawaiian islands, from Mauna, island Hawaii, shells while

About The Ring Of Fire Volcanoes

Ring of Fire is not just a classic Johnny Cash song--it's a geological reality. The Ring of Fire is a suitably dramatic name for one of the most geologically active and chaotic places on the planet. The Ring of Fire is so-named because it is home to hundreds of the world's volcanoes, whose steady string of eruptions serve as a reminder to the tug of war underneath our feet.

The Facts

The Ring of Fire is the term given to the ring of volcanoes, plate movements, trenches and seismic activity that encircles the Pacific Basin. Stretching 40,000 km in length, the Ring of Fire is host to more than 450 volcanoes--more than 75 percent of the world's total. It is the most seismic region on the planet, outranking its nearest competitor--the Alpide belt--by a factor of 10.

Geography

The Ring of Fire encompasses almost the entire Pacific Ocean, roughly following the outline of the Pacific Plate. It reaches as far north as Alaska and Russia's Kamchatka Peninsula, and as far east Mexico and Chile. Its westernmost edge winds its way from the Philippines, through Micronesia and New Guinea, and on down through the New Zealand's North Island. The Ring of Fire reaches as far south as Antarctica, which actually does host several active volcanoes.

Evolution

The Ring of Fire evolved over millions of years, through the collision of tectonic plates. As the Pacific Plate runs up against the adjacent plates, one of the plates will subduct (sink) beneath the other. The wet, subducting crust will serve to melt the overlying mantle, which produces magma. This magma slowly rises until it breaks through the earth's surface to form a volcano.

Effects

The Ring of Fire has produced more than just volcanoes. It has also produced island and mountain chains across the world, or even whole countries. The Aleutian Islands in Alaska are all volcanic in origin. Japan was created by the subduction of the Pacific Plate underneath the Eurasian Plate, and the iconic Mt. Fuji is one of the many volcanoes formed in the process.

Risk Factors

The vast majority of the world's earthquakes--80 to 90 percent--occur around the Ring of Fire. In the United States, the eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 was the largest recorded volcanic eruption in the history of the continental U.S. It killed 57 people, caused more than $1 billion in damage, and deposited ash over 11 states. But major eruptions have and will continue to occur throughout the Ring of Fire, largely in countries without the resources to mount proper recovery and rescue. Indonesia and the Philippines are particularly vulnerable.

Tags: Ring Fire, more than, Pacific Plate

Science Projects For Third Graders On The Systems And Their Interactions

Students can create a simple machine as part of a physical system project.

Science teachers have a wonderful opportunity, when they teach third graders, as they are genuinely curious and keen to experientially learn about the world around them. Grade three science curriculum covers three types of systems: living systems, how organisms interact with their environment and other creatures; earth systems, how planet Earth interacts with the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, geosphere and other components of the solar system; and physical systems, such as energy, motion and machine systems.

Local Ecosystem

Third grade students can complete a science project on a real-world ecosystem. They should choose an ecosystem close to their home or school, such as their backyard, a local pond, the zoo or a nearby park. Encourage students to make observations of what lifeforms, both plants and animals, they observe. Observations may come in the form of sightings, sounds or visual clues, such as animal tracks and or dens. As a culminating activity, students can complete either a food chain or a food web, consisting of multiple chains representative of the ecosystem. They can add some artistry that goes beyond connecting words with arrows. For example, if one student includes a food chain consisting of a squirrel that eats acorns, he could glue cracked acorns to his food web poster board. If a student observes a pet cat or a raccoon's tracks outside, he can sketch them, take a picture of them or even take a plaster casting of them and include this as part of one of the food chains. He can then extend an arrow to what this animal eats, such as a cat eats a mouse which eats seeds or a raccoon eats baby birds which eat worms.

Simple Machines

In third grade, students start learning about physical systems, such as simple machines. With the help of a parent or older sibling, they can build their own simple machine. The six simple machines are the pulley, the lever, the inclined plane, the screw, the wedge and the wheel. It is important for students to understand how each component of the machine interacts to produce the desired power or energy. Provide the opportunity for students to explain how each component of the machine plays a role, either through a verbal or simple written explanation.

The Water Cycle

One earth system that third grade students study is the water cycle. Students can visually demonstrate the water cycle in a variety of ways to show their understanding and knowledge about the system. Students should understand that all of the Earth's water sources are interconnected and are affected by the Sun, the atmosphere, the Moon and other universal factors. They could create a diagram that includes lakes and oceans, the Sun, clouds, groundwater, runoff, precipitation and evaporation. Other ways to show the water cycle are to create a slide show, a three-dimensional model or to act out a demonstration with other classmates.

Plant Experiment

Third graders are expected to practice the scientific method by performing an experiment. In order to better understand which aspects of a living system a plant depends on for survival, students can design their own experiments to determine a plant's optimal growing conditions. For example, students can grow plants in sunlight, shade and darkness, grow their plants in different mediums, such as organically rich soil, clay and sand, or water them with pure water, salt water and juice. Students should write an hypothesis of which plants will grow the most successfully, record their observations, measure their plants regularly and come up with a conclusion. They should also familiarize themselves with the basics of photosynthesis.

Tags: grade students, component machine, each component, each component machine, ecosystem They, food chain, physical systems

Gems Of The Wissahickon

Garnet, found in the Wissahickon Gorge, serves as a substitute for more expensive red gemstones such as rubies.

The Wissahickon Gorge is in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and is a geological site populous with common rocks and minerals. Though there is not an abundance of gems in the area which would be suitable for jewelry or collections, it has many minerals and crystals which may double for gemstones, are sometimes used as mineral specimens or for industrial purposes. Minerals and crystals are categorized and rated based on their transparency, usually the more transparent the better; cleavage, which refers to how smooth it is when split; and color. Does this Spark an idea?

Biotite

Biotite mica ranges from transparent to translucent and is colored black, dark green or dark brown. Biotite is recognized due to its cleavage because it separates into thin, flexible sheets which are nearly perfect. As a commercial product it serves as a surface treatment in construction material, and geologists use it to date rocks.

Chlorite

Chlorite typically has a strong green color and forms microscopic crystals which are flaky. It most often appears within or on the outer coating of quartz, topaz, danburite or calcite. Chlorite crystals are translucent or transparent, and though it is usually green other color formations include white, red, lavender, yellow and black.

Garnet

Garnet is a crystal which forms under high temperature and pressure, and due to its color and transparency is often a candidate for being a gemstone except that it is relatively abundant and therefore cheap to purchase. Garnets come in multiple different types, the most common being alamandine, andradite, grossular, pyrope, spessartine and uvarovite. In these common varieties is a wide color spectrum including reddish brown, brown, black, green, colorless, orange, dark red, ruby red, orange and pink, though most garnet crystals are red. All garnets are alike in that they are highly transparent and brightly colored.

Kyanite

Kyanite is an aluminum silicate used to manufacture spark plugs. It is mostly sapphire-blue, though it can also be white, gray or green. A marked characteristic of kyanite is that it forms in long, splintery prismatic crystals which makes it popular as a mineral specimen. Kyanite crystals range from transparent to translucent and appear in metamorphic rocks and quartz veins.

Muscovite

Muscovite is common in a range of different rocks and serves as a heat and electrical insulator for industrial products and purposes. Muscovite crystals can be transparent or translucent and are colored white, silver, yellow, green or brown. The crystals cleave off in thin sheets or flakes which are flexible, elastic and uneven.

Sillimanite

Sillimanite is rarely used as a gemstone or mineral specimen but is used in industries such as cement making, glass making and iron foundries. Sillimanite is transparent or translucent and white, gray, brown or yellow. The crystals are needle-like and cleave lengthwise.

Staurolite

Staurolite is a mineral distinguished by its crystals which form cross shapes or sometimes a six-rayed star. Staurolite crystals range from translucent to opaque and are colored reddish-brown, brown or black. It has no industrial uses and serves primarily as a mineral specimen.

Tourmaline

Tourmaline is a group of different, albeit closely related, minerals. People use it as a specimen in collections, carve it into figurines or craft it as a gemstone. Colors of tourmaline are highly variable, the most common being shades of brown, red, pink, green, orange, blue and yellow. Its crystals are translucent or transparent and are typically elongated prisms.

Tags: crystals which, transparent translucent, mineral specimen, brown black, common being

Become A Mud Engineer

Mud engineers can spend weeks on oil drilling rigs.

Mud engineers are also called drilling fluid engineers or mud men. Mud engineers work on oil and gas rigs, where they drill, monitor, mix and test drilling fluid for drill bits. Men and women entering this field should be detail-oriented and have a basic understanding of math and science. There are several paths available for individuals interested in entering this career field, including on-the-job training, obtaining a relevant college degree or attending a mud school.

Instructions

1. Take high school courses in mathematics, earth science and physical science. Earn a high school diploma or its equivalent.

2. Obtain on-the-job training. If you do not plan to attend college this is an option. Start out as an employee on a rig or mud logger with a small mud company. Contact mud companies for entry level positions.

3. Enroll in a mud school. Large oil companies like Halliburton operate mud schools. There are also privately run institutions like the Oklahoma Mud School. The advantage of attending an oil company run mud school is that the company will likely hire you once you graduate. The courses you will take include basics of drilling fluids, various mud systems, properties and measurements and contaminations.

4. Attend college. Take courses in oil and gas technology. Obtain a degree in fields like geology or other petroleum-related sciences.

5. Prepare your resume. Detail your education, experience and qualifications. Seek employment opportunities with mud companies providing mud engineering services to the oil industry and oil companies like Halliburton, Baker Hughes, Newpark and Strata.

Tags: companies like, companies like Halliburton, drilling fluid, entering this, high school, like Halliburton, on-the-job training

Identify Common Minerals

The first principle for identifying common minerals is, "Rocks and minerals are not the same thing." Every rock contains two or more different minerals, and the various mineral combinations are what make each type of rock unique. There are thousands of known minerals, yet only about 100 of these are common enough to make up the main components of rocks. Use the following steps to help you identify common minerals.

Instructions

1. Get a good mineralogy field guide. This will allow you to read about each of the common minerals, see what they look like and compare the physical properties of the specimens you find to the photos in your guide.

2. Do some preliminary reading before going out to hunt for minerals to identify. This will give you an opportunity to learn common mineral-identification terminology, as well as the actual physical characteristics that differentiate minerals from one another. You'll learn that such things as color, streak, transparency, luster, hardness, cleavage and fracture, along with other factors like specific gravity and crystal form, determine the nature of common minerals.

3. Memorize the above properties which are used to identify the common minerals. Learn the meaning of each term. This will make your job easier when you're out in the field.

4. Go out and collect as many interesting-looking specimens as you'd like to try to identify.

5. Use your field guide to help you determine which specimens to collect for further study. Comparing them to the pictures in the guide will give you a better idea of which types of minerals the rocks you find are likely to contain--or at least which minerals they visually resemble.

6. Study your specimens further at home. Use the items in the above list as instructed in your guide to check the properties of each specimen against the measurements that indicate the different types of common minerals. Use the porcelain tile to test streak, the hammer to test cleavage or fracture, the penny and glass plate to estimate hardness, the magnet to identify metallic minerals and the diluted hydrochloric acid to test powdered minerals. Follow guide instructions carefully, taking notes to help you reach an accurate conclusion.

Tags: common minerals, common minerals, This will, cleavage fracture, field guide, identify common, will give

Attractions Between Wisconsin & Wyoming

Visit Mt. Rushmore, located near Wyoming on the western side of South Dakota.

Stretch your legs and engage your mind as you wander through forests, museums, caves and zoos while you drive from one major destination to another. Taking a road trip from Wisconsin to Wyoming on Interstate 90 offers the traveler the opportunity to explore state and national parks as well as urban attractions. Turning off the interstate now and again can turn a dreary couple of days on the road into a memorable adventure.

Hardwood Forest

As you enter or exit Minnesota on Interstate 90, you'll go through part of the Richard J. Dorer Memorial Hardwood State Forest, which encompasses more than a million acres in the southeastern part of the state. Popular activities include hiking, horseback riding, mountain biking, camping and picnicking. You can access the forest from exits 242 to 270 off the interstate. Stop for a quick look at the Enterprise Rest Area, located at exit 244.

Sioux Falls

About 150,000 people call Sioux Falls, South Dakota home. This small city lies on the eastern side of the state at the junction of Interstates 29 and 90. The Great Plains Zoo and Delbridge Museum of Natural History provides an educational diversion for families. Set on 45 acres, this attraction includes a children's zoo, train rides and a carousel. Sioux Falls also has several golf courses and museums, a battleship memorial and an amusement park.

Badlands

South of Interstate 90 via exits 110 and 131 in western South Dakota, you can explore the unusual landscape of Badlands National Park. Stay in the car for a scenic drive along the Badlands Loop Road between the two exits, or stop to learn more at the Ben Reifel Visitor Center, where a 20-minute film will fill you in on the park's remarkable geologic formations. Badlands also has hiking trails and two campgrounds.

Mt. Rushmore

Head south on U.S. Highway 16 from exit 57 off of Interstate 90 in Rapid City, South Dakota to journey toward Mount Rushmore National Memorial, located about 35 miles away on U.S. Highway 16 Alternate. See the giant heads of four U.S. presidents--George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln--carved into the side of the granite mountain and learn about how and why this national memorial came into being.

Wind Cave

South of Interstate 90 via U.S. Highway 385 in western South Dakota, break up your journey with an interpretive cave tour at Wind Cave National Park. Learn more about the cave with a visit to the Wind Cave Visitor Center, which includes three rooms with exhibits about the cave and the park. The remainder of the park offers 30 miles of hiking trails plus year-round camping at the park's Elk Mountain Campground.

Tags: South Dakota, Sioux Falls, Wind Cave, about cave, hiking trails, National Park, South Interstate

How Mount Kanchenjunga Was Formed

The Himalayan Mountains were formed by a continental convergence between the Indian and Eurasian plates.

At 28,169 feet, Mount Kanchenjunga is the third highest mountain in the world, behind only Everest and K2. The mountain's name means "The Five Treasures of Snows," referring to its five peaks. Kanchenjunga is located in the Himalayas, an 1,800-mile belt of towering mountains along the India-Tibet border. The peak was formed over millions of years by a process called orogeny. This orogenic process deformed the rock under tremendous pressure, forcing it upward.

Pangea

The formation of Kanchenjunga began over 250 million years ago when India, Africa, Australia and South America were all united as one supercontinent, called Pangea. Early in the Cretaceous period, around 200 million years ago, this supercontinent fractured into several plates, representing today's continents. At this time, the Indian plate was separated from Tibet, located on the Eurasian plate, by an ancient sea known as the Tethys.

Effects of Plate Tectonics

According to plate tectonics, the crust of the Earth is comprised of approximately a dozen large plates. These plates float on the Earth's mantle, a fluid body of molten magma. The convective nature of this magma causes the plates to slowly drift, like boxes on a conveyor belt. This movement leads to plate collisions, called convergences. Mount Kanchenjunga was created by one of these powerful collisions, a result of the Pangean breakup.

Formation of the Tibetan Plateau

Following the break-up of Pangea, the Indian plate began to move northward, traveling at up to 6 inches a year. As it moved, it began to squeeze the Tethys Sea between itself and the Tibetan region of the Eurasian plate. Because the oceanic crust was denser than the continental crust of the Eurasian plate, the seafloor was subducted under Tibet. This led to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, which is now the largest and highest plateau in the world. Kanchenjunga is located in the Himalayas, which run along the southern edge of the plateau and mark the collision zone between the two plates.

Continental Collision

By 40 million to 50 million years ago, the Tethys Sea had been all but erased and the two continental plates finally collided, slowing the advance of the Indian plate by one half. Unlike the Tethys' oceanic crust, the continental crust of India had the same density as that of the Eurasian plate, meaning neither plate could subduct under the other. The plates simply continued to crush together, creating tremendous pressure. This pressure caused the plates to buckle, deforming the rock in a process known as orogeny. As the pressure increased, the crust had nowhere to go but up. This uplift is what created the Himalayas and, more specifically, Mount Kanchenjunga.

Mount Kanchenjunga Today

Mount Kanchenjunga lies in the region known as the Higher Himalayas. This region lies along an east-west axis that marks the greatest orogenic uplift, and thus the highest of the Himalayan peaks. The Indian plate continues to relentlessly and forcefully move to the north, pushing Kanchenjunga, and all of the Himalayas, ever higher. Kanchenjunga continues to rise at around 1/2 inch per year. However, natural weathering counters some of this rise through erosion.

Tags: Mount Kanchenjunga, Eurasian plate, Indian plate, million years, continental crust

Identify Types Of Rocks

The key to identifying rocks is first to identify the minerals that compose them. Geologists and students should begin with the most obvious type of rock. Follow these steps to help you identify types of rocks using a number of methods.

Instructions

1. Look at your rock to see if it has a metallic or non-metallic luster. Common metallic minerals include sulfides, oxides or a metallic element.

2. Determine your rock's density. Most rocks with a metallic luster also are high in density. Few non-metallic minerals have high density. Barite and sphalerite are the most common high density non-metallic minerals.

3. Inspect your rock for its degree of hardness. If you can scratch glass with your rock, and it's metallic, consider oxides. If it's non-metallic and scratches glass, suspect such common minerals as quartz, feldspar or a silicate. If you can scratch your rock easily with a knife, suspect common sulfates, carbonates or halides.

4. Examine your rock for its particular cleavage. Of the many different types of cleavage, common properties include cubic, octahedral, rhombohedral, blocky cleavage, thin sheets or splintery cleavage.

5. Determine the color of your rock. Color is the least reliable of identifying properties, as stains or impurities can compromise a rock's true color. Pink can indicate feldspars, silicates or carbonates. Bright yellow, red or orange can indicate sulfides, oxides, uranium, chromate. Earth tones can indicate iron and bright green to blue can show coppers.

Tags: your rock, high density, density non-metallic, density non-metallic minerals, high density non-metallic, non-metallic minerals

Senior Education Vacations

Senior travel does not have to mean shuffleboard on board a cruise ship or viewing tourist sites from the windows of a tour bus.

Health experts frequently point to ongoing learning and constant mental growth as a means to prevent conditions such as Alzheimer's disease. Travel offers one of the most exciting ways to learn, expanding your horizons literally as well as figuratively. The mental benefits of travel were already known centuries ago. The Roman stoic philosopher and tutor to the Roman emperor Nero wrote, "Travel and change of place impart new vigor to the mind."

Ayurvedic Medicine

Road Scholar (previously known as Elderhostel or Exploritas) pioneered the concept of active, educational trips for those older than 55. The organization offers a wide range of trips, both in the U.S. and abroad, with a wide range of physical activity levels. The current catalog of trips offers seniors the opportunity to learn about ayurveda, the ancient system of health of the Indian subcontinent. Program participants will learn identify their dosha (type) and what foods, herbs and gentle yoga exercises best support health and longevity for their dosha. The program takes place in New Mexico, and also includes a visit to a museum to see Native American art and a tramway ride up into the rugged Sandia Mountains.

Road Scholar/Elderhostel

11 Avenue de Lafayette

Boston MA 02111

800-454-5768

roadscholar.org

Digital Photography

Road Scholar travelers can also choose to learn about new technology while vacationing in beautiful locales. A Costa Rica trip teaches travelers the techniques of digital photography with the rainforest, providing abundant choices for exotic photo subjects. Budding digital photographers will visit locations more than 11,000 feet and may hike up to 90 minutes each day in hot and humid weather. A visit to Costa Rica's Arenal volcano will include a lecture on geology, and travelers will learn about the ecology of the rainforest as well as how best to photograph it.

Road Scholar/Elderhostel

11 Avenue de Lafayette

Boston MA 02111

800-454-5768

roadscholar.org

Language Immersion

If you desire to learn a foreign language, the Learning Traveller offers immersion programs designed specifically for travelers 50 and older. Learn Italian, Spanish, French, German or Chinese among native speakers. The program will place you in a pre-screened home environment. In addition to staying with people who have spoken your new language since birth, you will participate in classes keyed to your ability level and participate in field trips with other language learners in your age group.

The Learning Traveller Inc.

121 Wyndham Street North, Suite 201

Guelph, Ontario

N1H 4E9 Canada

+ 1 519 821 3202

thelearningtraveller.com

Tags: Road Scholar, learn about, 02111 800-454-5768, 02111 800-454-5768 roadscholar, 800-454-5768 roadscholar

Final Year Chemical Engineering Projects List

Chemical engineering students often work together in the laboratory.

Selecting your final year's chemical engineering project moves you one step closer to graduation. Choose an engineering project that answers an important question about how the next generation will survive and thrive. Think of a topic that was especially interesting to you -- a chapter in your text or a lab assignment you wanted to pursue in greater depth. Your project is the time to indulge in that interest.

Tsunami and Nuclear Power Issues

When crisis events occur regarding nuclear power plants due to natural disasters, scientists are left to seek out ways of making plants more secure against disasters and less likely to contaminate humans and the environment. Use your chemical engineering project to address a pressing issue about the future direction of nuclear power or whether it should have a future at all. Among the suggested titles for related projects on the website FullInterview.com are titles such as "Radioactive Waste Management," "Chemical Oceanography" and "Comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment Report for Liquid Fuel Based Power Plant."

Free Project Reports

Perusing actual chemical engineering projects can give you inspiration for a project of your own design. Visit the Free Project Reports website (freeprojectreports.com), and view a condensed description of the various projects. Click on those of interest, and you find an abbreviated introduction and an outline of the complete project. If you want, click again for the full project. Choose a project that aligns with a career you want after graduation. It will help at interview time.

Hands-on Projects

In the third and fourth years of the chemical engineering degree program at the University of Oxford, students do a hands-on project. A previous theme was "Medicines for the Next Generation." Other years' projects involved designing facilities for the production of bio-ethanol, a factory that makes PET polymer for plastic bottles and the process for producing hydrogen power for fuel-cell driven buses. Find more ideas you can use at the university's chemical engineering website (www.eng.ox.ac.uk/chemeng). The website recommends that you find solutions to some of the most urgent problems on Earth. Specifically, it recommends you explore topics such as clean water, disease, global warming and world famine.

Practical Tips

Consider which of these topics are gaining exposure in the news. Newsworthy topics may give you an advantage during interviews for your first job in the field. Discussing your choice of project indicates a true interest in that niche -- compelling information for the recruiter.

Verify whether textbooks and periodicals cover your proposed topic in adequate depth. Research citations give your chemical engineering project credibility. Use academic literature -- not journalistic literature -- states the Final Year Projects website (final-year-projects.com/Get_start.htm).

Tags: chemical engineering, engineering project, chemical engineering project, Free Project, Free Project Reports

Instructions On Space Age Crystals

Quartz crystals

Space Age Crystals are a category of educational, science and nature experiment kits made by the Kristal Educational Company in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. With these kits, you grow crystals that will resemble types of crystals found in nature. As with all experiments involving chemicals, the Space Age Crystals kits need attention to detail and, when used by children, adult supervision. The company recommends this product for children 12 years of age and older. If properly stored/displayed, the crystals could last a decade or more.

Instructions

1. Read through the instructions thoroughly and gather all supplies needed.

2. Protect your work surface with newspapers.

3. Put all equipment and supplies at your work station.

4. Follow the steps in the instruction booklet precisely.

5. Wait the prescribed amount of time while watching your crystals grow. If, after the prescribed amount of time mentioned in the instructions has passed, you are not satisfied with the results, consult the FAQs section for Space Age Crystals at the Kristal Educational web site. They list directions to correct many types of "failures."

Tags: Space Crystals, amount time, Kristal Educational, prescribed amount, prescribed amount time, your work

Why Is Lead Found In All Deposits Of Uranium Ores

Uranium, a radioactive metal, eventually decays into lead.

The Earth's crust is a treasure trove of basic chemical elements from actinium to zirconium. You can find uranium ore deposits in many parts of the world, though the most productive mines are in Canada, Khazakhstan, and Australia, according to the New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources. Because uranium is naturally radioactive, it slowly transforms into lead via a chain of other elements. Because of this, you'll find lead in all naturally occurring deposits of uranium ore.

Uranium

The heaviest metal in nature, uranium isn't found in pure form but mixed with other elements in mineral ores such as pitchblende, carnotite and tobernite. As it's a long-lived radioactive element occurring with relative abundance, its main use is fuel for nuclear power plants.

Stability

An atom's stability depends on the balancing of forces in its nucleus. The nucleus, the cluster of protons and neutrons inside an atom, becomes out of balance in the heaviest elements, making them unstable. Most elements have both stable and unstable isotopes. Isotopes are atoms related by the same number of protons but having different numbers of neutrons. Uranium, having the largest natural nucleus in the periodic table, has no stable isotopes.

Radioactive Decay

Forces in an unstable nucleus cause it to eject particles from itself as radioactivity. Whenever a nucleus loses protons, it becomes a different element. This process, called radioactive decay, goes through many complex steps, but the result is a lighter, more stable nucleus.

Decay Chain

Uranium undergoes radioactive decay, transforming itself into several other elements before finally becoming lead. The decay of the uranium 238 isotope, so called because of the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus, zigzags the periodic table, becoming thorium, polonium, uranium 234 and other elements, finally stopping at lead 206. So not only will you find lead in uranium deposits, but you'll also find these other elements as well.

Half-Life

The time it takes for half the amount of a substance to decay is called its half-life. Every radioactive isotope has a characteristic half-life. Some are less than a second, some are millions of years. The half-life of uranium 238 is 4.5 billion years. The half-lives of the other elements going down the decay chain are quick by comparison, so you can consider 4.5 billion years the time it takes for half your uranium to become lead. If you take a uranium sample and find the percentage of lead in it, you can determine its age.

Tags: other elements, billion years, find lead, into lead, number protons, periodic table, protons neutrons

Become A Paleontologist

A paleontologist is a scientist who studies animal and plant fossils throughout the world to learn what ancient life was like. It can be an interesting hobby or a fascinating, lucrative career. Whatever extent you would like to pursue, let's look at become a paleontologist.

Instructions

1. Decide if you have the temperament to become a paleontologist. It requires an analytical mind, scientific curiosity and patience for note taking. You'll also need to travel from site to site for excavations and research.

2. Begin in high school. Take as many science and math courses as possible. Pay attention in biology class. Foreign languages will also be helpful.

3. Plan to go to a university that offers a degree in Earth Sciences. Not many offer a degree in Paleontology. Most paleontologists have their degree in Zoology or Geology.

4. Study to get excellent grades in physics, biology, chemistry, math, geology, computer courses and foreign languages. You'll need writing courses to prepare for note taking in research. This is important in high school as well as college.

5. Know that if you want to conduct or run a research program, write research papers for publication, become a museum curator or teach paleontology at a college or university, you'll need a Master's degree or a Ph.D.

6. Assist a paleontologist by preparing fossils or collecting fossils. With an undergraduate degree (3 to 4 years in most universities), this could become your full-time career as a paleontologist.

7. Read as many books on ancient life as you possibly can. If you are in college, ask if there is a paleontologist on faculty. If so, ask if he or she has a research program you could work on.

Tags: ancient life, become paleontologist, high school, note taking, research program

National Flood Zone Regulations

The National Flood Zones are used to determine flood insurance rates in designated flood prone areas within communities that voluntarily participate in the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). The National Flood Zones are controlled by the Risk Insurance Division of the Mitigation Directorate of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), a component of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS).

The National Flood Zones are designated using a combination of Flood Elevation Determination Maps, Flood Insurance Rate Maps, Flood Hazard Boundary Maps, and Flood Boundary and Floodway Maps.

Flood Zone Laws

The U.S. Congress created NFIP through the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968, the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973, and the National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994. All three of these acts are codified as Title 42 USC §§ 4001 et seq.

The Code of Federal Regulation authorizes FEMA to administer NFIP at Subchapter B (Insurance and Hazard Mitigation) of Title 44 (Emergency Management and Assistance).

Flood insurance is only available to property owners and renters that are located within a participating community within a National Flood Zone area. The participating communities are listed in the NFIP Community Status Book.

Moderate to Low Risk Areas

Moderate to low risk flood zone areas are designated as Zone B, Zone C and Zone X.

Zone B is a moderate hazard that is protected by 100-year flood levees. It is said to get major flooding every 100 to 500 years.

Zone C is a minimal hazard that is above the 500-year flood level.

Zone X is a low hazard that is outside of the 500-year flood level and may be protected by a 100-year flood levee.

High Risk Areas

High risk flood zone areas are designated as Zone A, Zone AE, Zone AH, Zone AO, Zone AR and Zone A99.

Zone A has a one percent chance of flooding each year and a 26 percent chance of flooding during the life of a 30-year mortgage.

Zone AE is known as the base floodplain.

Zone AH has a one percent chance of flooding one to three feet every year and a 26 percent chance of flooding during the life of a 30-year mortgage.

Zone AO has the same hazard as Zone AH, in addition to being located near a stream or river.

Zone AR has an increased flooding hazard due to the building of a dam. Mandatory flood insurance purchase requirements apply in this zone.

Zone A99 has the same hazard as Zone AR, except that the dam is part of a federal government construction project.

High Risk Coastal Areas

High risk coastal flood zone areas are designated as Zone V and Zone VE.

Zone V has a 1 percent chance of flooding each year with the possibility of storm waves and a 26 percent chance of flooding during the life of a 30-year mortgage.

Zone VE has has a greater than 1 percent chance of flooding each year with the possibility of storm waves and a greater than 26 percent chance of flooding during the life of a 30-year mortgage.

Undetermined Risk Areas

Undetermined risk flood zone areas are designated as Zone D and have a possible, but undetermined, hazard.

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Get A Gis Degree

GIS degree programs are available in the United States.

Geographic information systems (GIS) undergraduate degree programs prepare students for a range of career options in cartography, photogrammetry, geographic surveying and mapping technology. While the majority of GIS programs available from accredited colleges and universities are certificate programs, several universities offer advanced geographic science degrees with focused GIS concentrations that offer broader training opportunities.

Instructions

1. Earn a high school diploma, complete the High School Equivalency Program or earn a General Equivalency Diploma. All accredited colleges and universities that offer GIS and geographic science degree programs require a high school diploma before enrollment.

2. Identify those colleges and universities that offer GIS bachelor's degrees or geographic science degrees with GIS concentration. Only consider those schools accredited by a board recognized by the U.S. Department of Education.

3. Apply to several schools to increase your chances of being accepted.

4. Enroll in both the required general education and GIS courses. Complete all scheduled assignments, simulated laboratory projects, GIS applications and papers within the established time frame to remain in good standing. Maintain a C average or better on major courses to fulfill all learning outcome requirements.

5. Demonstrate mastery of all surveying, mapping and geographic digital evaluation skills on examinations and assessments.

6. Declare an intent to graduate upon completion of all undergraduate GIS requirements. This is a necessary bureaucratic step before universities grant a diploma to graduating students.

Tags: colleges universities, degree programs, geographic science, that offer, accredited colleges, accredited colleges universities

Why Is Coal Energy Important

Coal is a major energy source.

Coal is a reliable and affordable energy source. It has been a vital energy source since the Industrial Revolution of the 1800s. As of 2010, coal is the most commonly used fuel for generating electricity around the world. It is also an important ingredient in the manufacturing industry.

Formation of Coal

A fossil fuel, coal is formed by the geological action over millions of years. About 300 million years ago plants perished in vast swamp areas. The weight of the top layers of water and dirt generated heat and put pressure on the lower layers of plant matter over a prolonged period of time. The decayed plants and animals dried and hardened to form carbon-rich coal.

Coal in Power Generation

Coal is important resource in the power-generating sector. As of 2004, approximately 40 percent of the world's electricity was made from coal and countries such as the United States and Germany relied on it to produce more than half their electricity. According to the Secondary Energy Infobook, 92.9 percent of all the coal in the United States was used for electricity production in 2008. Other countries such as Australia and China generate more than 75 percent of their electricity needs from burning coal.

Coal in Industry

Coal is used as a fuel for manufacturing. It is a key ingredient in manufacturing products such as tar, synthetic rubber, petroleum and steel. The iron industry uses coke ovens to melt iron ore. This is an almost pure carbon residue of coal and is used as a fuel in smelting metals. Then these coals are transported around the world for use in coke ovens. Other industries, such as those that produce paper, brick, limestone and cement, use coal to manufacture products. Some ingredients that are separated coal (such as methanol and ethylene) are used to manufacture plastics, fertilizers, synthetic fibers, tar and medicines.

Advantages of Using Coal

Coal is an abundant energy source. As of 2010, it is still inexpensive in comparison with other fossil fuels and alternative energy sources such as solar and wind power.

Use of Clean Coal Technology

One of the major disadvantages of using coal is that the combustion of coal is a major source of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. Clean coal technology helps in reducing air emissions and other pollutants from power plants that use coal for power generation. Some companies are using innovate techniques to clean coal and reduce emissions. According to John Riddle, author of "Coal Power of the Future," an example is the Polk Power Plant in Tampa, Florida, which uses specialized equipment to process coal before generating power from it. As a result, this power plant generates 85 percent less nitrogen dioxide and 32 percent less sulfur dioxide than other power plants.

Tags: energy source, used fuel, around world, coal Coal, Coal Power